DIPLOMA, CTEVT, QUESTION & SOLUTION 2075 to 2079 Geographical Information System (for Diploma III Yrs. | Part) DCOM/IT By Arjun Chaudhary Publisher in: www.arjun00.com.np www.facebook.com/arjun00.com.np Authors © Arjun Chaudhary **pont Remove these page, Otherwise You Got copyient AAC? 1 www.arjun00.com.np“Download from www.arjun00.com.np S.No Exam Year, Month 1. 2075 Falgun Regular/Back 2. 2076 Falgun Regular/Back 3. 2079 Bhadra Regular/Back ** Don't be confused when you see the same question Repeated with Different Answer . *** This Pdf download from www.arjun00.com.np **pont Remove these page, Otherwise You Got copyient = AC» 2 www.arjun00.com.np“Download from www.arjun00.com.np Geographical Information System ( DCOM ) 5t"Sem ( 2075 ) Question Paper Solution. Compile by © Arjun Chy Website :- www.arjun00.com.np Facebook :-www.facebook.com/Arjun00.com.np > GIS (Geographic Information System) is a computer-based technology used for collecting, managing, analyzing, and presenting spatial data, enabling the visualization and understanding of geographical patterns and relationships. > The historical background of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is a tale of technological evolution and the integration of geography with computing. = 1960s: The foundation of GIS was established as computers ventured beyond calculations. Canada Geographic Information System (CGIS) by Roger Tomlinson emerged for land-use planning. = 1970s: The term "Geographic Information System" was coined. Early GIS prototypes found applications in urban planning, resource management, and environmental assessment. = 1980s: Commercial GIS software debuted, democratizing access. GIS expanded into various sectors beyond its initial domains. = 1990s: GIS embraced the internet era, leading to the rise of web-based mapping and online spatial data repositories. Copyright © belongs to the Arjun Chy AC 3. wwwarjun00.com.np“Download from www.arjun00.com.np = 2000s: Mobility gained prominence with the advent of mobile technology. "Location-based services" emerged, making GIS portable and facilitating field data collection. = Modern Era: Cloud-based GIS solutions transformed collaboration and accessibility, with applications extending to emergency response, conservation, epidemiology, and urban planning. > The concept of spatial information refers to data that conveys the geographical locations, arrangements, and relationships of objects, features, and phenomena on the Earth's surface or in geographic space. It encompasses both the geometric aspects (shapes, sizes, distances) and attribute details (information associated with locations) of spatial entities, providing a comprehensive understanding of the physical world. Spatial information is crucial in fields like cartography, geography, urban planning, and Geographic Information Systems (GIS), enabling analysis, visualization, and informed decision-making based on geographic patterns and interactions. Copyright © belongs to the Arjun Chy AC 4 — wwwarjun00.com.np“Download from www.arjun00.com.np Angular distance east or west from the Prime Meridian. Angular distance north or south from the Equator. 0° to 180° East or West. 0° to 90° North or South. Prime Meridian (0°) through Greenwich, London. Equator (0°) circling the Earth's widest part. Vertical lines (meridians) on the map, converging at the poles. Horizontal lines (parallels) on the map, parallel to the Equator. Influences local time variations and time zones globally. Not directly related to time zone differences. Does not directly affect climate patterns. Influences climate and temperature zones due to varying sunlight angles. Longitude lines run from pole to pole, converging at the poles. Latitude lines are parallel to the Equator. Pa fikide Prime Meridian \* North Pole 39 Copyright © belongs to the Arjun Chy AC 5 www.arjun00.com.np“Download from www.arjun00.com.np “»Raster Format in GIS: > Raster data consists of a grid of pixels, where each pixel represents a value or attribute. It is often used to represent continuous phenomena like elevation, temperature, or satellite imagery. “The key points about the raster format in GIS: = Representation: Raster data is represented as a grid of equally sized cells or pixels, where each cell contains a value corresponding to a particular attribute. Data Structure: It is structured as a matrix of rows and columns, and each cell holds a single value. Raster data can be images (raster images) where each pixel carries a color value. = Examples: Aerial photos and satellite images are common examples of raster data in GIS. = Advantages: - ¢ Well-suited for analysis involving continuous data. * Can represent complex geographic patterns. Suitable for spatial analysis like surface modeling and hydrological analysis. = Disadvantages: - ¢ Can result in large data files. ¢ Limited precision due to fixed cell size. e Less efficient for representing discrete features and sharp boundaries. Copyright © belongs to the Arjun Chy AC 6 wwwarjun00.com.np“Download from www.arjun00.com.np “Vector Format in GIS: » Vector data represents geographic features using points, lines, and polygons. It is used to represent discrete features with well-defined boundaries, such as roads, buildings, and administrative boundaries. “The key points about the vector format in GIS: " Representation: Vector data represents features as individual points, lines, or polygons defined by coordinates. Attributes provide additional information about these features. =" Geometries: Points, lines, and polygons are used to represent different types of features. = Examples: Urban planning often uses vector data to represent land parcels, roads, buildings, and other features. = Advantage: e Precise representation of geographic features. e Suitable for representing real-world objects with well-defined boundaries. ¢ Efficient storage of sparse data. Disadvantages: e May not capture continuous phenomena as effectively as raster. e Complex polygons may require significant computational resources. ¢ Notas straightforward for certain types of spatial analysis, like terrain modeling. > In summary, raster data is suitable for continuous data representation like satellite imagery, while vector data excels in representing discrete features with precise boundaries. Each format has its advantages and disadvantages, making them suitable for different types of spatial analysis and visualization in GIS. Copyright © belongs to the Arjun Chy AC 7 ~~ wwwarjun00.com.np“Download from www.arjun00.com.np > A map projection is a method used to represent the curved surface of the Earth on a flat map. Because the Earth is a sphere, projecting it onto a flat surface inevitably introduces distortions in aspects like shape, area, distance, or direction. Different map projections aim to minimize specific types of distortion depending on the intended use of the map. > Scanning methods are essential in GIS for converting analog paper maps into digital formats usable by computers. “There are two primary scanning approaches: 1. Black and White Raster Scanning © Process: This method captures maps with distinct black and white elements, resulting in binary images. Use: Suited for simple maps like contour lines or clear line drawings with well-defined boundaries. 2. Greyscale and Color Raster Scanning © Process: Maps with varying shades of grey or color are scanned to preserve nuances and details. ¢ Use: Effective for maps using color-coded information, such as terrain representation or thematic data. Scanning facilitates the integration of traditional maps into GIS databases, enabling advanced spatial analysis and visualization. The resulting raster images can undergo further processing and vectorization for more precise GIS representation. Copyright © belongs to the Arjun Chy AC 8 — wwwarjun00.com.np“Download from www.arjun00.com.np > Digitization in GIS involves converting maps or images into digital vector data for accurate spatial representation. It captures features and coordinates, enhancing data usability for effective decision-making. On-screen digitization, utilizing high-resolution imagery, ensures precise results. “Methods of Data Capture in GIS: > Data capture involves collecting and converting spatial information into digital format for use in GIS. Various methods are employed for this purpose:- = Scanning: Converting paper maps or images into digital raster format using scanners. GPS (Global Positioning System): Collecting precise location data using satellite-based receivers. = Remote Sensing: Gathering data from aerial or satellite imagery to create raster datasets. " Digitizing Tablets: Manually tracing features on a digital tablet to create vector data. = Photogrammetry: Extracting spatial information from overlapping aerial photographs. " Field Surveys: Collecting data directly on-site using surveying equipment. Copyright © belongs to the Arjun Chy AC 9 — wwwarjun00.com.np“Download from www.arjun00.com.np = LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging): Using laser pulses to measure distances and create detailed elevation models. = Crowdsourcing: Gathering data from the public, often through mobile apps or online platforms. > Handling digital Gis data is a crucial aspect of GIS analysis. It involves managing, processing, analyzing, and visualizing geographic data in digital form. Here's a detailed analysis of how digital GIS data is handled in GIS analysis :- «Data Collection and Input = Digital GIS data is collected using various methods, such as GPS, remote sensing, surveys, and digitization of analog maps. = Collected data is input into GIS software, where it's stored ina structured database format for efficient retrieval and analysis. “Data Storage and Organization = Digital GIS data is organized in layers, each representing a specific type of geographic feature (e.g., roads, land use, rivers). = Geographic datasets are stored as vector data (points, lines, polygons) or raster data (grids of cells with values). = Properly organizing data simplifies analysis and ensures accurate representation. Copyright © belongs to the Arjun Chy AC 10. wwwarjun00.com.np“Download from www.arjun00.com.np “»Data Integration and Analysis = GIS software enables the integration of multiple datasets to analyze relationships and patterns. = Spatial analysis tools perform various operations like buffering, overlay, spatial queries, and network analysis. = Analysis helps uncover insights, trends, and correlations in geographic data. “*Geoprocessing = Geoprocessing involves manipulating geographic data to create new datasets or extract information. = Operations include data conversion, clipping, merging, interpolation, and more. = Geoprocessing tools automate complex tasks, saving time and ensuring accuracy. +» Attribute Management: = GIS data often includes attribute information associated with geographic features. = Attribute tables store non-spatial data, enabling querying, statistical analysis, and thematic mapping. = Linking spatial and attribute data enhances analysis outcomes. “Visualization and Mapping: = GIS analysis results are often visualized through maps, graphs, and charts. = Mapping tools allow creating thematic maps that display patterns, distributions, and relationships. = Effective visualization aids communication of analysis findings. Copyright © belongs to the Arjun Chy AC 11. wwwarjund0.com.np**Download from www.arjun00.com.np “Modeling and Simulation = GIS analysis can involve modeling and simulation to predict outcomes of various scenarios. =" Models simulate real-world processes, aiding in decision-making and planning. = For example, urban growth models predict future land use patterns. “Output and Reporting = GIS analysis results are presented in reports, presentations, and interactive web applications. = Output may include maps, charts, graphs, and statistical summaries. = Communicating results effectively helps stakeholders understand implications and make informed decisions. “Data Quality Assurance = Ensuring data quality is crucial for accurate analysis. = Data validation, error checking, and data cleaning processes are implemented. = Inaccurate data can lead to faulty analysis outcomes. “Metadata Management = Metadata provides essential information about the data, including its source, accuracy, and usage. = Properly maintained metadata improves transparency and aids in data sharing. Copyright © belongs to the Arjun Chy Ac 12. www.arjun00.com.np“Download from www.arjun00.com.np > In GIS analysis, the term "data plane" typically refers to a 2D representation of geographic data, often in raster format. A raster is a grid composed of cells, where each cell contains a value that represents a specific attribute or characteristic of the geographic area it covers. When dealing with multiple data planes in raster format, it usually involves working with multiple layers of information stacked on top of each other. > Here is a brief description of how many data planes in raster format work in GIS analysis: = Layered Information: GIS data is organized into layers, each representing a specific attribute like elevation, temperature, land use, etc. Each layer is a separate data plane in the form of a raster grid. = Stacking Layers: These data planes can be stacked on top of each other to create a multi-layered representation of the geographic area. This stacking creates a 3D-like structure where each layer corresponds to a different attribute. = Analysis and Visualization: By analyzing and visualizing multiple data planes together, GIS analysts can derive insights and make informed decisions. For example, overlaying a layer representing land use with a layer representing water bodies can help identify areas susceptible to flooding. Copyright © belongs to the Arjun Chy Ac 13. www.arjun00.com.np“Download from www.arjun00.com.np = Spatial Operations: GIS tools enable various spatial operations on these data planes, such as overlay, intersection, union, and buffering. These operations allow analysts to understand relationships between different attributes and make predictions or conclusions. " Decision Making: By considering multiple data planes, analysts can make more comprehensive decisions. For instance, urban planning might involve analyzing layers related to population density, transportation networks, and environmental factors to make informed decisions about city development. = Complex Analysis: Some analyses require the integration of multiple data planes, like modeling the spread of pollutants in the air using elevation, wind direction, and emission sources. Such complex analyses provide a holistic view of a geographic area's dynamics. In short, the operation of multiple data planes in raster format in GIS analysis involves stacking layers of information in a grid-based format, allowing analysts to study relationships, perform spatial operations, and make informed decisions based on various attributes simultaneously. Copyright © belongs to the Arjun Chy AC 14. wwwarjun00.com.np“Download from www.arjun00.com.np >The Concepts of Data Structure for Thematic Maps: = Attribute-Geometry Relationship: Thematic maps link attribute data (population, temperature, etc.) with geometric features (points, lines, polygons) to visualize patterns and distributions. " Data Classification: Attributes are classified into categories or ranges, aiding interpretation. Classification methods include equal intervals and quantiles. = Symbology and Legend: Symbology (colors, symbols, sizes) represents attribute values on the map. Legends explain symbology for easy comprehension. = Scale and Generalization: Maps consider scale and generalization to ensure clarity and relevance of information at different zoom levels. = Metadata: Describes data sources, accuracy, and other information, ensuring credibility and aiding interpretation. = Overlay and Analysis: Thematic maps can overlay with other datasets, enabling spatial analysis to identify relationships and trends. “+The Use of Topographic Data in Raster in GIS Analysis > Topographic data in raster format contributes to GIS analysis in various ways:- = Elevation Modeling: Raster elevation data forms digital elevation models (DEMs) for terrain analysis, flood modeling, and visibility studies. Copyright © belongs to the Arjun Chy Ac 15. www.arjun00.com.np“Download from www.arjun00.com.np = Landform Classification: Slope, aspect, and curvature data derived from topographic rasters help classify landforms and geological features. = Hydrological Analysis: Raster elevation data assists in delineating watersheds, flow directions, and accumulation areas for hydrological modeling. " Viewshed Analysis: Using elevation data, GIS can determine visible areas from a given point, aiding urban planning and communication tower placement. = 3D Visualization: Topographic rasters enable 3D terrain visualization, enhancing cartographic representation and decision-making. = Gradient Analysis: Elevation data helps analyze gradients for road construction, hiking trails, and wildlife habitat assessment. = Terrain Analysis: Terrain attributes from topographic rasters influence soil types, vegetation patterns, and habitat suitability modeling. = Infrastructure Planning: Elevation data informs infrastructure projects like road design, ensuring proper drainage and minimizing slope-related risks. ee Source > DEMs are generated from various data acquisition methods: = LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging): Laser pulses measure surface elevation, providing high-precision data for accurate DEMs. = Aerial Photogrammetry: Stereo images from aircraft capture elevation differences to create detailed elevation models. Copyright © belongs to the Arjun Chy AC 16 wwwarjun00.com.np“Download from www.arjun00.com.np = Satellite Stereo Imagery: Similar to aerial photogrammetry, but using satellite images, generates DEMs from space. = Ground Surveys: Traditional field measurements provide elevation points used to build DEMs. > DEMs are essential for various applications across domains:- = Terrain Analysis: Studying landforms, slopes, and geological features. " Hydrological Modeling: Simulating water flow, watershed delineation, and flood prediction. = Urban Planning: \dentifying suitable areas, assessing flood risks, and managing land use. = Environmental Studies: Analyzing erosion, habitat, and ecosystems. " Navigation: Optimizing routes, accounting for elevation changes. = Infrastructure Design: Planning roads, buildings, and utilities. " Disaster Management: Predicting floods, landslides, and hazards. > DEMs offer valuable products for analysis and visualization:- " Digital Elevation Model: Gridded representation of elevation data. = Derived Maps: Slope, aspect, and hillshade maps. = Hydrological Models: \nputs for water flow and flood simulations. = Flood Hazard Maps: \dentify flood-prone areas. Copyright © belongs to the Arjun Chy AC 17. wwwarjun00.com.np“Download from www.arjun00.com.np = 3D Visualizations: Enhance spatial understanding. = Contour Maps: Used in topographic maps. = Geological Studies: Understanding formations and processes. » The products of Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) include primary representations of surface elevation (DEM itself), derived maps like slope and aspect, hydrological models for water flow, and 3D visualizations. “The Operation of Digital Terrain Modeling (DTM) > Digital Terrain Modeling (DTM) encompasses a structured process with several key steps:- " Data Collection: Terrain data points are sampled with specific observation accuracy, density, and distribution criteria. Terrain Representation: The collected sample points represent the terrain's surface. Interpolation: |nterpolation is applied to areas without sampled points, creating a continuous surface. Attribute Derivation: Interpolated surface data can be used to derive attributes like height, slope, aspect, etc. Stages and Tasks: The DTM process is divided into six stages, involving various actions or tasks. The figure depicts 12 possible tasks in the entire Process. Copyright © belongs to the Arjun Chy AC 18 wwwarjun00.com.np“Download from www.arjun00.com.np " Specific Project: Depending on the project, some tasks may be omitted. The book focuses on theoretical and methodological aspects rather than broader project considerations. = Chapter Organization: Chapters in the book follow the data flow shown in Figure 1.5, organizing content in alignment with the DTM process. Raw data oe 2 Verification 8 Validation Sampling 3 5 Application 3 Terrain Quality i DTM Data | classification Earp! source | ¢——— img A i { Zz Shipment Design s Desig = Planning @ Contracting & s DT™ —_— project Figure 1.5 The process of digital terrain modeling (Li 1990). In summary, DTM involves collecting elevation data, representing the terrain, interpolating to create a continuous surface, deriving attributes, following structured stages and tasks, and organizing resources in literature to align with the DTM process. Copyright © belongs to the Arjun Chy AC 19 www.ariun00.com.np“Download from www.arjun00.com.np > Data pre-processing is a crucial step in data analysis and modeling that involves preparing raw data for further processing and analysis. It encompasses a series of operations aimed at improving data quality, removing inconsistencies, handling missing values, and transforming data into a suitable format. This step ensures that the data is accurate, complete, and ready for effective analysis. “The Key aspects of data pre-processing include:- = Data Cleaning: \dentifying and rectifying errors, inconsistencies, and duplicates in the dataset. = Handling Missing Values: Managing incomplete data through imputation or removal to maintain data integrity. * Normalization and Scaling: Adjusting variables to a consistent scale to prevent bias in algorithms sensitive to magnitude differences. = Feature Selection: Choosing relevant features to enhance analysis efficiency and reduce noise. = Qutlier Detection: \dentifying and addressing data points that deviate significantly from the expected pattern. = Data Transformation: Converting data formats, applying mathematical transformations, and encoding categorical variables. = Data Integration: Combining data from diverse sources or formats to create a unified dataset. = Data Reduction: Diminishing data dimensions through techniques like Principal Component Analysis (PCA) to improve computational efficiency. Copyright © belongs to the Arjun Chy AC 20 wwwarjun00.com.np“Download from www.arjun00.com.np > Asingle data plane in raster format refers to a single layer or grid of data organized in a two-dimensional grid or matrix. Each cell or pixel within the grid represents a specific location on the Earth's surface and holds a value corresponding to a certain attribute or characteristic. This raster data structure is widely used in Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and remote sensing for spatial analysis. For example, consider a digital elevation model (DEM) represented as a single data plane in raster format. In this case, each cell in the grid contains an elevation value, representing the height of the terrain at that specific location. The values in adjacent cells create a continuous surface that mimics the topography of the actual land. In GIS analysis, various attributes can be represented as single data planes in raster format. These attributes could include land cover types, temperature values, population density, or any other attribute that varies across a geographic area. By organizing such attributes in raster format, spatial relationships, patterns, and trends can be easily visualized and analyzed. In summary, a single data plane in raster format refers to a grid of cells, where each cell holds a value representing a specific attribute or characteristic. This format is commonly used in GIS and remote sensing for spatial analysis, enabling the representation and analysis of various geographic phenomena. Copyright © belongs to the Arjun Chy AC 21. wwwarjun00.com.np“Download from www.arjun00.com.np > Methods of Data Analysis for Spatial Modeling are:- Spatial Statistics: Analyzes spatial patterns, relationships, and clusters using techniques like spatial autocorrelation and hotspot analysis. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) Analysis: Uses GIS tools for buffer analysis, spatial joins, overlay analysis, and network analysis. Spatial Interpolation: Predicts values at unsampled locations using methods like inverse distance weighting and kriging. Spatial Clustering: \dentifies spatially cohesive groups using approaches such as k-means clustering and DBSCAN. Agent-Based Modeling: Simulates individual agent behavior in a spatial context to understand system dynamics. Remote Sensing Analysis: Extracts information from satellite imagery for land cover, vegetation, and urban growth analysis. Machine Learning for Spatial Analysis: Applies algorithms like Random Forest and Neural Networks to model spatial relationships and predict outcomes. Time-Series Analysis: Studies changes in spatial patterns over time, crucial for dynamic phenomena understanding. Cellular Automata: Simulates processes on grids based on predefined rules to analyze complex systems. These methods help interpret spatial data, model relationships, and predict outcomes in diverse fields like urban planning, environmental management, and epidemiology. -The End- Copyright © belongs to the Arjun Chy Ac 22 www.arjun00.com.np“Download from www.arjun00.com.np Geographical Information System ( DCOM ) 5t Sem ( 2076 ) Question Paper Solution. Compile by © Arjun Chy Website :- www.arjun00.com.np Facebook :-www.facebook.com/Arjun00.com.np > GIS (Geographic Information System) is a computer-based technology used for collecting, managing, analyzing, and presenting spatial data, enabling the visualization and understanding of geographical patterns and relationships. >The objectives of GIS (Geographic Information System) are to integrate, analyze, and visualize geographic data for informed decision-making and effective resource management across diverse domains. >The Applications of GIS are:- = Urban Planning: GIS is used to analyze land use patterns, infrastructure development, and zoning regulations for efficient urban growth and management. = Natural Resource Management: It helps in the sustainable management of forests, water bodies, agriculture, and fisheries by providing data for informed decision-making. Copyright © belongs to the Arjun Chy Ac 23. www.arjun00.com.np“Download from www.arjun00.com.np Disaster Management: GIS aids in disaster preparedness, response, and recovery by providing real-time data on affected areas, population density, and critical infrastructure. = Healthcare: GIS assists in disease mapping, healthcare facility location planning, and analyzing the spread of diseases to allocate resources effectively. Environmental Conservation: \t is used to monitor ecological habitats, track wildlife movements, and assess the impact of climate change on ecosystems. Archaeology: GIS aids in site location analysis, cultural heritage preservation, and understanding historical landscapes. = Business Intelligence: GIS helps businesses with location-based marketing, site selection, and analyzing customer demographics for targeted strategies. = Agriculture: GIS is used for precision farming, crop yield prediction, soil analysis, and irrigation management. = Criminal Justice: It assists law enforcement agencies in crime mapping, hotspot analysis, and resource allocation for crime prevention. = Transportation: GIS helps optimize transportation networks, plan routes, and manage traffic flow for better mobility. These are just a few examples of how GIS is applied across various domains to enhance decision-making and solve complex spatial problems. Copyright © belongs to the Arjun Chy AC 24 > wwwarjun00.com.np“Download from www.arjun00.com.np >The Advantages of data structures are:- " Efficient Data Organization: Data structures provide organized ways to store and manage data, leading to efficient use of memory and better overall system performance. " Fast Data Retrieval: Well-designed data structures facilitate quick access and retrieval of data elements, reducing the time complexity of operations like searching, inserting, and deleting. = Space Optimization: Certain data structures, such as linked lists, dynamic arrays, and hash tables, optimize memory usage by allocating memory dynamically and reducing wasted space. = Flexibility and Modularity: Data structures allow for modular design and abstraction, making it easier to manage and manipulate complex data in a structured manner. = Enhanced Performance: Properly chosen and implemented data structures contribute to optimized algorithms, leading to improved program performance and reduced execution time. >The Disadvantages of data structures are:- = Complexity: Some data structures, especially advanced ones like trees and graphs, can be complex to understand, implement, and manage, leading to more intricate code. = Learning Curve: Developers may require time and effort to grasp the concepts and intricacies of various data structures, which can result in a steeper learning curve for newcomers. Copyright © belongs to the Arjun Chy Ac 25 www.arjun00.com.np“Download from www.arjun00.com.np = Memory Overhead: Certain data structures, such as linked lists, may introduce additional memory overhead due to the need to store pointers or references alongside actual data. = Performance Trade-offs: Different data structures excel in different operations; choosing the wrong data structure for a specific task could lead to suboptimal performance or inefficient resource utilization. = Maintenance Challenges: As software evolves, maintaining and modifying code that uses complex data structures can be challenging, potentially leading to higher maintenance efforts and risk of introducing bugs. «Raster Format > Raster data represents images and spatial information as a grid of pixels. Each pixel contains a color or intensity value, and collectively, these pixels form a complete image. Raster data is commonly used for satellite imagery, aerial photographs, and digital elevation models. “* Advantages:- = Well-suited for representing continuous data like satellite imagery. = Can depict complex visual details and textures. “+ Disadvantages: = Can be memory-intensive for high-resolution images. = Scaling may result in loss of image quality. Copyright © belongs to the Arjun Chy Ac 26 www.arjun00.com.np“Download from www.arjun00.com.np “Vector Format > Vector data represents spatial information using geometric shapes like points, lines, and polygons. These elements are defined by their coordinates and attributes. Vector data is used for representing features like roads, boundaries, and points of interest. “> Advantages: = Compact representation, suitable for small file sizes. = Scalable without loss of quality. “Disadvantages: = May not capture fine visual details as effectively as raster. = Less suitable for representing continuous phenomena. Se. — > A projection system is a method used to portray the curved, three- dimensional surface of the Earth onto a flat, two-dimensional map. This process involves transforming geographical coordinates from the spherical Earth onto a coordinate system on a plane, causing some degree of distortion in properties like area, shape, distance, or direction. Different projection systems emphasize various aspects, making them suitable for specific mapping purposes. > The different Projection System are:- Copyright © belongs to the Arjun Chy AC 27. wwwarjun00.com.np“Download from www.arjun00.com.np Mercator Projection: This is a cylindrical projection that preserves straight lines and angles, making it useful for navigation. However, it distorts sizes and shapes as you move away from the equator, making high-latitude areas appear larger than they are. Robinson Projection: A compromise projection that attempts to balance size and shape distortions across the map. It provides a more visually pleasing representation of the entire world but still has distortions. Conic Projection: This projection places a cone over the Earth's surface, resulting in minimal distortion along the lines of latitude where the cone intersects. It's often used for mid-latitude regions and is good for mapping specific countries or regions. Azimuthal (Polar) Projection: This projection projects the Earth's surface onto a plane tangential to a point on the globe. It's best for representing areas around the poles with minimal distortion, but it distorts shapes and distances as you move away from the central point. = Equirectangular (Plate Carrée) Projection: This simple projection uses a rectangular grid, where meridians and parallels intersect at right angles. It distorts areas near the poles but preserves straight lines, making it useful for simple world maps or thematic maps. =" Goode's Homolosine Projection: An equal-area projection that minimizes distortion of area, but at the cost of shape distortion. It breaks up the map into segments, reducing distortion in most regions but interrupting the oceans. Each projection has its own strengths and weaknesses, and the choice of projection depends on the purpose of the map and the area being represented. Copyright © belongs to the Arjun Chy Ac 28 www.arjun00.com.np“Download from www.arjun00.com.np >» Remote sensing is the process of acquiring information about the Earth's surface or atmosphere from a distance, typically using sensors mounted on aircraft or satellites. It enables us to gather valuable data without direct physical contact. >The different elements of remote sensing include:- = Energy Source: This refers to the external source of energy, such as sunlight, that illuminates the Earth's surface. The energy interacts with objects on the surface and is either absorbed, reflected, or emitted. " Sensor: Sensors capture the energy that is reflected or emitted from the Earth's surface. These can be cameras, scanners, or other devices that detect different wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, such as visible light, infrared, or microwave. Platform: The platform is the vehicle or platform from which remote sensing data is collected. This can be satellites, airplanes, drones, or even ground- based stations. The choice of platform depends on the desired spatial resolution and coverage. Interaction with Earth's Surface: When energy from the source interacts with the Earth's surface, it gets modified based on the properties of the objects or features it encounters. Different materials reflect or emit energy in distinct ways, allowing us to identify and analyze them. = Transmission and Reception: The energy reflected or emitted from the Earth's surface is detected by sensors on the platform. This data is then transmitted to ground stations for processing and analysis. Copyright © belongs to the Arjun Chy Ac 29 www.arjun00.com.np“Download from www.arjun00.com.np = Data Analysis: Remote sensing data is processed to create images, maps, and various analyses. This involves correcting for atmospheric effects, applying enhancement techniques, and interpreting the data to extract meaningful information about the Earth's surface and its changes over time. = Interpretation: |nterpreting remote sensing data involves identifying and understanding the features, patterns, and changes present on the Earth's surface. This can range from identifying land cover types to monitoring environmental changes like deforestation or urban growth. Remote sensing plays a crucial role in various fields, including environmental monitoring, natural resource management, agriculture, urban planning, disaster response, and scientific research. ; - =) > Latitude: Latitude lines run horizontally around the Earth and measure the distance north or south of the equator. The equator itself is at O degrees latitude, and the North Pole is at 90 degrees north, while the South Pole is at 90 degrees south. > Longitude: Longitude lines run vertically from the North Pole to the South Pole and measure the distance east or west of the prime meridian, which runs through Greenwich, England. The prime meridian is at O degrees longitude, and it serves as the reference point for measuring all other longitudes. Copyright © belongs to the Arjun Chy AC 30. wwwarjun00.com.np“Download from www.arjun00.com.np > Spatial information encompasses a wealth of data that revolves around the intricate relationships and arrangements of objects, features, and phenomena within the expansive canvas of Earth's surface. It is, at its core, a digital manifestation of geography, offering insight into not just where things are, but how they fit together. This assortment of information ranges from the straightforward coordinates of latitude and longitude to more intricate datasets like topographical maps, satellite imagery, and layered geographic information systems (GIS). The significance of spatial information extends far and wide, underpinning a plethora of applications. Whether it's the development of accurate maps for navigation, the orchestration of urban planning initiatives, the surveillance of environmental shifts and alterations, or the investigation of scientific conundrums, spatial information is the fundamental cornerstone. Its importance lies in its ability to unravel the mysteries of patterns across geographical expanses, thus empowering individuals, industries, and governments to make educated choices, unravel complex relationships, and nurture a deeper comprehension of the Earth's multifaceted systems. Copyright © belongs to the Arjun Chy AC 31. wwwarjun00.com.np“Download from www.arjun00.com.np > Digitization in GIS involves converting maps or images into digital vector data for accurate spatial representation. It captures features and coordinates, enhancing data usability for effective decision- making. On-screen digitization, utilizing high-resolution imagery, ensures precise results. > Scanning methods are essential in GIS for converting analog paper maps into digital formats usable by computers. “There are two primary scanning approaches: 1. Black and White Raster Scanning © Process: This method captures maps with distinct black and white elements, resulting in binary images. Use: Suited for simple maps like contour lines or clear line drawings with well-defined boundaries. 2. Greyscale and Color Raster Scanning © Process: Maps with varying shades of grey or color are scanned to preserve nuances and details. ¢ Use: Effective for maps using color-coded information, such as terrain representation or thematic data. Scanning facilitates the integration of traditional maps into GIS databases, enabling advanced spatial analysis and visualization. The resulting raster images can undergo further processing and vectorization for more precise GIS representation. Copyright © belongs to the Arjun Chy Ac 32 www.arjun00.com.np“Download from www.arjun00.com.np SS > Spatial interpolation is a technique used in GIS to estimate values of a variable at un-sampled locations within a geographic area based on known values from nearby locations. It is valuable for creating continuous surfaces from discrete data points, aiding in visualizing and analyzing spatial patterns. > Local Interpolation involves estimating values of a variable based on nearby data points. This method assumes that values in close proximity are more similar. One common technique is Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW), which assigns weights to neighboring points inversely proportional to their distances. Kriging is another method that considers spatial correlation and variance between points, using statistical models to provide estimates. Local interpolation is suitable for areas with rapidly changing spatial patterns, as it prioritizes nearby data to create a detailed representation. > Global Interpolation takes the entire dataset into account to estimate values across the study area. Instead of focusing solely on nearby points, global methods consider broader trends and patterns. Trend Surface Analysis fits mathematical surfaces to data points, capturing overall trends. Regression Analysis estimates values based on relationships with other variables, often employing polynomial or exponential functions. Spline Interpolation creates smooth curves through data points, ensuring continuity and minimizing abrupt changes. Global interpolation methods are useful for capturing large- scale trends and creating a more comprehensive view of the entire area. Copyright © belongs to the Arjun Chy Ac 33 www.arjun00.com.np“Download from www.arjun00.com.np > A Digital Terrain Model (DTM) is a 3D depiction of the Earth's surface, composed of points with specified heights. It excludes objects like vegetation and buildings, focusing solely on terrain elevation. In some regions, "digital elevation model" is synonymous with DTM, but differences exist. In countries like the US, a DTM includes vector data with regularly spaced points and natural features, such as ridges and inflection lines. Essentially, a DTM is a digital representation of terrain, encompassing X, Y, Z coordinates. It incorporates heights, elevations, rivers, ridges, and more. Unlike a basic DEM, a DTM may include added elements like break lines for accuracy. As computing and 3D graphics advance, DTMss find extensive use in engineering, geography, and earth sciences, enhancing applications across various domains. “Advantages of DTM:- = Accuracy: Provides precise elevation data for analysis and planning. "= Visualization: Offers clear 3D visualizations of terrain features. = Engineering: Essential for engineering projects and site assessments. = Environmental Analysis: Supports flood modeling and ecosystem monitoring. = Integration: Can be combined with other data for comprehensive insights. = Urban Planning: Aids in designing urban infrastructure and land use. Copyright © belongs to the Arjun Chy AC 34. wwwarjun00.com.np“Download from www.arjun00.com.np “+ Disadvantages of DTM:- = Cost: Collecting high-quality data can be expensive. = Complex Processing: Requires specialized skills and software. = Resolution Limits: Accuracy depends on data resolution. = Excludes Objects: Omits vegetation, buildings, and other structures. = Data Errors: \naccuracies can arise from errors or artifacts. = Temporal Variation: Might not capture rapid terrain changes. > A Digital Elevation Model (DEM) is a digital representation of the Earth's terrain surface. It uses a grid of elevation values to depict the heights of different points on the landscape. DEMs are crucial for various applications, including topographic mapping, hydrological modeling, and landform analysis. They provide valuable insights into the shape and characteristics of the Earth's surface, aiding in understanding terrain features and making informed decisions in fields like urban planning, environmental assessment, and disaster management. = Advantages of DEM:-Precise terrain elevation data for diverse applications. " Disadvantages of DEM:- Limited attribute scope, variable accuracy. Copyright © belongs to the Arjun Chy Ac 35 www.arjun00.com.np“Download from www.arjun00.com.np 3D representation with natural || 3D representation primarily focused on features elevation Includes natural and artificial features Primarily includes elevation data Can be enhanced with additional elements Typically represents raw elevation values Useful for engineering and visualization Applied in mapping, modeling, and analysis Broader scope, includes various features Limited to elevation information Urban planning, site analysis, and more Hydrological modeling, landform analysis, etc. Not always synonymous with DEM Often used interchangeably with DEM > In a raster data model, multiple data planes refer to the organization of information using different layers or planes within a single raster dataset. Each plane holds distinct attributes or data types, enhancing the complexity and richness of the information stored. This approach is particularly advantageous when dealing with multidimensional data or scenarios that require capturing various characteristics of a phenomenon. Copyright © belongs to the Arjun Chy AC 36 www.arjun00.com.np“Download from www.arjun00.com.np For example, consider a satellite image dataset that includes multiple bands, each representing different wavelengths of light. These bands can be thought of as separate data planes, with each plane conveying specific information about vegetation, water bodies, urban areas, and more. This arrangement enables the creation of composite images by combining data from different planes, providing a more comprehensive understanding of the landscape. Multiple data planes accommodate diverse attributes within a single raster dataset, supporting sophisticated analyses and visualizations. This approach is crucial in applications such as remote sensing, where capturing various aspects of a scene—like temperature, elevation, and land cover—enables researchers to uncover deeper insights and correlations. However, managing and processing multiple data planes can be computationally intensive, requiring advanced tools and techniques for effective handling and interpretation. > In GIS, Input verification refers to the process of ensuring the accuracy and reliability of spatial and attributes data entered into the system. It involves validating geographic coordinates, attributes, and other data against predefined rules and criteria to detect errors, inconsistencies, or missing information. GIS input verification ensures that data conforms to specified formats, units, and ranges, preventing inaccuracies that could lead to faulty analyses or mapping. Copyright © belongs to the Arjun Chy AC 37. wwwarjun00.com.np“Download from www.arjun00.com.np This process includes checks for valid geometry, coordinate reference systems, and attribute values, along with providing timely feedback to users to correct any issues. Ultimately, input verification enhances the overall quality and integrity of GIS data, promoting reliable spatial analysis and decision-making. +» Advantages of Input Verification in GIS:- Data Accuracy: Ensures accurate and reliable spatial and attribute data, enhancing the credibility of GIS analyses. Quality Assurance: Minimizes errors, inconsistencies, and omissions, maintaining data integrity throughout its lifecycle. Informed Decision-Making: Reliable data inputs lead to accurate results, supporting well-informed decisions in various sectors. Efficiency: Detecting errors early reduces the need for corrective actions later, optimizing time and resources. User Confidence: Users can trust the GIS outputs, knowing that the data used in analyses has undergone rigorous validation. “Disadvantages of Input Verification in GIS:- Time and Resources: The verification process can be time-consuming, potentially slowing down data entry and processing. Complexity: Developing and implementing validation rules requires careful planning and understanding of data intricacies. User Training: Users need to be familiar with validation criteria and protocols, requiring training and awareness. Overly Restrictive: Overzealous validation rules might reject valid data, causing frustration for users. False Sense of Security: While verification minimizes errors, it does not eliminate the possibility of all inaccuracies. Copyright © belongs to the Arjun Chy Ac 38 www.arjun00.com.np“Download from www.arjun00.com.np b) Methods of data capture > Methods of Data Capture in GIS include various techniques for collecting and inputting geographic information into a digital format. One common method is Remote Sensing, which involves using satellite or aerial imagery to capture data about the Earth's surface. GPS is another vital technique, allowing accurate location data to be gathered using satellites and receivers. Surveys and Field Data Collection involve physically collecting data through on-site measurements and observations. Digitization converts analog maps and drawings into digital form, enabling them to be incorporated into a GIS. Scanning and Photogrammetry involve converting physical maps or images into digital format through scanning and analyzing aerial photos. Lastly, Crowdsourcing leverages data contributed by the public, often through mobile apps, to enhance GIS databases. These methods collectively facilitate the creation and maintenance of comprehensive and accurate GIS databases. > GPS (Global Positioning System) is a satellite based navigation system, which assists in providing the location and time information. The system developed by the United States' Department of Defense, uses between 24 and 32 Medium Earth Orbit satellite for the microwave signals for the precise information. The GPS provides the location and time information in any weather conditions, in any part of the world, for the entire day. Copyright © belongs to the Arjun Chy Ac 39 www.arjun00.com.np“Download from www.arjun00.com.np “Applications of GPS = The GPS was earlier used for the military purpose, but then it was released for the use by civilians, and since then, there have been multiple uses of the GPs. = The use of this is in Astronomy, Cartography, Automated Vehicles, Mobile phones, Fleet tracking, Geofencing, Geotagging, GPS Aircraft tracking, Disaster relief, Emergency services, Navigation of vehicles, Surveying, Robotics, Tectonics and in a lot more areas. = GPS has tremendous scope for the use in GIS data collection, surveying and mapping. “Types of GPS = A-GPS (Assisted GPS) - this type of GPS is used to speed up the start-up time of the GPS based positioning systems. The A-GPS would assist the receiver in getting a lock when the signal is weak. For this to work, though, a network connection is required in the mobile phone because the A-GPS uses the assistance server to get the lock. = S-GPS (Simultaneous GPS) - it is a method to enhance the satellite-based reporting ability to a network carrier. The S-GPS allows a cell phone to receive both GPS and Voice Data at the same time, thus improving the sensitivity and allowing the network providers to give services based on the location. Copyright © belongs to the Arjun Chy AC 40. wwwarjund0.com.np“Download from www.arjun00.com.np Geographical Information System ( DCOM ) 5%" Sem ( 2079 ) Question Paper Solution. Compile by © Arjun Chy Website :- www.arjun00.com.np Facebook :-www.facebook.com/Arjun00.com.np 1.Define GIS. write down its compenents and objectives. > GIS (Geographic Information System) is a computer-based technology used for collecting, managing, analyzing, and presenting spatial data, enabling the visualization and understanding of geographical patterns and relationships. >The Components of GIS:- = Hardware: Computers, servers, mobile devices, and GPS receivers used to collect, store, and process geographic data. = Software: GIS applications and tools for data manipulation, analysis, and visualization. Data: Geospatial data sets including maps, satellite images, and attribute data. Methods: Techniques for data collection, analysis, and interpretation. = People: Skilled individuals who design, operate, and use GIS systems. = Procedures: Workflows and protocols for data collection, processing, and analysis. Copyright © belongs to the Arjun Chy AC 41. wwwarjund0.com.np**Download from www.arjun00.com.np >The Objectives of GIS:- = Spatial Analysis: Analyze patterns, relationships, and trends in geographic data. = Decision Making: Support informed decisions by visualizing and analyzing spatial information. = Mapping: Create accurate maps for visualization and communication of geographic data. = Data Integration: Combine diverse data sources to gain comprehensive insights. = Problem Solving: Apply GIS techniques to address real-world challenges in various domains. = Resource Management: Optimize resource allocation and usage based on spatial insights. >The Applications of GIS are:- = Urban Planning: GIS is used to analyze land use patterns, infrastructure development, and zoning regulations for efficient urban growth and management. = Natural Resource Management: It helps in the sustainable management of forests, water bodies, agriculture, and fisheries by providing data for informed decision-making. Copyright © belongs to the Arjun Chy AC 42. wwwarjun00.com.np“Download from www.arjun00.com.np Disaster Management: GIS aids in disaster preparedness, response, and recovery by providing real-time data on affected areas, population density, and critical infrastructure. = Healthcare: GIS assists in disease mapping, healthcare facility location planning, and analyzing the spread of diseases to allocate resources effectively. = Environmental Conservation: \t is used to monitor ecological habitats, track wildlife movements, and assess the impact of climate change on ecosystems. Archaeology: GIS aids in site location analysis, cultural heritage preservation, and understanding historical landscapes. Business Intelligence: GIS helps businesses with location-based marketing, site selection, and analyzing customer demographics for targeted strategies. Agriculture: GIS is used for precision farming, crop yield prediction, soil analysis, and irrigation management. Criminal Justice: \t assists law enforcement agencies in crime mapping, hotspot analysis, and resource allocation for crime prevention. = Transportation: GIS helps optimize transportation networks, plan routes, and manage traffic flow for better mobility. > These are just a few examples of how GIS is applied across various domains to enhance decision-making and solve complex spatial problems. Copyright © belongs to the Arjun Chy AC 43° wwwarjun00.com.np“Download from www.arjun00.com.np » Geo-referencing is the procedure of assigning geographic information to a digital image, such as an aerial photograph or scanned map, so that it can be accurately positioned in its real-world context using GIS or mapping software. This involves identifying specific pixels in the image and associating them with corresponding geographic coordinates. Often, images without geographical data are aligned with images that already have embedded geographic information, like topographic maps or satellite imagery. This process typically requires specialized software like ArcGIS or remote sensing tools like ENVI. Geo-referencing is important for projects like Geo-Pads, where digital images of geologic maps from the National Geologic Map Database need to be accurately placed. The USGS offers an instructive tutorial on geo-referencing within ArcGIS, and similar principles apply to other software programs. > Scanning methods are essential in GIS for converting analog paper maps into digital formats usable by computers. “There are two primary scanning approaches: 1. Black and White Raster Scanning © Process: This method captures maps with distinct black and white elements, resulting in binary images. « Use: Suited for simple maps like contour lines or clear line drawings with well-defined boundaries. Copyright © belongs to the Arjun Chy AC 44° wwwarjun00.com.np“Download from www.arjun00.com.np 2.Greyscale and Color Raster Scanning © Process: Maps with varying shades of grey or color are scanned to preserve nuances and details. ¢ Use: Effective for maps using color-coded information, such as terrain representation or thematic data. Scanning facilitates the integration of traditional maps into GIS databases, enabling advanced spatial analysis and visualization. The resulting raster images can undergo further processing and vectorization for more precise GIS representation. > The concept of spatial information refers to data that conveys the geographical locations, arrangements, and relationships of objects, features, and phenomena on the Earth's surface or in geographic space. It encompasses both the geometric aspects (shapes, sizes, distances) and attribute details (information associated with locations) of spatial entities, providing a comprehensive understanding of the physical world. Spatial information is crucial in fields like cartography, geography, urban planning, and Geographic Information Systems (GIS), enabling analysis, visualization, and informed decision-making based on geographic patterns and interactions. Copyright © belongs to the Arjun Chy AC 45. wwwarjun00.com.np“Download from www.arjun00.com.np > A web-based GIS system is an online platform where users can access and interact with maps and geographic data using web browsers. It eliminates the need for specialized software installation. Data is stored on remote servers, accessible through the internet. This system enables collaborative work as multiple users can simultaneously access and manipulate maps from various locations. It's particularly valuable for organizations needing widespread geographic information sharing. Users can perform tasks like querying data, creating custom maps, and basic spatial analysis. Examples include ArcGIS Online and Google Maps, which simplify access to geospatial data for convenient and efficient engagement. “Advantages of Web-Based GIS:- = Accessibility: Can be used from any location with internet access. " Collaboration: Supports teamwork with real-time shared access. " Cost-Efficient: Reduces hardware and software requirements. = Widespread Sharing: Allows easy data sharing and dissemination. = Easy Updates: Centralized updates and maintenance. “Disadvantages of Web-Based GIS:- = Internet Dependence: Requires continuous internet connectivity. = Data Security: Raises concerns about data privacy and security. = Limited Offline Use: Functionality may be restricted offline. = Performance Issues: Large datasets might lead to slower performance. = Customization Constraints: Limited customization options compared to desktop GIS. Copyright © belongs to the Arjun Chy AC 46. wwwarjund0.com.np“Download from www.arjun00.com.np > A coordinate system is a framework used to specify locations on the Earth's surface or in space. It involves two main components: latitude and longitude. Latitude measures positions north or south of the equator, while longitude measures positions east or west of the prime meridian. These measurements, usually in degrees, create a grid that helps pinpoint precise locations. This system is crucial for navigation, mapping, and various applications that require accurate spatial referencing. “Longitude: > Longitudes are vertical lines measuring east-west positions on Earth. The prime meridian (0°) runs through Greenwich, UK, dividing longitudes into 180°E and 180°W. “Latitude: > Latitudes are horizontal lines measuring north-south positions. The equator (0°) separates latitudes into 90°N and 90°S. These concepts help pinpoint locations globally and are fundamental to navigation and mapping. Copyright © belongs to the Arjun Chy AC 47 wwwarjun00.com.np“Download from www.arjun00.com.np Grids = Longitude-Latitude Grid: Intersecting lines of longitude (vertical) and latitude (horizontal) form a global grid, enabling precise location identification on Earth's surface. = UTM Grid: Universal Transverse Mercator grid divides Earth into zones, using easting and northing coordinates for accurate positioning within smaller areas. Grids provide structured reference systems for navigation, mapping, and spatial analysis. > Vector overly Vs Raster overlay operations. Copyright © belongs to the Arjun Chy AC 48. wwwarjun00.com.np