#A computer network is a group of devices connected with #OSI Reference Model: OSI (Open System and data rates
n System and data rates needed for transmission is defined in the
each other through a transmission medium such as cables,
wires, cables etc. These devices can be computers, printers,
scanners, Fax machines etc. The purpose of having
computer network is to send and receive data stored in other
devices over the network. These devices are often referred
as node. #There are five basic component of computer
network.
1)Message: It is the data or information which needs to
be transferred from one device to another device over a
computer network.
2)Sender: Sender is the device that has the data and
needs to send the data to others device connected to
network.
3)Receiver: A receiver is the device which is excepting the
data from others device on the network.
4)Transmission media: In order to transfer data from one
device to another device we need a transmission media
such as wires, cables, radio waves etc.
5)Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that are agreed by
both sender and receiver, without protocol two device
can be connected to each other but they cannot
communicate. In order to establish a reliable
communication or data sharing between two different
device we need set of rules that are called protocol.
Example, http and https are the two-protocol used by
web browsers to get and post the data to internet.
#Firewall: A firewall is a software utility or hardware
device that acts as a filter for data entering or leaving a
network or computer. You could think of a firewall as a
security guard that decides who enters or exits a building.
A firewall work by blocking or restricting network ports.
Firewalls are commonly used to help prevent
unauthorized access to both company and home
networks. #There are two types:
1)Software Firewalls: These firewalls are installed on a
computer or a server and are typically included as part of
the operating system or as a separate software
application. They can be configured to protect a single
computer or a group of computers on a network.
Software-based firewalls can provide protection against
inbound and outbound traffic and can be customized to
block or allow specific types of traffic.
2)Hardware Firewalls: Hardware firewalls are physical
devices that are installed on a network to protect
multiple computers or devices. They are designed to
handle large amounts of traffic and can provide faster
and more reliable protection than software-based
firewalls. Hardware-based firewalls are typically more
expensive than software-based firewalls and are used by
larger organizations or businesses that require more
robust security solutions.
3)Fiber optic cables: Fiber optic cables use light to
transmit data over long distances. They consist of thin
glass or plastic fibers that are surrounded by a protective
coating and an outer jacket. Fiber optic cables can
transmit data at very high speeds and are commonly used
in long-distance communication systems such as those
used by internet service providers (ISPs).
#Role of Router in networks: A router is connected to at
least two networks and decides which way to send each
information packet based on its current understanding of
the state of the networks it is connected to. A router is a
device that forwards data packets along networks. A
router is connected to at least two networks, commonly
two LANs or WANs or a LAN and its ISP’s network. Routers
are located or more networks connect. A router may
create or maintain a table of the available routes and
their conditions and use this information along with
distance and cost algorithms to determine the best route
for a given packet. Typically, a packet may travel through a
number of networks points with routers before arriving at
its destination. Routing is a function associated with the
networks layer (layer3) in the standard model of the
network programming, the Open System Interconnection
(OSI) model.
Interconnection) is reference model for how application
can communicate over a network. A reference model is a
conceptual framework for understanding relationships.
The purpose of the OSI reference model is to guide
vendors and developers so the digital communication
products and software programs they create will
interoperate, and to facilitate clear comparisons among
communications tools.
The OSI reference model architecture divides network
communication into seven layers. The seven layers of
function are provided by a combination of applications,
operating systems, network card device drivers and
networking hardware that enable a system to put a signal
on a network cable or out over Wi-fi or other wireless
protocol).
Each layer covers different network activities, equipment,
or protocols. The OSI layers may be summarized by:
1)Physical Layer: The physical layer is the actual cable,
fibers, cards, switches, and other mechanical and
electrical equipment that make up a network. This is the
layer that transforms digital data into signals that can be
sent down a wire to transmit data. These signals are often
electrical but, as in the case of fiber optics, they can also
be non-electrical signals such as optics or any other type
of pulse that can be digitally encoded. It activates,
maintain and deactivate the physical connection. Voltage
#OSI (Open System Interconnection) VS TCP/IP
OSI TCP/IP Model
OSI provides layer TCP/IP model is more
functioning and also defines based on protocols and
functions of all the layers protocols are not flexible
with other layers.
In OSI model the transport In TCP/IP model the
layer guarantees the delivery transport layer does not
of packets guarantees delivery of
packets.
Follows horizontal approach Follows vertical approach
OSI model has a separate TCP/IP does not have a
presentation layer separate presentation layer
OSI is a general model TCP/IP model cannot be
used in any other
application.
Network layer of OSI model The Network layer in
provide both connection TCP/IP model provides
oriented and connectionless connectionless service.
service.
OSI model has a problem of TCP/IP model does not fit
fitting the protocols in the any protocol
model
Protocols are hidden in OSI In TCP/IP replacing
model and are easily protocol is not easy.
replaced as the technology
changes
#Role of Switches in networks: A Switch is an intelligent
device that works in the data link layer. The term
intelligent refers to the decision-making capacity of the
switch. since it works in the Data link layer, It has
knowledge of the MAC addresses of the ports in the
network. If data has to be sent from Computer A to
Computer B, then, the data is transferred to the
Computer B only, and not any other computers connected
to the networks. Hence, it establishes a link between the
Sender and receiver based on the MAC addresses. This
also means that when data is being sent from A to B,
Computer C can establish a link with computer D and
communication can take place between them. so,
simultaneous data transfer is possible in switch.
It also to be noted that a switch is a secure device,
because it sends information only to the desired
destinations, and also certain security features such as
firewalls can be implemented in the switches.
#Role of Hub in Networks: A hub works in the physical
layer of the OSI model. It is basically a non-intelligent
device, and has no decision-making capability, what a Hub
basically does it take the input data from one of the ports
and broadcast the information to all other ports
connected to the network.
physical layer. it converts the digital bits into electrical
signal.
2)Data link Layer: Data link layer synchronizes the
information which is to be transmitted over the data.
Error controlling is easily done. The encoded data are
then pass to physical. Error Detection bits are used by the
data link on layer. It also corrects the errors. Outgoing
messages are assembled into frames. Then the system
waits for the acknowledgement to be receive after the
transmission. It is reliable to send message. This layer has
two sub-layers, the logical link control layer and the
Media Access Control Layer.
3)The Network Layer: It routes the signal through
different channel to the other end. It acts as a network
controller. It decides by which route data should take. It
divides the outgoing messages into packets and to
assemble incoming packets into messages for higher
levels. This layer also determines the route from the
source to the destination computer. Its determiners
which path the data should take base on network
conditions, priority of service, and other factors. It also
manages traffic problem on the network, such as
switching and routing a packet and controlling the
congestion of data.
It has 7 layers It has 4 layers
#Transmission Media: Transmission media refer to the
physical pathways through which data is transmitted
between devices in a network. It includes wired media
such as twisted pair cables, coaxial cables, and fiber optic
cables, as well as wireless media such as radio waves,
microwave, infrared, and satellite communication. The
choice of transmission media depends on factors such as
distance, data transfer rate, cost, and reliability. Here are
some examples of guided transmission media:
1)Twisted pair cables: Twisted pair cables are the most
common type of guided transmission media used in local
area networks (LANs). They consist of two copper wires
twisted together in pairs and are available in two types:
unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and shielded twisted pair
(STP). UTP cables are used in most Ethernet networks,
while STP cables are used in environments where there is
a high level of electromagnetic interference.
2)Coaxial cables: Coaxial cables are thicker than twisted
pair cables and have a copper core surrounded by a layer
of insulation, a braided shield, and an outer jacket. They
are commonly used for cable TV networks and can
support higher data transfer rates than twisted pair
cables.
so, there is lack of security in the Hub. The network Hubs
are outdated and are out of the market.
#Role of repeaters in Networks: A repeater is a device
similar to the Hub, but has additional features. It also
works in the physical layer. The repeaters are used in
places where amplification of input signal is necessary.
but, the kind of amplification done by the repeater is
different from the regular amplification by amplifiers. The
regular amplifies everything fed on it. That means, If the
input signal has noise induced into it, both the desired
signal and noise signal are together amplified. But, in the
case of a repeater, it regenerates the input signal, and
amplifies only the desirable signal. Hence, the noise
component of the signal is eliminated.
The repeaters are necessary since, during the
transmission of the signal over a long distance, the signal
has attenuation, delay distortion and noise, which leads in
loss of data. Hence, in order to prevent this, the
regenerative repeaters are used.
#Role of Switches in Networks: A Switch is an intelligent
device that works in the data link layer. The term
intelligent refers to the decision-making capacity of the
Switch. Since it works in the Data Link Layer, it has
knowledge of the MAC addresses of the ports in the
network.
If data has to be sent from Computer A to Computer B,
then the date is transferred to the Computer B only, and
not to any other computers connected to the network.
Hence, it establishes a link between the sender and the
receiver on the MAC addresses. This also means that
when data is being sent from A to B, Computer C can
establish with computer D and communication can take
place between them.so, simultaneous data transfer is
possible in a switch.
#Role Of Bridge in networks: A bridge is also device
which works in the Data Link Layer, but is more primitive
when compared to switch. initial bridges were used to
connect only 2 LANs, but the most recent one performs
similar operation as the switches. It also works on the
principle of transfer information using the MAC addresses
of the ports.
It can be noted is that normal ADSL modem can be
connected via bridging also. The only difference is that,
when bridging is used, each time the device has to
connected to the internet; It has to dial to the internet
and establish a connection. Also, a bridge alone cannot be
used to connect to the internet, because the bridge works
in the Data link layer, and has no knowledge of the IP
Addresses, which are used in the internet.
which allow for faster and more efficient data
transmission. It also includes the use of virtual LANs
(VLANs) to separate network traffic and improve security
#public Key Cryptography (Asymmetric Key Encryption):
Asymmetric cryptography (public key cryptography) uses
encryption that splits the key into two smaller keys. One
of the keys is made public and one is kept private. You
encrypt a message with the recipient's public key. The
recipient can then decrypt it with their private key. And
they can do the same for you, encrypting a message with
your public key so you can decrypt it with your private
key.
Asymmetric cryptography is usually implemented by the
use of one-way functions. In mathematic terms, these are
functions that are easy to compute in one direction but
very difficult to compute in reverse. This is what allows
you to publish your public key, which is derived from your
private key. It is very difficult to work backwards and
determine the private key.
and cumbersome. 3)) In a group of n people, to enable
two-party communication between any two persons, the
number of keys required for group is n × (n – 1)/2. 4))
Length of Key (number of bits) in this encryption is
smaller and hence, process of encryption decryption is
faster than asymmetric key encryption. 5)) Processing
power of computer system required to run symmetric
algorithm is less.
#Routing: Routing is the process of selecting best paths in
a network. A simple definition of routing is "learning how
to get from here to there". The main function of the
network layer is routing packets from source to machine
to the destination machine. The various Routing are:
1)Static Routing: A static routing table is created,
maintained, and updated by a network administrator,
manually. A static route to every network must be
configured on every router for full connectivity. This
provides a granular level of control over routing and is
completely manageable on smaller networks. However,
static routing is not fault-tolerant, as any change to the
routing infrastructure (such as a link going down, or a
new network added) requires manual intervention.
Routers operating in a purely static environment cannot
seamlessly choose a better route if a link becomes
unavailable, because no information is intelligently
shared between routers.
Advantages of Static Routing
#Role of Gateway in networks: A gateway is a device
used to connect networks using different protocols.
Gateways operate at the network layer of the OSI model.
In order to communicate with a host on another network,
an IP host must be configured with a route to the
destination network. If a configuration route is not found,
the host uses the gateway (default IP router) to transmit
the traffic to the destination host. The default t gateway
is where the IP sends packets that are destined for
remote networks. If no default gateway is specified,
communication is limited to the local network. Gateway
receive data from a network using one type of protocol
stack, removes that protocol stack and repackages it with
the protocol stack that the other network can use.
A gateway is a network point that acts as an entrance to
another network. E-mail gateways-for example, a
gateway that receives Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
(SMTP) e-mail, translates it into a standard X.400 format,
and forwards it to its destination.
The most important properties of public key encryption
scheme are –
1)Different keys are used for encryption and decryption.
This is a property which set this scheme
different than symmetric encryption scheme.
➢ Each receiver possesses a unique decryption key,
generally referred to as his private key.
➢ Receiver needs to publish an encryption key, referred
to as his public key.
➢ Some assurance of the authenticity of a public key is
needed in this scheme to avoid spoofing
by adversary as the receiver. Generally, this type of
cryptosystem involves trusted third party
which certifies that a particular public key belongs to a
specific person or entity only.
➢ Encryption algorithm is complex enough to prohibit
attacker from deducing the plaintext
from the cipher text and the encryption (public) key.
Though private and public keys are related
mathematically, it is not be feasible to calculate
the private key from the public key. In fact, intelligent
part of any public-key cryptosystem is
in designing a relationship between two keys.
• Minimal CPU/Memory overhead
• No bandwidth overhead (updates are not shared
between routers)
• Granular control on how traffic is routed
Disadvantages of Static Routing
• Infrastructure changes must be manually adjusted
• No “dynamic” fault tolerance if a link goes down
• Impractical on large network
2)Dynamic Routing: Dynamic routing protocols are the
applications which discover network destinations
dynamically. Routers will communicate the adjacent
routers which informs the network to which each router
is connected. Dynamic routing protocols are supported by
software applications running on the routing device (the
router) which dynamically learn network destinations and
how to get to them and also advertise those destinations
to other routers. This advertisement function allows all
the routers to learn about all the destination networks
that exist and how to use those networks. Router using
dynamic routing will 'learn' the routes to all networks
that are directly connected to the device. Next, the router
will learn routes from other routers that run the same
routing protocol.
Advantages of Dynamic Routing
• Simpler to configure on larger networks
• Will dynamically choose a different (or better) route if a
link goes down
#Ethernet IEEE 802.3(CSMA/CD) Local Area Network
(LAN) Protocols: The IEEE 802.3 architecture is a set of
standards that defines the physical and data link layers of
the Ethernet local area network (LAN). This architecture
uses the Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Detection (CSMA/CD) protocol to manage the flow of
data between devices on the network.
The CSMA/CD protocol determines when a device can
transmit data onto the network. Before transmitting, the
device listens to the network to check if there is any
ongoing transmission. If the network is idle, the device
transmits its data. But if another device starts
transmitting at the same time, a collision occurs, and
both devices detect it. The devices then stop
transmitting, wait for a random amount of time, and try
again. This process is called collision detection.
The IEEE 802.3 architecture specifies the physical layer
standards for Ethernet, such as the type of cables and
connectors used to connect devices on the network. It
also defines the data link layer standards for Ethernet,
such as the frame format, maximum frame size, and
error detection and correction mechanisms.
In addition to CSMA/CD, IEEE 802.3 includes other
protocols and technologies that improve the
performance and reliability of Ethernet networks. For
example, it defines the use of switches to replace hubs,
#Symmetric Key Encryption (private Key): An encryption
system in which the sender and receiver of a message
share a single, common key that is used to encrypt and
decrypt the message is called Symmetric key encryption
Symmetric key encryption algorithm uses same
cryptographic keys for both encryption and decryption of
cipher text. Symmetric-key systems are simpler and
faster, but their main drawback is that the two parties
must somehow exchange the key in a secure way.
Symmetric encryption is also known as private-key
encryption and secure-key encryption. The salient
features of cryptosystem based on symmetric key
encryption are:
Persons using symmetric key encryption must share a
common key prior to exchange of
information.1)) Keys are recommended to be changed
regularly to prevent any attack on the system.2)) A robust
mechanism needs to exist to exchange the key between
the communicating parties. As keys are required to be
changed regularly, this mechanism becomes expensive
• Ability to load balance between multiple links
Disadvantages of Dynamic Routing
• Updates are shared between routers, thus consuming
bandwidth
• Routing protocols put additional load on router
CPU/RAM
• The choice of the “best route” is route” is in the hands
of the routing protocol, and not the
network administrator
#Routing Algorithm: The main function of the network
layer is routing packets from the source machine to the
destination machine. In most subnets, packets will
require multiple hops to make the journey. The only
notable exception is for broadcast networks, but even
here routing is an issue if the source and destination
are not on the same network. The algorithms that choose
the routes and the data structures that they use are a
major area of network layer design. The routing algorithm
is that part of the network layer software responsible for
deciding which output line an incoming packet should be
transmitted on. If the subnet uses datagrams internally,
this decision must be made a new for every arriving data
packet since the best route may have changed since last
time. If the subnet uses virtual circuits internally, routing
decisions are made only when a new virtual circuit is
being set up.Routing algorithm can be grouped into two
major classes: non-adaptive and adaptive. Non-adaptive
algorithms do not base their routing decision on
measurements or estimates of the current traffic and
topology. Adaptive algorithms, in contrast, change their
routing decisions to reflect changes in the topology, and
usually the traffic as well.
#Networking Models
#Client-Server Model (Architecture): A client-server
network is designed for end-users, called clients, to
access resources such as files, songs, video collections, or
some other service from a central computer called a
server. A server's sole purpose is to do what its name
implies - serve its clients! The type of computing system,
in which one powerful workstation serves the requests of
other systems, is an example of client server technology.
Once the server has fulfilled the client's request, the
connection is terminated. Your Web browser is a client
program that has requested a service from a server; in
fact, the service and resource the server provided is the
delivery of this Web page.
1)It is also known as
centralized computing.2) In
this type of system, multiple
computers are joined to one
powerful mainframe
computer.3) The server or
mainframe computer has huge
storage and processing power.
4) The computers that are connected to the mainframe or the client/server model, in which the client makes a
server are called Clients or Nodes.5) These nodes are not service request and the server fulfills the request, the P2P
connected to each other; they are only connected to network model allows each node to function as both a
server client and server.
Peer-to-Peer Network Model (P2P Architecture) and
Client server Architecture (Diffferences): In its simplest
form, a peer-to-peer (P2P) network is created when two
or more PCs are connected and share resources without
going through a separate server computer. Peer-to-peer
networks are quite common in small offices that do not
use a dedicated file server. All client versions of Windows,
Mac and Linux can function as nodes in a peer-to-peer
network and allow their files to be shared. It is easy to
install and so is the configuration of computers on this
network. P2P is more reliable as central dependency is Fig: Client-Server Fig: Peer-to-Peer
eliminated. Failure of one peer doesn’t affect the Networking Model Networking Model
functioning of other peers.
In case of Client –Server network, if server goes down
#Difference between Circuit Switching and Packet
whole network gets affected. The over-all cost of building
Switching:
and maintaining this type of network is comparatively
very less. In this network, the whole system is
Circuit Switching Packet Switching
decentralized thus it is difficult to administer. Security in
this system is very less viruses, spywares, Trojans, etc.
In-circuit switching has there In Packet switching
Malwares can easily transmit over this P-2-P architecture.
are 3 phases: directly data transfer
Peer-to-peer (P2P) is a decentralized communications
model in which each party has the same capabilities and i) Connection Establishment. takes place.
either party can initiate a communication session. Unlike ii) Data Transfer.

Circuit Switching Packet Switching
iii) Connection Released.
In Packet switching,
In-circuit switching, each data each data unit just
unit knows the entire path knows the final
address which is provided by destination address
the source. intermediate path is
decided by the routers.
In Packet switching, data
In-Circuit switching, data is is processed at all
processed at the source system intermediate nodes
only including the source
system.
Circuit Switching
Circuit switching is more
reliable.
Wastage of resources is more
in Circuit Switching
It is not a store and forward
technique.
Transmission of the data is
done by the source.
Packet Switching #Connection oriented and connectionless service
Connection-oriented Service Connection-less Service
Packet switching is less
reliable. Connection-oriented service Connection-less service is
is related to the telephone related to the postal
Less wastage of system. system.
resources as compared
to Circuit Switching Connection-oriented service Connection-less Service is
is preferred by long and preferred by bursty
It is a store and forward steady communication. communication.
technique.
Connection-oriented Service Connection-less Service is
Transmission of the data is necessary. not compulsory.
is done not only by the
source but also by the Connection-oriented Service Connection-less Service is
intermediate routers. is feasible. not feasible.

The delay between data Congestion can occur during In connection-oriented

The delay between data units
in circuit switching is uniform.
Resource reservation is the
feature of circuit switching
because the path is fixed for
data transmission.
Congestion can occur In connection-less Service,
units in packet switching the connection establishment Service, Congestion is not
during the data transfer Congestion is possible.
is not uniform. phase because there might be possible.
a case where a request is being phase; a large number
There is no resource made for a channel but the of packets comes in no
Connection-oriented Service Connection-less Service
reservation because channel is already occupied. time.
gives the guarantee of does not give a guarantee
bandwidth is shared reliability. of reliability.
among users.

Connection-oriented Service Connection-less Service future growth of the Internet and provides relief for what #DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol): Dynamic
was perceived as an impending shortage of network Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a client/server
In connection-oriented In connection-less Service, addresses. IPv6 also supports autoconfiguration to help protocol that automatically provides an Internet Protocol
Service, Packets follow the Packets do not follow the correct. Pv6 features include: (IP) host with its IP address and other related
same route. same route. Supports source and destination addresses that are 128 configuration information such as the subnet mask and
bits (16 bytes) long. default gateway. RFCs 2131 and 2132 define DHCP as an
Connection-oriented services Connection-less Service ✓ No more NAT (Network Address Translation) Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) standard based on
require a bandwidth of a requires a bandwidth of ✓ Auto-configuration Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP), a protocol with which DHCP
✓ No more private address collisions shares many implementation details. DHCP allows hosts
high range. low range. to obtain required TCP/IP configuration information from
✓ Better multicast routing
a DHCP server.
Ex: TCP (Transmission Ex: UDP (User Datagram ✓ Simpler header format, Simplified, more efficient
#DNS (Domain Name System): DNS, or the Domain Name
Control Protocol) Protocol) routing
System, translates human readable domain names (for
✓ Built-in authentication and privacy support. example, www.amazon.com) to machine readable IP
Connection-less Service #IPV4-Subnetting: addresses (for example, 192.0.2.44). The Domain Name
Connection-oriented
does not require System resolves the names of internet sites with their
requires authentication.
authentication. underlying IP addresses adding efficiency and even
security in the process. The Domain Name System (DNS)
#IPV6 and its necessity: IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6) is one of the foundations of the internet, yet most people
is a set of specifications from the Internet Engineering outside of networking probably don’t realize they use it
Task Force (IETF) that's essentially an upgrade of IP every day to do their jobs, check their email or waste
version 4 (IPv4). The basics of IPv6 are similar to those of time on their smartphones.
IPv4-- devices can use IPv6 as source and destination
addresses to pass packets over a network, and tools
like ping work for network testing as they do in IPv4, with
some slight variations. The most obvious improvement in
IPv6 over IPv4 is that IP addresses are lengthened from 32
bits to 128 bits. This extension anticipates considerable
#HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): Hypertext Transfer
Protocol. It's the communication protocol you use when
you browse the web. to a fundamental level, when you
visit a website, your browser makes an HTTP request to a
server. Then that server responds with a resource (an
image, video, or the HTML of a web page) - which your
browser then displays for you. This is HTTP's message-
based model. Every HTTP interaction includes a request
and a response. By its nature, HTTP is stateless. Stateless
means that all requests are separate from each other. So,
each request from your browser must contain enough
information on its own for the server to fulfill the request.
That also means that each transaction of the message-
based model of HTTP is processed separately from the
others. HTTP is a protocol which allows the fetching of
resources, such as HTML documents. It is the foundation
of any data exchange on the Web and it is a client-server
protocol, which means requests are initiated by the
recipient, usually the Web browser.
WIFI: Wireless Fidelity: WIFI also Spelled as Wi-Fi is a
local area wireless technology. It allows an electronic
device to transfer data or connect to the internet using
ISM radio bands. It is an underlying technology of wireless
local area network (WLAN). Wi-Fi allows computers and
other devices to communicate over a wireless network.
Wi-Fi network components are based on the one of the
802.11 standards developed by the IEEE and adopted by
Flow control is the management of data flow between
computers or devices or between nodes in a network so
that the data can be handled at an efficient pace. Too
much data arriving before a device can handle it causes
data overflow, meaning the data is either lost or must be
retransmitted. Flow Control is one important design issue
for the Data Link Layer that controls the flow of data
between sender and receiver.
#FLOW CONTROL is introduced in Data Link Layer. It also
works on several higher layers. The main concept of Flow
Control is to introduce efficiency in Computer Networks.
Networks of any size have many different devices
connected and each device has unique data transmission
parameters. For instance, a router is built to manage the
routing of data whereas a desktop, at the receiving end of
that data, has far less sending/receiving abilities. These
differences sending/receiving abilities may lead to conflict
if the sender starts transmitting data faster than the
receiving node’s ability. To counteract this problem, flow
control is used. This technique manages the flow of data
between nodes, keeping the sending/receiving
capabilities of both nodes as the primary concern. One-
Off is an example of a flow control protocol that sync the
sender with the receiver. It transmits an off signal when
the receiver no longer has space in its buffer and
transmits on signal when the receiver can resume taking
data. One-Off works on asynchronous serial connections.
#A transaction refers to a sequence of messages
exchanged between two devices or applications to
perform a specific task or operation. For example, a
transaction might involve a client sending a request to a
server, and the server responding with the requested
data.
IP packets are the basic units of data in the internet
protocol (IP) suite, which includes both IPv4 and IPv6.
These packets are formed by the transport layer of the
OSI model, which takes data from the application layer
and adds headers to prepare it for transmission over the
network.
The transport layer encapsulates the application layer
data into segments or datagrams, depending on the
protocol being used (TCP or UDP). These segments or
datagrams include header information such as the source
and destination port numbers, sequence numbers, and
checksums, which are used to ensure reliable delivery and
error detection.
The network layer then takes the segments or datagrams
created by the transport layer and adds additional
headers, including the source and destination IP
addresses, to route the packet across the network.The
functions of the network layer include:
1. Addressing and routing: The network layer uses IP
addresses to identify devices on the network and routes
packets to their destination.
Wi-Fi alliance. It provides a standard way to connect with
wireless network. Wi-Fi is the trademark of the Wi-Fi
alliance and used as a brand name for products using the
IEEE 802.11 standards. Wi-Fi can be used on several types
of devices like personal computers, video game console,
smart phones, digital camera, tablet computers etc. You
can use Wi-Fi to create a hotspot within the range of 20
meters (66 feet). It is less secure than wired connection
because the intruder does not need the physical
connection to use the Wi-Fi.
#WiMax: stands for Worldwide Inter-operability for
Microwave Access. This technology is based on IEEE
802.16. It is used to provide higher data rates with
increased coverage. It is based on MAN (Metropolitan
Area Network) technology. Its range is up to 50 Km. It
may provide speed up to 70 Mbps and it can operate in
Non-Line-of-Sight. This technology is fast, convenient and
cost effective. Architecture:
#Bandwidth refers to the range of component
frequencies that is contained in a signal. If the minimum
and maximum components of frequencies that occur in a
modulated signal are and, then the bandwidth is given by
When the bandwidth is larger, a larger number of
frequencies can be represented by a signal. For digital
devices, the bandwidth is usually expressed in bits per
second (bps) or bytes per second. For analog devices, the
bandwidth is expressed in cycles per second, or Hertz
(Hz). For instance, AM radio signals which have a
bandwidth of 9-10 kHz fail to transmit higher frequencies
of sound that FM radios, having bandwidths of 100-200
kHz, can transmit without a problem.
# Channel Bandwidth: Channel bandwidth refers to the
range of frequencies available for data transmission over
a communication channel, such as a wired or wireless
network. It is typically measured in Hertz (Hz) and
represents the difference between the highest and lowest
frequencies that can be transmitted over the channel.
In general, a wider channel bandwidth allows for greater
data throughput and faster transmission speeds. This is
because a wider bandwidth allows for more data to be
transmitted at once, which can result in higher data rates
and better performance.
2. Fragmentation and reassembly: The network layer can
fragment large packets into smaller packets for
transmission over networks with smaller maximum
transmission unit (MTU) sizes, and reassemble the
packets at the receiving end.
3. Error detection and handling: The network layer
includes error detection and correction mechanisms to
ensure that packets are transmitted reliably and without
errors.
4. Congestion control: The network layer includes
mechanisms for managing network congestion and
avoiding packet loss and delays.
The transition from IPv4 to IPv6 involves the adoption of
a new version of the IP protocol that uses 128-bit
addresses instead of 32-bit addresses. This transition is
necessary because the number of available IPv4
addresses is running out, while IPv6 provides a virtually
unlimited number of addresses to support the growing
number of devices and users on the internet.
The transition from IPv4 to IPv6 involves several steps,
including the adoption of IPv6 addressing, the creation of
dual-stack networks that support both IPv4 and IPv6, and
the eventual phase-out of IPv4 in favor of IPv6. This
transition is expected to take many years and requires
coordination between network operators, software
vendors, and end-users.
#Computer Network: A computer network is a group of
interconnected computers and other devices that can
communicate and share resources with each other.
Networks can be used for a wide variety of purposes,
such as sharing files and printers, accessing the internet,
and communicating with other people and devices.
There are many different types of computer networks,
including local area networks (LANs), wide area networks
(WANs), and wireless networks. LANs are typically used
in a single building or location, while WANs can span
large distances and connect multiple LANs together.
Wireless networks, also known as Wi-Fi networks, use
radio waves to connect devices without the need for
physical cables.
#Network protocol is a set of rules and standards that
govern the communication between devices in a
computer network. It defines the format and sequence
of messages exchanged between devices, as well as the
procedures for establishing, maintaining, and
terminating connections.
Protocols allow different devices and software
applications to communicate with each other, regardless
of the hardware and operating systems they use. They
ensure that data is transmitted reliably, efficiently, and
securely across the network.
Examples of common network protocols include the
(TCP/IP), which is used for communication.
#Inter-network is a collection of multiple interconnected
computer networks that use a common set of protocols
to communicate with each other. It allows devices on
different networks to communicate with each other as if
they were on the same network, even if they are
physically separated by great distances.
Internetworks can be created by connecting multiple local
area networks (LANs) together using routers and other
networking devices. This creates a larger network known
as a wide area network (WAN) that spans multiple
locations and can support a larger number of users.
Internetworks can be found in many different settings,
such as corporate networks, academic institutions,
government agencies, and the internet itself. They allow
users to access resources and communicate with each
other across multiple networks, making it easier to share
information and collaborate on projects.
Internetworking also requires the use of common
networking protocols and standards, such as the
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP),
which is used to enable communication across different
networks and devices. These protocols ensure that data is
transmitted reliably, securely, and efficiently across the
internetwork, regardless of the specific devices and
networks involved.
#Virtual Private Network (VPN) is the technology that
you can use to access the office or home network
remotely and securely over the Internet, so that the
communication data is protected from sniffing or
hijacking by hackers. Typically, private networks are not
accessible from the Internet or other public networks,
because firewalls will block all unrequested traffic. To
remotely access a private network over Internet, we need
to use technology like Virtual Private Network (VPN).
When the VPN connection is established between 2
parties (between a VPN client and VPN gateway or
between 2 VPN gateways), a secured virtual tunnel will be
created with capability to encrypt the data (so no hacker
can see the data content), preserve data integrity (no
data change during transmission) and ensure the
communication only happen between that 2
authenticated parties.
#WWW (World Wide Web): World Wide Web, which is
also known as a Web, is a collection of websites or web
pages stored in web servers and connected to local
computers through the internet. These websites contain
text pages, digital images, audios, videos, etc. Users can
access the content of these sites from any part of the
world over the internet using their devices such as
computers, laptops, cell phones, etc. The WWW, along
with internet, enables the retrieval and display of text
and media to your device. The building blocks of the Web
are web pages which are formatted in HTML and
connected by links called "hypertext" or hyperlinks and
accessed by HTTP. These links are electronic connections
that link related pieces of information so that users can
access the desired information quickly. Hypertext offers
the advantage to select a word or phrase from text and
thus to access other pages that provide additional
information related to that word or phrase. A particular
collection of web pages that belong to a specific URL is
called a website, e.g., www.google.com, etc.
#Two protocol of transport layer:
1.Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): TCP is a
connection-oriented protocol that provides reliable and
ordered delivery of data between applications. It ensures
that data is transmitted without errors or loss, and uses a
three-way handshake to establish a connection between
devices before data transfer begins. TCP also includes
flow control and congestion control mechanisms to
optimize the use of network resources.
2. User Datagram Protocol (UDP): UDP is a
connectionless protocol that provides best-effort delivery
of data between applications. It does not provide
reliability or error checking, and does not establish a
connection before data transfer begins. UDP is often used
for real-time applications such as video streaming and
online gaming, where speed and low latency are more
important than reliability.
Confidentiality, integrity, and availability (CIA) are the
three primary goals of network security, and maintaining
these goals requires a variety of measures and
technologies. 1)Confidentiality: ##Encryption: Encryption
is used to protect data from unauthorized access.
Encryption techniques such as symmetric encryption,
asymmetric encryption, and hashing are commonly used
to secure data in transit and at rest. ##Access control:
Access control mechanisms such as firewalls, intrusion
prevention systems, and user authentication are used to
ensure that only authorized users and systems have
access to sensitive data.2)Integrity: ##Message digests
and hash functions: Message digests and hash functions
are used to verify the integrity of data by creating a fixed-
size message digest or hash value of the original data. Any
alteration to the data will result in a different digest or
hash value, alerting the receiver to the tampering.
##Digital signatures: Digital signatures are used to verify
the authenticity and integrity of digital documents or
messages. A digital signature provides proof of the
identity of the signer and ensures that the document has
not been tampered with.3)Availability: #Redundancy:
Redundancy is used to ensure that network services are
available even if some components fail. Redundant
servers, network devices, and power supplies are
common examples of redundancy in networks. ##Load
balancing: Load balancing is used to distribute network
#Flow control is necessary in the transport layer of the
network stack to prevent the sender from overwhelming
the receiver with data. The transport layer is responsible
for providing end-to-end communication between
applications running on different hosts.
Without flow control, a fast sender could send data to a
slow receiver faster than the receiver can process it. As a
result, the receiver's buffer could overflow, causing data
loss or degraded performance. To prevent this, flow
control mechanisms regulate the rate of data
transmission to match the receiver's ability to process the
data.
Flow control can be implemented using various
techniques, such as window-based flow control, rate-
based flow control, and credit-based flow control. The
most commonly used flow control mechanism is the
sliding window protocol, which uses a window size to
control the amount of data that can be sent before
receiving an acknowledgment from the receiver.
In summary, flow control is essential in the transport
layer to ensure that the sender does not overwhelm the
receiver with data, thereby preventing data loss or
degraded performance.
traffic evenly across multiple servers or devices to
prevent overloading and ensure that network services
remain available.
#computer network is a group of computers linked to
each other that enables the computer to communicate
with another computer and share their resources, data,
and applications. A computer network can be categorized
by their size. A computer network is mainly of four types:
1) Based on Size: ##Personal Area Network (PAN): A
network that spans a small area, such as a room or a
building. ##Local Area Network (LAN): A network that
connects devices within a small geographic area, such as
a home, office, or campus. ##Metropolitan Area
Network (MAN): A network that spans a city or
metropolitan area. ##Wide Area Network (WAN): A
network that covers a large geographical area, such as a
country or the entire world.
2) Based on Topology: ##Bus Network: A network where
all devices are connected to a common backbone or bus.
##Star Network: A network where all devices are
connected to a central hub or switch. ##Ring Network: A
network where devices are connected in a circular ring,
and data flows in one direction around the ring. ##Mesh
Network: A network where devices are connected to
multiple other devices, forming a mesh of connections.
#Security is critical in the field of computer networks for
several reasons:
1.Confidentiality: Network security ensures that data
transmitted over the network remains confidential and is
only accessible to authorized individuals or systems.
Encryption, access control, and other security
mechanisms are used to prevent unauthorized access to
sensitive data.
2.Integrity: Network security ensures that data
transmitted over the network is not altered or modified
by unauthorized parties. Data integrity mechanisms such
as message digests, hash functions, and digital signatures
are used to detect and prevent data tampering.
3. Availability: Network security ensures that the
network and its resources are available when needed.
Denial-of-service (DoS) attacks, malware, and other
threats can disrupt network services and cause
downtime, which can be costly for businesses and
organizations.
4.Compliance: Many industries have regulatory
compliance requirements that dictate specific security
standards that must be followed to protect sensitive data.
Network security helps organizations meet these
requirements and avoid penalties for noncompliance.
5. Reputation: Security breaches and data leaks can have
a significant impact on an organization's reputation.
#Router and a Repeater are both devices used in
computer networking, Here are the differences between:
1) A router is a device that connects multiple networks
together and routes data between them based on IP
addresses.
1)A repeater is a device that amplifies or regenerates a
signal to extend its reach or improve its quality.
2) A router operates at the network layer (Layer 3) of the
OSI model and is responsible for forwarding data
between networks based on IP addresses.
2)A repeater operates at the physical layer (Layer 1) of
the OSI model and is responsible for amplifying or
regenerating signals on a network
3)A router can cover a large geographic area and connect
multiple networks together.
3)A repeater is typically used to extend the reach of a
network or improve its signal quality in a limited area,
such as a building or a room.
4)A router can improve network performance by
directing traffic between networks and providing network
services such as QoS (
4) A repeater can improve signal strength and quality, but
it does not affect the performance of the network itself.