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CONTENTS

PREFACE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XV

1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
I.I Advantages of Compliant Mechanisms ......................... 2
1.2 Challenges of Compliant Mechanisms ......................... 6
1.3 Historical Background ...................................... 8
1.4 Compliant Mechanisms and Nature ........................... IO
1.5 Nomenclature and Diagrams ..... ........................... 11
1.5.1 Compliant Mechanisms versus Compliant Structures ........ 1 2
1.5.2 Nomenclature . ..................... _ ............... 1 2
1.5.3 Diagrams .......................................... 1 5
1.6 Compliant MEMS ..... . ................. ................. 1 5
Problems................................................ 18

2 FLEXIBILITY AND DEFLECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

2.1 Linear versus Nonlinear Deflections .......................... 21
2.2 Stiffness and Strength ..................................... 2 2
2.3 Flexibility ............................................... 2 3
2.4 Displacement versus Force Loads ............................ 2 6
2.5 Material Considerations .................................... 2 8
2.5.1 Maximum Deflection for a Flexible Beam .................. 2 8

vii
viii Contents

2.5.2 Ratio of Strength to Young's Modulus . . . . ............. . ... 2 9

2 .5 .3 Other Material Selection Criteria . . . .... . . ......... .. . . .. 30
2 .5 .4 Creep and Stress Relaxation . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . .... ... .. .. 3 2
2.6 Linear Elastic Deflections .................................. 34
2.7 Energy Storage ........................................... 38
2.8 Stress Stiffening .......................................... 4 1
2.9 Large-Deflection Analysis .................................. 42
2.9.1 Beam with Moment End Load . . . . . . . ............... . .... 4 3
2 .9.2 Elliptic-Integral Solutions . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . .. .. . .. . ... .... 4 5
2.9.3 Numerical Methods . .... .. . . .. . .. . . ..... . .. . . .. ... . . .. 5 5
Problems.......................................... ...... 5 5

3 FAILURE PREVENTION ... . . .. . . . ... .......... . 61

3.1 Stress .................................................. 6 1
3.1.1 Principal Stresses . . . . . .. ... .. . .. .. .. . .. ....... ....... 62
3.1 .2 Stress Concentrations .... . . . .... .. .. . . . . .. . . . . . .. . ... 67
3.2 Static Failure ............................................ 6 7
3.2.1 Ductile Materials ...... . . .... ... . . . ..•.. . . ............ 68
3.2 .2 Brittle Materials .. .. . . . .. ... .... ........ . . . . . . . . .. . . .. 7 3
3.3 Fatigue Failure ........................................... 7 7
3.3.1 Fatigue Basics .. . . . . . . . . ... . .. . . . ... .. . ... ... . .. . . .. 78
3.3.2 Fatigue Failure Prediction . ... . . . . ............. 79
3.3.3 Estimating Endurance Limit and Fatigue Strength ........... 8 2
3.3.4 Endurance Limit and Fatigue Strength Modification Factors ... 8 3
3.3.5 Surface Factor . . . . . . . ... . ... . .. . . ... . . . ... ...... .. .. 8 4
3.3.6 Size Factor . . . . . . . .. .. .... . . . .. . . .. .. . .......... . . .. 8 4
3.3.7 Load Factor. ............ .. .. ........ .....••......... 8 5
3.3.8 Reliability . .. .... .. . .. .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. 8 6
3.3.9 Miscellaneous Effects ............ .. .. .. .. .. ..... .. .. .. 8 6
3.3.10 Completely Reversed Loading . .. . . . . .... ..... . . . . .. . . .. 8 8
3.3.11 Fluctuating Stresses . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . ... .. . ... ... ... .. .. 9 3
3.3.12 Fatigue o f Polymers . ... . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. 9 8
3.3.13 Testing . . . .. . . . . .. . ......... . .. ...... .... ......... 102
Problems......................... ...................... I 04

4 RIGID-LINK MECHANISMS. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . ... . 1 1 1

4.1 Introduction .. .......................................... 111
4.1.1 Mobility . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . ... ....... . . 111
4.1.2 Kinematic Chains and Inversions . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . 112
4.1.3 Classification of Four-Bar Mechanisms .... .... . .. ....... 113
4.1.4 Mechanical Advantage ......... ... . .. .. . . .. . . . . . ... .. 113
4.2 Position Analysis ........................................ 115
4.2.1 Four-Bar Mechanism: Closed-Form Equations .. . . . . . ... . .. 116
4.2 .2 Slider-Crank Mechanism: Closed-Form Equations . . . . . . . . . 117
4.2 .3 Complex Number Method........ .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 118
Contents ix

4.3 .Velocity and Acceleration ................................. 123

4.4 Kinematic Coefficients .................................... 125
4.4.1 Four-Bar Kinematic Coefficients ........................ 1 2 5
4.4.2 Slider-Crank Kinematic Coefficients .................... 1 2 6
4.5 Mechanism Synthesis..... . .. . ............................ 126
4.5.1 Function Generation ................... _ ............. 1 2 7
4.5.2 Path Generation ................. ................... 12 9
4.5.3 Motion Generation ............... ................... 1 30
Problems. .... . ................... . . . ...... ... . ......... 131

5 PSEUDO-RIGID-BODY MODEL . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . 1 35

5.1 Small-Length Flexural Pivots............................... 136
5.1.1 Active and Passive Forces ............................ 1 40
5.1.2 Stress .......................•.................... 1 4 1
5.1.3 Living Hinges ...................................... 1 4 4
5.2 Cantilever Beam with a Force at the Free End (Fixed-Pinned)..... 14 5
5.2.1 Parametric Approximation of the Beam's Deflection Path ..... 1 4 7
5.2.2 Characteristic Radius Factor............... ............ 148
5.2.3 Coordinates of Beam End............................. 1 50
5.2.4 Rule of Thumb for Characteristic Radius Factor ............ 1 5 1
5.2.5 Angular Deflection Approximation....................... 1 5 2
5.2.6 Stiffness Coefficient ................................. 1 5 2
5.2.7 Torsional Spring Constant.... ..... ............... 1 5 6
5.2.8 Stress ...................................... ...... 1 5 7
5.2.9 Practical Implementation of Fixed-Pinned Segments ....... 160
5.3 Fixed-Guided Flexible Segment ............................ 162
5.4 End-Moment Loading .......... ... ....................... 165
5.5 Initially Curved Cantilever Beam .. ..... . . . . .............. . . 166
5.5.1 Stiffness Coefficient for Initially Curved Beams ............ 1 6 9
5.5.2 Stress for Initially Curved Beams ....................... 170
5.6 Pinned-Pinned Segment .................................. 170
5.6.1 Initially Curved Pinned-Pinned Segments ................ 1 7 2
5.7 Segment with Force and Moment (Fixed-Fixed) ............... 175
5.7.1 Loading Cases ..................................... 1 7 5
5.8 Other Methods of Pin Joint Simulation ....................... 180
5.8.1 Living Hinges ...................................... 181
5.8.2 Passive Joints ...................................... 18 3
5.8.3 a-Joints .......................................... 18 5
5.8.4 Cross-Axis Flexural Pivots ............................ 189
5.8.5 Torsional Hinges .................................... 190
5.8.6 Split-Tube Flexures .................................. 19 3
5.9 Modeling of Mechanisms....... . ..... . . ................... 194
5.9.1 Examples ......................................... 19 5
5.10 Use of Commercial Mechanism Analysis Software ............. 205
Problems........................... .................... 209
x Contents

6 FORCE-DEFLECTION RELATIONSHIPS . . . . . . . . . 219

6.1 Free-Body Diagram Approach .............................. 220
6.2 Generalized Coordinates ................................ .. 225
6.3 Work and Energy ........................................ 226
6.4 Virtual Displacements and Virtual Work .............. ........ 228
6.5 Principle of Virtual Work .................................. 230
6.6 Application of the Principle of Vi1tual Work ................... 231
6.7 Spring Function for Fixed-Pinned Members ................... 237
6.8 Pseudo-Rigid-Body Four-Bar Mechanism..................... 239
6.9 Pseudo-Rigid-Body Slider Mechanism ....................... 248
6.10 Multi-Degree-of-Freedom Mechanisms ...................... 254
6.I I Conclusions ............................................ 256
Problems.. ................ ...... ........... ............ 256

7 NUMERICAL METHODS . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

7.1 Finite Element Analysis ................................... 260
7.2 Chain Algorithm......................................... 26 1
7.2.1 Shooting Method..... ... . . . ... . . .... .. . . . .. .. .... . . . 2 68

8 COMPLIANT MECHANISM SYNTHESIS . . . . . . . .. . 275

8.1 Rigid-Body Replacement (Kinematic) Synthesis ............... 27 5
8.1.1 Loop Closure Equations ... . ... . .. ..... ........ ....... 2 80
8.2 Synthesis with Compliance: Kinetostatic Synthesis ............. 28 6
8.2.1 Additional Equations and Unknowns . .... ...... .. ..... . . 2 87
8.2 .2 Coupling of Equations. .. . . 2 88
8.2.3 Design Constraints .. ... .. . ... .. ..... . . ...... ...... . . 2 90
8.2.4 Special Case of OO = 0 . ..• .• ... . .. . .... . ....•.. . . . . 2 9 2
8.3 Other Synthesis Methods .................................. 29 7
J

8.3.1 Burmester T heory for Finite Displacements ............... 2 97

8.3.2 Infinitesimal Displacements ..... . . ..... ...... . . ....... 2 98
8.3.3 Optimization of Pseudo-Rigid-Body Model . . .... . .. . .... .. 2 98
8.3.4 Optimization . . .... . ......... .............. . ... . 2 99
8.4 Problems.......... ..................................... 29 9

9 OPTIMAL SYNTHESIS WITH CONTINUUM MODELS . ... 301

Ananthasuresh, G.K., and Frecker, M. I.
9.1 I ntroduction ............................................ 30 I
9.1.1 Distributed Compliance......... ......•............... 303
9.1.2 Continuum Models ... ......... . .. .... . . .. . . . ....... . 303
Contents xi

9.1.3 Elastostatic Analysis Using the Finite Element Method ..... 30 4

9.2 Formulation of the Optimization Problem ..................... 30 6

9.1.4 Structural Optimization ............................... 30 5

9.2.1 Objective Function, Constraints, and Design Variables ...... 30 6

9.2.2 Measures of Stiffness and Flexibility..................... 30 8

9.3 Size, Shape, and Topology Optimization ...................... 312

9.2.3 Multicriteria Formulations ............................. 31 0

9.3.1 Size Optimization ................................... 31 2

9.3.2 Shape Optimization ................................. 319

9.4 Computational Aspects ................................... 323

9.3.3 Topology Optimization ............................... 319

9.4.1 Optimization Algorithms .............................. 32 4

9.5 Optimality Criteria Methods ............................... 327

9.4.2 Sensitivity Analysis.................................. 32 5

9.5.1 Derivation of the Optimality Criterion .................... 32 7

9.5.2 Solution Procedure .................................. 329

9.6 Conclusion ............................................. 332

9.5.3 Examples ......................................... 329

9.7 Acknowledgments ....................................... 332

Problems............................................... 332

10 SPECIAL-PURPOSE MECHANISMS 337

I O.I Compliant Constant-Force Mechanisms ...................... 337
1 0.1.1 Pseudo-Rigid-Body Model of Compliant Slider Mechanisms.. 338
1 0.1.2 Dimensional Synthesis ............................... 339
1 0.1.3 Determination of Force Magnitude ...................... 342
10.1.4 Examples ......................................... 343
10.1.5 Estimation of Flexural Pivot Stress ...................... 344

10.2 Parallel Mechanisms ..................................... 34 6

10.1.6 Examples ......................................... 345

10.2.1 Compliant Parallel-Guiding Mechanisms ................. 347

10.2.2 Applications ....................................... 347
10.2.3 Pseudo-Rigid-Body Model ............................ 35 0

Problems............................................... 35 3
10.2.4 Additional Design Considerations....................... 35 2

11 BISTABLE MECHANISMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355

11.1 Stability ............................................... 35 5
11.2 Compliant Bistable Mechanisms ............................ 35 7
11.3 Four-Link Mechanisms ................................... 35 9
1 1.3.1 Energy Equations ................................... 360
1 1.3.2 Requirements for Bistable Behavior ..................... 362
1 1.3.3 Young Bistable Mechanisms........................... 367
xii Contents

I 1.4 Slider-Crank or Slider-Rocker Mechanisms.. ................. 37 2

11.4.1 Energy Equations ................................... 373
11.4.2 Requirements for Bistable Behavior ..................... 37 4
1 1.4.3 Examples for Various Spring Positions ................... 37 4
1 1.5 Double-Slider Mechanisms ................................ 377
11.5.1 Double-Slider Mechanisms with a Pin Joining the Sliders .... 37 7
11.5.2 Double-Slider Mechanisms with a Link Joining the Sliders ... 379
11.5.3 Requirements for Bistable Behavior ..................... 38 1
11.6 Snap-Through Buckled Beams ............................. 38 2
11.7 Bistable Cam Mechanisms ................................. 38 2
Problems................... ............................ 38 3

A REFERENCES . . . . .. . .. . .... . . .... . . . . . . .. . . .. 385

B PROPERTIES OF SECTIONS . ... . ... .. ... . .. . ... 399

8.1 Rectangle .............................................. 39 9
B.2 Circle ................................................. 39 9
B.3 Hollow Circle .................... ....................... 400
8.4 Solid Semicircle ..................... .......... .......... 400
B.5 Right Triangle .......................................... 400
8.6 I Beam with Equal Flanges ......... ... . ................... 400

C MATERIAL PROPERTIES . . . . .. . .. .. . . . ...... ... 401

D LINEAR ELASTIC BEAM DEFLECTIONS...... . .. .. 407

D.I Cantilever Beam with a Force at the Free End.................. 407
0.2 Cantilever Beam with a Force Along the Length ................ 407
D.3 Cantilever Beam with a Uniformly Distributed Load ............ 40 8
D.4 Cantilever Beam with a Moment at the Free End ............... 40 8
D.5 Simply Supported Beam with a Force at the Center ............. 40 8
D.6 Simply Supported Beam with a Force Along the Length ......... 40 9
D.7 Simply Supported Beam with a Uniformly Distributed Load ...... 40 9
D.8 Beam with One End Fixed and the Other End Simply Supported ... 40 9
D.9 Beam with Fixed Ends and a Center Load ..................... 410
D.10 Beam with Fixed Ends and a Uniformly Distributed Load ........ 4I O
D.11 Beam with One End Fixed and the Other End Guided ........... 4I O
Contents xiii

E PSl;UDO-RIGID-BODY MODELS . . . . . . .. . . .. . .. . . 41 1
E.I Small-Length Flexural Pivot ............................... 4 11
E.2 Vertical Force at the Free End of a Cantilever Beam ............. 4 12
E.3 Cantilever Beam with a Force at the Free End.................. 4 13
E.4 Fixed-Guided Beam ..................................... 4 15
E.5 Cantilever Beam with an Applied Moment at the Free End ....... 4 16
E.6 Initially Curved Cantilever Beam ........................... 4 1 7
E.7 Pinned-Pinned Segments .................................. 4 18
E.7.1 Initially Curved Pinned-Pinned Segments ................ 4 18
E.8 Combined Force-Moment End Loading ...................... 4 20

F EVALUATION OF ELLIPTIC INTEGRALS. ....... ... 421

G TYPE SYNTHESIS OF COMPLIANT MECHANISMS . . 425

Murphy, M.D.
G.I Matrix Representation for Rigid-Link Mechanisms ............. 4 25
G.2 Compliant Mechanism Matrices ............................ 4 26
G.2.1 Segment-Type Designation............................ 4 2 8
G.2.2 Connection-Type Designation .......................... 4 2 8
G.2.3 Examples . . . ............... 4 2 9
G.3 Determination of Isomorphic Mechanisms .................... 4 29
G.3.1 Rigid-Body Isomorphic Detection Techniques ............. 4 3 1
G.3.2 Isomorphism Detection for Compliant Mechanisms ......... 4 31
G.4 Type Synthesis .......................................... 4 33
G.5 Determination of Design Requirements ....................... 4 34
G.6 Topological Synthesis of Compliant Mechanisms ............... 435
G.6.1 Segment-Type Enumeration ........................... 4 3 6
G.6.2 Connection-Type Enumeration ......................... 4 3 7
G.6.3 Combined Segment and Connection-Type Results ......... 4 38
G.6.4 Formation of Compliant Mechanisms .................... 4 4 1
G.7 Examples ........ .. ................. .......... ... ...... 442
G.7.1 Discussion ........................................ 4 4 9

INDEX. .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 451
PREFACE

Compliant mechanisms offer great promise in providing new and better solutions to
many mechanical-design problems.Since much research in the theory of compliant
mechanisms has been done in the last few years, it is important that the abundant
information be presented to the engineering community in a concise, understand­
able, and useful form.The purpose of this book is to fulfill this need for students,
practicing engineers, and researchers.
The book presents methods for the analysis and design of compliant
mechanisms and illustrates them with examples.The materials in the book provide
ideas for engineers to employ the advantages of compliant mechanisms in ways that
otherwise may not be possible. The analysis of small deflection devices is
addressed, but emphasis is given to compliant mechanisms that undergo large,
nonlinear deflections. The pseudo-rigid-body model is introduced as a method
which simplifies the analysis of compliant mechanisms that undergo large
deflections by modeling them with elements common to traditional mechanisms.
This simplification makes it possible to design compliant mechanisms for many
types of tasks. The advantages of compliant mechanisms in the emerging area of
microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) are also addressed, and several MEMS
examples are provided throughout the book.
The chapters are organized to flow from simple to more complex concepts; the
book then concludes with the application of the previous materials to specific types
of devices.This is done by organizing the chapters into major sections of introduc­
tion, fundamentals, analysis, design, and special-purpose mechanisms. In a similar
way, simple examples facilitate understanding, followed by more complicated
examples that demonstrate how the material can be used in applications.

xv
xvi Preface

Review of essential topics in strength of materials, machine design, and kine­

matics is provided to create a self-contained book that does not require a lot of addi­
tional references to solve compliant-mechanism problems.These reviews can help
emphasize important topics the reader has studied previously, or they can be used as
a resource for those from other disciplines who are working in the area of MEMS or
related areas.T he appendixes provide a resource for quick reference to important
equations presented in the book.
The area of compliant mechanisms exists thanks to the vision and insight of
Professor Ashok Midha. Many have contributed to the knowledge of compliant
mechanisms, but Professor Midha may be considered the father of modern compli­
ant mechanisms. His insight and vision have had a profound effect on the field and
on those with whom he has associated. I have greatly benefited from both his work
in compliant mechanisms and his example and mentorship, and I am grateful for his
influence.
The earlier versions of this book were used as notes in compliant mechanisms
courses offered at Brigham Young University, Purdue University, and the University
of Missouri, Rolla.Students made many helpful comments to improve the quality
of the notes.
Several colleagues have graciously volunteered their time and expertise by con­
tributing parts of the book. Professor G. K. Ananthasuresh at the University of
Pennsylvania and Professor Mary I. Frecker at Pennsylvania State University wrote
Chapter 9. Dr. Morgan D. Murphy of Delphi Automotive Systems contributed
Appendix G. Chapter 1 1 relies heavily on graduate work completed by Brian
Jensen when he was at Brigham Young University.
Some of the text and figures in this book are summarized from previous writ­
ings, including a number of papers coauthored with graduate students and col­
leagues and published by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
in various conference proceedings and in the Journal of Mechanical Design.Work
from a number of graduate student theses has also been included.Grateful thanks is
extended to all those who have participated in this work: James Derderian, Patrick
Opdahl, Brian Edwards, John Parise, and Brian Jensen have generously contributed
sections of this book. The contributions of Scott Lyon, Brent Weight, and Greg
Roach are also greatly appreciated, as are the efforts of many other students that
have made this possible.The valuable assistance of Megan Poppitz is also grate­
fully acknowledged.
The Mechanical Engineering Department at Brigham Young University has
been very supportive of this project and has provided many resources to assist in its
completion.The College of Engineering and the administration of Brigham Young
University have also suppo11ed the author's efforts in many ways.
In addition to the many students who have provided recommendations and
encouragement for this work, others are thanked for their helpful reviews and com­
ments to improve the manuscript.Special thanks to Professor G.K.Ananthasuresh,
Dr.Morgan D. Murphy, Professor Kenneth W.Chase, and Professor Don Norton of
Brigham Young University's English Department, and the university editing service
for valuable reviews and comments on the manuscript.
Preface xvii

Much of the fundamental work in compliant mechanisms has been funded by

the National Science Foundation (NSF).The resources provided were a wise invest­
ment and will have a far-reaching impact for many years to come.The following
NSF grants have supported the author ' s work in the area of compliant mechanisms:
DMI- 9 6 245 74 (CAREER Award), CMS- 9 9 78 73 7, ECS- 9 5 28 238, and DMl-
9 98083 5.The Utah Center of Excellence Program is also acknowledged for support
of commercialization of compliant mechanism theory through funding of the Cen­
ter of Excellence in Compliant Mechanisms.
I express my love and gratitude to my wife and children for their continued
love, support, and companionship.And my eternal thanks to my parents, for their
love and sacrifice.Finally, I humbly acknowledge the gifts from God, for which no
words could ever adequately express my gratitude.

LARRY L.HOWELL
Provo, Utah
CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

A mechanism i s a mechanical device used to transfer or transform motion, force, or

energy [ I , 2] .Traditional rigid-body mechanisms consist of rigid links connected at
movable joints; the section of a reciprocating engine shown in Figure I .la is an
example.The linear input is transformed to an output rotation, and the input force is
transformed to an output torque.As another example, consider the Vise Grip pliers
shown in Figure 1.1b.T his mechanism transfers energy from the input to the out­
put. Since energy is conserved between the input and output (neglecting friction
losses) , the output force may be much larger than the input force, but the output dis­
placement is much smaller than the input displacement. Like mechanisms, struc­
tures may also consist of rigid links connected at joints, but relative rigid-body
motion is not allowed between the links.

(a) (b)

Figure 1.1. Examples of rigid-link mechanisms: (a) part of a reciprocating engine, and (b)
Vise Grip.
2 Introduction

Lens

l Focus

(a)
Figure 1.2. Examples of compliant mechanisms: (a) crimping mechanism (from 1 3 1), and (b)
parallel-guiding mechanism.

A compliant mechanism also transfers or transforms motion, force, or energy.

Unlike rigid-link mechanisms, however, compliant mechanisms gain al least some
of their mobility from the deflection of flexible members rather than from movable
joints only.An example of a compliant crimping mechanism is shown in Figure
1.2a.The input force is transferred to the output port, much like the Vise Grip, only
now some energy is stored in the form of strain energy in the flexible members.
Note that if the entire device were rigid, it would have no mobility and would there­
fore be a structure. Figure 1.2b shows a device that also requires compliant mem­
bers lo focus a lens 1 4, 5 1.

1 .1 ADVANTAGES OF COMPLIANT MECHANISMS

Compliant mechanisms may be considered for use in a particular application for a

variety of reasons.The advantages of compliant mechanisms are considered in two
categories: cost reduction (part-count reduction, reduced assembly time, and sim­
plified manufacturing processes) and increased performance (increased precision,
increased reliability, reduced wear, reduced weight, and reduced maintenance).
An advantage of compliant mechanisms is the potential for a dramatic reduction
in the total number of parts required to accomplish a specified task. Some mecha­
nisms may be manufactured from an injection-moldable material and be con­
structed of one piece. For example, consider the compliant overrunning clutch
shown in Figure 1.3a 1 6, 71 and its rigid-body counterpart shown in Figure 1.3b.
Considerably fewer components are required for the compliant mechanism than for
the rigid mechanism.The reduction in part count may reduce manufacturing and
assembly time and cost. The compliant crimping mechanism and its rigid-body
counterpart illustrated in Figure 1.4 are other examples of part reduction.
Compliant mechanisms also have fewer movable joints, such as pin (turning)
and sliding joints.This results in reduced wear and need for lubrication.These are
valuable characteristics for applications in which the mechanism is not easily
accessible, or for operation in harsh environments that may adversely affect joints.
Advantages of Compliant Mechanisms 3

-, l
-- •.
'. )
-
, '
. ,,,,
0
(a) (b)

Figure 1 .3. (a) Compliant overrunning clutch, and (b) its rigid-body counterpart shown
disassembled. (From 16] and [ 71 .)

Reducing the number of joints can also increase mechanism precision, because
backlash may be reduced or eliminated. This has been a factor in the design of
high-precision instrumentation [8, 9]. An example of a high-precision compliant
mechanism is shown in Figure 1 .5. Because the motion is obtained from deflection
rather than by adjoining parts rubbing against each other, vibration and noise may
also be reduced.
An example of a compliant mechanism designed for harsh environments is
shown in Figure 1 .6. This simple gripping device holds a die (such as a computer
chip) during processing. The die must be transported between several different
chemicals without becoming damaged. Made of Teflon- i nert to the chemicals in
which it is placed- the gripper holds the die without external force.
Because compliant mechanisms rely on the deflection of flexible members,
energy is stored in the form of strain energy in the flexible members. This stored
energy is similar to the strain energy in a deflected spring, and the effects of springs
may be integrated into a compliant mechanism 's design. In this manner, energy can
easily be stored or transformed, to be released at a later time or in a different man­
ner. A bow-and-arrow system is a simple example. Energy is stored in the limbs as
the archer draws the bow; strain energy is then transformed to the kinetic energy of

Connecting
rod

(a) (b)

Figure 1 .4. (a) Compliant crimping mechanism developed by AMP I nc., and (b) its rigid­
body counterpart . Because of symmetry, only half the mechanism is shown. (From 14 1.)
4 Introduction

Figure 1.5. Example of a high-precision compliant mechanism.

the arrow.These energy storage characteristics may also be used to design mecha­
nisms that have specific force-denection properties, or to cause a mechanism to
tend to particular positions. For example, the mechanism shown in Figure 1.7 is a
robot end effector that was designed to have a constant output force regardless of
the input displacement.
It is possible to realize a significant reduction in weight by using compliant
mechanisms rather than their rigid-body counterparts.This may be a significant fac­
tor in aerospace and other applications.Compliant mechanisms have also benefited
companies by reducing the weight and shipping costs of consumer products.

Figure 1.6. Compliant die grippers used to hold a die during process in several different
harsh chemicals.
Advantages of Compliant Mechanisms 5

Figure 1.7. Compliant constant-force robot end effector.

Another advan tage o f compl iant mechan isms is the ease with which they are
min iaturized 1 10- 1 9 1. S im ple microstructures, ac tuators, and sensors are seeing
wide usage , and many other microelectromechan ical systems (M EMS ) show great
promise.The reduction in the total number of parts and joints o ffered by compl ian t
mechanisms is a significan t advantage in the fabrication o f mic romechanisms.
Compl iant micromechan isms may be fabricated using technology and materials
s imilar to those used in the fabr ication of in tegrated circuits. M EMS are discussed
in more de tail in Section 1.6.
The com pl iant fishhook pliers (Compl iers) illustrated in F igure 1.8 demonstrate
several o f the advan tages discussed above. Part-co un t reduc tion is ev ident in that
they are injec tion molded as a single piece. They are in a fairly harsh env ironmen t

Figure 1.8. Compliant pliers, or Compl iers, fishhook removal pliers.

6 Introduction

Figure 1.9. Compliant parallel motion bicycle brakes.

whe re pin joints may rust and requ ire more ma intenance.They a re also l ightweight
and a re not only easy to ca rry, but will float if the angler d ro ps them in water.
The high-performance b icycle b rakes shown in Figu re 1.9 a re another example
of a compliant mechanism that demonst rates several advantages of com pl iant
mechan isms. Unl ike t rad it ional cant ileve r-type brakes, these b rake pads do not
rotate in their motion.The first brakes that had such motion used a tradit ional paral­
lelogram fou r-bar l inkage to ach ieve the desired mot ion, and a return s pr ing was
necessary to ensure that the brakes would disengage when the rider let go of the
handle. The compl iant brakes shown have a reduced part count because t wo pin
joints and the return s pring a re integ rated into a s ingle flex ible strip of t itanium o r
stainless steel. The manufacturer cla ims that the manufactu ring cost is a pprox i­
mately one-third of that for the othe r style of pa rallel mot ion brakes.The rel iab il ity
is increased because o f the reduced number o f pa its to fail , and the spring that was
causing consumer compla ints was eliminated.The reduced jo ints also make it more
rel iable in dirty env ironments , such as mounta in b iking, because fore ign mate rial
has a lowe r probab ility o f gett ing in joints. A number of common dev ices that are
compl iant mechan isms a re shown in Figure I.IO.

1 .2 CHALLENGES OF COMPLIANT MECHANISMS

Although offe ring a numbe r of advantages, compl iant mechanisms present several
challenges and disadvantages in some a ppl icat ions. Perhaps the largest challenge is
the relat ive d ifficulty in analyzing and designing compl iant mechan isms. Knowl­
edge of mechanism analysis and synthesis methods and the de flect ion of flex ible
membe rs is required.The combination of the t wo bodies o f knowledge in compl i­
ant mechanisms requires not only an unde rstanding o f both , but also an understand­
ing of their interact ions in a complex situation.S ince many of the flexible members
unde rgo large deflect ions, linearized beam equations are no longer valid. Nonlinear
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