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MODULAR TREATMENT APPROACH
FOR DRINKING WATER AND
WASTEWATER
This page intentionally left blank
 MODULAR
TREATMENT
APPROACH FOR
DRINKING
WATER AND
WASTEWATER
Edited by

Satinder Kaur Brar

Department of Civil Engineering, Lassonde School of Engineering, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada;
Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique, Centre-Eau Terre et Environnement, Québec, QC, Canada

Pratik Kumar
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Jammu, Jammu and Kashmir, India

Agnieszka Cuprys
Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
Elsevier
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Notices
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understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any
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ISBN: 978-0-323-85421-4

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 Contents

Contributors ix 4. Modular treatment approach for drinking

Preface xiii water and wastewater: introduction to a
sustainable approach to decentralized treatment
1. Introduction systems
RAHUL SAINI, CARLOS SAUL OSORIO-GONZALEZ, AND A. DALILA LARIOS-MARTÍNEZ,
SATINDER KAUR BRAR

CHRISTELL BARRALES-FERNANDEZ,
P. ELIZABETH ALVAREZ-CHAVEZ, CARLOS MÉNDEZ-CARRETO,
1.1 Introduction 1 FABIOLA SANDOVAL-SALAS, NORA RUIZ-COLORADO,
STÉPHANE GODBOUT, SÉBASTIEN FOURNEL, AND
References 9
ANTONIO AVALOS-RAMÍREZ

2. Characteristic of wastewater and drinking 4.1 Introduction 55

water treatment 4.2 Wastewater treatment 57
SABA MIRI, JAVAD GHANEI, AND SATINDER KAUR BRAR
4.3 Wastewater treatment operations 57
4.4 Modular wastewater treatment approaches 60
2.1 Introduction 13 4.5 Conclusions 64
2.2 Wastewater treatment infrastructure 14 References 64
2.3 Macropollutants in water and sludge 19 Further reading 66
2.4 Micropollutants in water and wastewater 21
2.5 Water quality parameters 26 5. Modular water treatment practice in cold
2.6 Bottlenecks and limitations of centralized drinking countries
water and wastewater treatment facilities 29 MOHAMMAD HOSSEIN KARIMI DARVANJOOGHI,
2.7 Conclusion 31 WASEEM RAJA, PRATIK KUMAR, SARA MAGDOULI, AND
References 31 SATINDER KAUR BRAR

3. Perspectives on the use of modular systems for 5.1 Introduction 67

organic micropollutants removal 5.2 Treatment units for modular drinking water
system 68
SEYYED MOHAMMADREZA DAVOODI,
5.3 Operational challenges of modular treatment systems
MOHAMMAD HOSSEIN KARIMI DARVANJOOGHI, AND
SATINDER KAUR BRAR in a cold country 76
5.4 Conclusion 77
3.1 Introduction to challenges related to removal of Acknowledgments 78
organic micropollutants and possible solutions 33 References 78
3.2 Organic micropollutants removal: current state of
art 40 6. Introduction to modular wastewater
3.3 Source-to-tap: Where to apply the new treatment system and its significance
modules? 47 ASHOK KUMAR GUPTA, ABHRADEEP MAJUMDER, AND
3.4 Conclusion 49 PARTHA SARATHI GHOSAL
Acknowledgments 49
References 49 6.1 Introduction 81

v
vi Contents

6.2 Wastewater and its components 82 9. Electrode-based reactors in modular

6.3 Conventional practices and associated challenges in wastewater treatment
wastewater treatment 88
GURUPRASAD V. TALEKAR
6.4 Prospect of modular wastewater treatment units in
developing countries 93
9.1 Introduction 149
6.5 Summary of findings 94
9.2 Electrooxidation 150
References 95
9.3 Electrochemical disinfection 157
9.4 CLASS (closed loop advanced sanitation
7. Phytoremediation as a modular approach for system) 161
greywater treatment 9.5 Conclusion 167
~
FERNANDO JORGE MAGALHAES FILHO (CORREA) AND References 167
PAULA PAULO (LOUREIRO)
10. A review on advanced biological systems for
7.1 Phytoremediation and constructed wetlands: a
modular wastewater treatment plants: process,
modular approach 107
7.2 Greywater as a main component of domestic application, and future in developing countries
wastewater 109 ASHOK KUMAR GUPTA, ABHRADEEP MAJUMDER, AND
7.3 Constructed wetlands as nature-based solutions for PARTHA SARATHI GHOSAL
greywater treatment 109
7.4 Case study: authors experience with constructed 10.1 Introduction 171
wetlands and greywater 113 10.2 Modular constructed wetland-based treatment
7.5 Challenges and perspectives 125 units 171
Acknowledgments 126 10.3 Modular membrane bioreactorebased treatment
References 126 units 178
10.4 Modular microbial fuel cellebased treatment
units 179
8. Design and principles of adsorbent-based 10.5 Other advanced modular biological wastewater
reactors for modular wastewater treatment treatment units 180
M. CHAUDHARY, N. JAIN, L. BARMAN, AND G.D. BHOWMICK 10.6 Evaluation of the performance of modular treatment
units 184
8.1 Introduction 129 References 185
8.2 Adsorbent-based reactors 130
8.3 Flow direction and the extent of adsorption 133 11. A life cycle assessment perspective to
8.4 Adsorbents used in adsorption-based reactors 134
conventional and modular wastewater treatment
8.5 Principle of adsorption and its mechanism 134
8.6 Design of multifunctional adsorbents 137 BIKASH R. TIWARI AND SATINDER KAUR BRAR
8.7 Decentralized/modular treatment systems: need,
significance, and case studies 138 11.1 Introduction 187
8.8 Challenges and future perspectives 142 11.2 Life cycle phases 188
8.9 Conclusion 143 11.3 LCA of modular wastewater treatment systems 194
References 143 11.4 Case studies centralized versus decentralized 198
Further reading 148 References 202
 Contents vii
12. Concept of bioproduct recovery in relation References 261
to the modular treatment Further reading 264
CARLOS SAUL OSORIO-GONZALEZ, JOSEPH SEBASTIAN,
SATINDER KAUR BRAR, AND ANTONIO AVALOS-RAMÍREZ 15. Role of membrane filtration in modular
drinking water treatment system
12.1 Introduction 207 PRITHA CHATTERJEE, UBHAT ALI, AND PRATIK KUMAR
12.2 Sludge-to-energy concept 208
12.3 Biodiesel production 210 15.1 Introduction 267
12.4 Biogas generation 212 15.2 Types of membrane systems 268
12.5 Biofertilizers 216 15.3 Modular design: a membrane technology aspects for
12.6 Conclusion 220 drinking water treatment 270
Acknowledgment 220 15.4 State of the art: application of the membrane
References 220 treatment systems 271
15.5 Case studies 276
13. Introduction to modular drinking water 15.6 Conclusions 277
treatment system Acknowledgment 277
KAIVALYA KULKARNI, WASEEM RAJA, AND PRATIK KUMAR
References 277
Further reading 279
13.1 Introduction 225
13.2 Modular drinking water treatment systems: 16. Modular drinking water systems: chemical
advantages 226 treatment perspective
13.3 Challenges in setting up modular drinking water PRATISHTHA KHURANA, RAMA PULICHARLA, AND
treatment systems 227 SATINDER KAUR BRAR
13.4 Factors affecting selection of modular drinking water
treatment systems 227 16.1 Introduction 281
13.5 Design considerations for modular drinking water 16.2 Community drinking water treatment 282
treatment systems 228 16.3 The chlorination process 283
13.6 Conclusion 236 16.4 Chlorination by-products 289
References 236 16.5 Advanced chemical methods 290
Further reading 237 16.6 Challenges and future outlooks 298
16.7 Conclusion 299
14. Role and importance of filtration system in References 299
modular drinking water treatment system
17. Modular drinking water treatment system
KAMALPREET KAUR BRAR, HAYAT RAZA, SARA MAGDOULI,
AND SATINDER KAUR BRAR using ozonation and UV
XUHAN SHU, PRATIK KUMAR, AND SATINDER KAUR BRAR
14.1 Introduction 239
14.2 Commercialized MDWTS 240 17.1 Ozonation drinking water treatment system
14.3 Case studies 242 (DWTS): a modular approach principle of
14.4 Ultrastructure of filter vessel and important steps to ozonation 303
be followed for efficient functioning in 17.2 UV-based treatment of drinking water sources: a
MDWTS 245 modular approach principle of a UV light 307
14.5 Basic sizing formula and example of filter 17.3 Current benefit and possible challenges to provide
media 247 solution for a smaller community 311
14.6 Role of passive filter media to design a novel 17.4 Case study and future perspective for the modular
MDWTS 249 water treatment system 314
14.7 Microbiological aspect of drinking water 256 17.5 Conclusion 315
14.8 Conclusion 261 References 316
viii Contents

18. Application of solar energy in modular 19. Life cycle assessment drinking water supply
drinking water treatment and treatment systems
PRATIK KUMAR, AGNIESZKA CUPRYS, AND VR SANKAR CHEELA, UBHAT ALI, PRATIK KUMAR, AND
SATINDER KAUR BRAR BRAJESH K. DUBEY

18.1 Introduction 319 19.1 Introduction 335

18.2 Solar energy used for desalination purpose 320 19.2 Case study 338
18.3 Disinfection of drinking water using solar energy: 19.3 Review of LCA studies in water sector 342
solar disinfection 326 19.4 Summary 348
18.4 Conclusion 332 Acknowledgment 348
Acknowledgments 332 References 348
References 332
Index 351
 Contributors
Ubhat Ali Department of Civil Engineering, Indian
Institute of Technology Jammu, Jammu and
Kashmir, India
P. Elizabeth Alvarez-Chavez Research and Devel-
opment Institute for the Agri-Environment
(IRDA), Québec, QC, Canada; Département des
sols et de génie agroalimentaire, Faculté des sci-
ences de l’agriculture et de l’alimentation, Univer-
sité Laval, Quebec, QC, Canada
Antonio Avalos-Ramírez Institut National de la
Recherche Scientifique - Centre Eau Terre Environ-
nement, Université du Québec, Québec, QC,


Canada; Centre National en Electrochimie et en
Technologies Environnementales, Shawinigan,
QC, Canada
L. Barman Agricultural and Food Engineering
Department, Indian Institute of Technology
Kharagpur, Kharagpur, West Bengal, India
Christell Barrales-Fern
andez Tecnol
ogico Nacional
de México/ITS de Perote, Perote, Veracruz, México
G.D. Bhowmick Agricultural and Food Engineering
Department, Indian Institute of Technology
Kharagpur, Kharagpur, West Bengal, India
Kamalpreet Kaur Brar Department of Civil Engi-
neering, Lassonde School of Engineering, York Uni-
versity, Toronto, ON, Canada; Centre
Technologique des Résidus Industriels en Abitibi
Témiscamingue, Rouyn-Noranda, QC, Canada
Satinder Kaur Brar Department of Civil Engineer-
ing, Lassonde School of Engineering, York Univer-
sity, Toronto, ON, Canada; Institut National de la
Recherche Scientifique - Centre Eau Terre Environ-
nement, Québec, QC, Canada
Pritha Chatterjee Department of Civil Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad, Hydera-
bad, Telangana, India
ix
M. Chaudhary Department of Desalination and Wa-
ter Treatment, Zuckerberg Institute for Water
Research, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev,
Beer-Sheba, Israel
VR Sankar Cheela Environmental Engineering and
Management, Department of Civil Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharag-
pur, West Bengal, India
Agnieszka Cuprys Norwegian University of Life
Sciences, Ås, Norway
Seyyed Mohammadreza Davoodi Department of
Civil Engineering, Lassonde School of Engineering,
York University, Toronto, ON, Canada; Institut
National de la Recherche Scientifique - Centre-
Eau, Terre Environnement, Québec, QC, Canada
Brajesh K. Dubey Environmental Engineering and
Management, Department of Civil Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharag-
pur, West Bengal, India
Sébastien Fournel Département des sols et de génie
agroalimentaire, Faculté des sciences de l’agricul-
ture et de l’alimentation, Université Laval, Quebec,
QC, Canada
Javad Ghanei Department of Civil Engineering,
Lassonde School of Engineering, York University,
Toronto, ON, Canada
Partha Sarathi Ghosal School of Water Resources,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharag-
pur, West Bengal, India
Stéphane Godbout Research and Development
Institute for the Agri-Environment (IRDA), Québec,
QC, Canada
Ashok Kumar Gupta Environmental Engineering
Division, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian
Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur,
West Bengal, India
x Contributors
N. Jain Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee,
Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India
Mohammad Hossein Karimi Darvanjooghi Depart-
ment of Civil Engineering, Lassonde School of
Engineering, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada
Pratishtha Khurana Department of Civil Engineer-
ing, Lassonde School of Engineering, York Univer-
sity, Toronto, ON, Canada
Kaivalya Kulkarni The Municipal Infrastructure
Group, Civil EIT - Water Linear, Toronto, ON,
Canada
Pratik Kumar Department of Civil Engineering, In-
dian Institute of Technology Jammu, Jammu and
Kashmir, India
A. Dalila Larios-Martínez Research and Develop-
ment Institute for the Agri-Environment (IRDA),
Québec, QC, Canada; Tecnol
ogico Nacional de
México/ITS de Perote, Perote, Veracruz, México
Fernando Jorge Magalh~aes Filho (Correa) CNPq
Research Productivity Fellow (National Scientific
Research Council), Brasília, DF, Brazil; PhD in Envi-
ronmental Sanitation and Water Resources (UFMS),
Campo Grande, MS, Brazil; Specialist in Project
Management (USP), Piracicaba, SP, Brazil; Postdoc-
torate (UFMS), Brazil and period at Aarhus Univer-
sity, Denmark and Technological University of
Pereira, Aarhus and Colombia, Denmark
Sara Magdouli Department of Civil Engineering,
Lassonde School of Engineering, York University,
Toronto, ON, Canada; Centre Technologique des
Résidus Industriels en Abitibi Témiscamingue,
Rouyn-Noranda, QC, Canada
Abhradeep Majumder School of Environmental
Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Tech-
nology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, West Bengal, India
Carlos Méndez-Carreto Tecnol
ogico Nacional de
México/ITS de Perote, Perote, Veracruz, México
Saba Miri Department of Civil Engineering,
Lassonde School of Engineering, York University,
Toronto, ON, Canada; Institut National de la
Recherche Scientifique - Centre-Eau Terre Environ-
nement, Québec, QC, Canada
Carlos Saul Osorio-Gonzalez Department of Civil
Engineering, Lassonde School of Engineering,
York University, Toronto, ON, Canada
Paula Paulo (Loureiro) Dom Bosco Catholic Univer-
sity, Campo Grande, MS, Brazil; PhD in Environ-
mental Sciences (WUR), Delft and Wageningen,
Netherlands; Specialist in Resource-Oriented Sani-
tation (SIDA), Stockholm, Sweden; Postdoctorate
(WUR and TU Delft), Delft and Wageningen,
Netherlands; Federal University of Mato Grosso
do Sul (UFMS), Campo Grande, MS, Brazil
Rama Pulicharla Department of Civil Engineering,
Lassonde School of Engineering, York University,
Toronto, ON, Canada
Waseem Raja Department of Civil Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology Jammu, Jammu
and Kashmir, India
Hayat Raza Continental Carbon Group, Inc., Stoney
Creek, ON, Canada
Nora Ruiz-Colorado Tecnol
ogico Nacional de
México/ITS de Perote, Perote, Veracruz, México
Rahul Saini Department of Civil Engineering, Las-
sonde School of Engineering, York University,
Toronto, ON, Canada
Fabiola Sandoval-Salas Tecnol
ogico Nacional de
México/ITS de Perote, Perote, Veracruz, México
Joseph Sebastian Institut National de la Recherche
Scientifique - Centre Eau Terre Environnement,
Université du Québec, Québec, QC, Canada
Xuhan Shu Department of Civil Engineering, Las-
sonde School of Engineering, York University,
Toronto, ON, Canada
Guruprasad V. Talekar Research Associate,
Applied Environmental Biotechnology Laboratory,
Department of Biological Sciences, Birla Institute
of Technology and Science, K K Birla Goa Campus,
Goa, India
Bikash R. Tiwari Institut National de la Recherche
Scientifique - Centre Eau Terre Environnement,
Université du Québec, Quebec, QC, Canada
 Preface
Early wastewater treatment plants during the
Roman period were primary conduits carrying
dirty water, which changed in the late 19th and
early 20th century with the construction of
centralized sewage treatment. As environmental
quality became a key preoccupation in the mid-
20th century, the treatment systems became
more complex and larger in size. With the pas-
sage of time, the technological, climatic, and
demographic changes started affecting the per-
formance of “centralized” urban water and
wastewater treatment plants. Hence, a higher
water quality and demand management necessi-
tate the requirement of a novel approach for wa-
ter treatment plant design. The modular systems
came to the rescue as they allow a flexible,
sustainable, and cost-effective water treatment
service and operation. Such modular or decen-
tralized water treatment system provides porta-
bility features, such as low footprint, and is
amazingly effective for the development of the
infrastructure that requires less engineering by
adapting to the existing space.
The purpose of this book is to present the
modern approach of tackling the problem of
high-quality water and wastewater treatment
demand. The modular strategy allows the
customized retrofit solution to constantly chang-
ing parameters of the urban water that is to be
treated. The advanced treatment modules can
be added or removed, depending on the current
demand and requirements. The application of
xi
modular water/wastewater treatment can be
remarkably successful for nontransient, noncom-
munity water systems, housing developments,
day care centers, schools, industries and parks,
manufacturing facilities, as well as environ-
mental remediation. Hence, this book is
intended to keep the global research community,
practitioners, industrialists, and young water
professionals up to date with the current trend
in this emerging field of modular water and
wastewater treatment systems.
This book summarizes the principles of
modular design (Chapters 1e4), as well as the
current developments and perspectives
regarding the usage of the modular approach
in a cold climate (Chapter 5). It introduces the
modular approach in urban water treatment.
The novel and up-to-date review of wastewater
(Chapter 6e12) and drinking water (Chapter
13e19) treatment methods with incorporated
modular strategy is presented. The life cycle as-
sessments of water treatment plants as well as
the perspectives of modular treatment usage
are explained.
We gratefully appreciate the hard work and
patience of all contributing authors of this
book. The views or opinions expressed in each
chapter of this book are those of the authors
and should not be interpreted as opinions of
their affiliated organizations.
The Editors
This page intentionally left blank
 C H A P T E R
1
Introduction
Rahul Saini, Carlos Saul Osorio-Gonzalez, Satinder Kaur Brar
Department of Civil Engineering, Lassonde School of Engineering, York University, Toronto,
ON, Canada
1.1 Introduction
The water sector around the world has faced
many challenges regarding its management.
However, a specific emphasis has been observed
in urban water systems including drinking and
wastewater systems. Water is one of the essential
elements for sustaining quality of city life, liveli-
hoods, and urban economy. In general, water
management involves meeting regulatory
criteria for safe drinking water, storage, treat-
ment, wastewater discharge, drainage, and
collection of stormwater to decrease risks of ur-
ban flooding. The current policies to water man-
agement have well served in terms of public
safety, economic development, and public health
(Meli
an, 2020). However, increasing impact of
climate change, urbanization, strained ecosys-
tems, and high energy requirements on water
quantity and quality are becoming apparent
and more visible. Fig. 1.1 shows the benefits of
sustainable and integrated water management.
Basically, the concept of sustainable water man-
agement includes the environmental, hydrologi-
cal, ecological, and social integrity of water
systems in the present and long-term future.
However, because of the sustainable water man-
agement works with the above factors, it is
Modular Treatment Approach for Drinking Water and Wastewater
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85421-4.00016-4
necessary to include multidisciplinary objec-
tives, process, and participatory agents with
the aim to manage, develop, and improve the
water systems (Haasnoot et al., 2011). In this
sense, the sustainable water management con-
siders the drinking and tap water as a funda-
mental for the human well-being, while
promoting the healthy communities by creating
the resilient environment.
Over the past decade, resource recovery tech-
nologies from wastewater have been extensively
studied as a potential alternative, used mainly to
help in resolving the problem of water scarcity.
However, the current problem of this type of
technologies is that a large-scale implementation
is still lacking. However, to talk about water
management can be a hard topic because of the
wide application of water and its differences in
specific application. Additionally, well-being of
humanity depends on the availability of drink-
ing water, which directly related to the food pro-
duction and wastewater treatment (EL-Nwsany
et al., 2019). Drinking water supplies as well as
stormwater disposal systems have been a
massive challenge in all the places highly popu-
lated (10 millions). The main concerns sur-
rounding this situation are the fast
urbanization, which has largely surpassed most
1 © 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
2 1. Introduction
FIGURE 1.1 Illustration of benefits of sustainable water management.
of the used systems, but especially developing
countries are the ones that have suffered the
most due to this (Biswas, 2006).
On the other hand, agriculture sectors require
at least 70% of ground water for irrigation.
Nevertheless, this percentage could increase
rapidly with the time because of the increasing
population as well as field irrigation and distri-
bution losses (Chartzoulakis and Bertaki, 2015).
Finally, wastewater system plays a critical role
in water management. Conventionally, the goal
of wastewater treatment is to protect the ecolog-
ical user life and ecosystem integrity. Neverthe-
less, each of the systems can work as whole
system but with different approaches and
several applications directly or indirectly ob-
tained from each system. For instance, storm-
water recovered can be used on urban
gardening and carwash establishments, among
others.
So far, the major research development has
been focused on wastewater systems to remove
toxic compounds and in a best exploitation and
maximum production of high value-added
products. Furthermore, one of the main aims of
wastewater system is to remove the pollutants
such as heavy metals, phosphorus, sulfur, nitro-
gen, or pathogens (Verstraete et al., 2009). As
mentioned before all water systems have
different characteristics, applications, and tech-
nologies. In this sense, the modular treatment
concept can be a potential alternative to improve
its efficiency from the point of view of approach-
ability to improve, replace, update, or change the
equipment without changing the entire system
due the freedom it brings to each stage of the
process of the system. For example, one of the
most used technologies in wastewater treatment
systems is an anaerobic digestion where the
microorganism consumes the organic content
from wastewater. This type of process could be
a good example to use a modular concept
because for instance with base on wastewater
characteristics two or more types of anaerobic
reactor can be adaptable for the entire process
(Verstraete and Vlaeminck, 2011). The above
facts and statements drive the necessity to
develop the sustainable technology with a
modular concept as a resource to have a better
water management as well as a high recovery
and production of value-added compounds
low energy requirement and low or no impact
on environment with a circular resource flow
that can contribute to increase the sustainable
development goals (Guest et al., 2009; Ma
et al., 2013).
 1.1 Introduction
The present chapter focuses on the current sta-
tus of urban water management including stan-
dards and guidelines. Issues regarding
wastewater treatment and sustainability such
as energy requirement, nutrient recovery, water
quality monitoring, and modular modeling
have been discussed in this chapter.
1.1.1 Urban water management: current
state of the art
Urban water management includes managing
multiple parameters such as water storage, treat-
ment, collection, discharge, industrial effluents,
wastewater treatment, and storm water collec-
tion. In general, urban water management re-
quires the holistic approach for performance
assessment of water sustainability by including
the multiple parameters and criteria including
wastewater management, storm water manage-
ment, and water demand management. Fig. 1.2
represents the different aspects of urban water
management for sustainable use of water. It
can also be characterized by urban water cycle,
which includes the water stream flow around
the environment.
FIGURE 1.2 The concept of urban water management for sustainable use of water has been illustrated.
3
1.1.1.1 Wastewater management
The history behind of wastewater manage-
ment is interesting in terms of all steps that are
involved before obtaining the final product that
basically is to remove certain compounds that
come from human hygiene, food, pharmaceu-
tical, and industrial activities. Furthermore, in
addition to the previous sources in some coun-
tries, the stormwater is also included into the
wastewater system. However, these actions
depend on the structure that each location pos-
sesses that is closely related to the water direc-
tions they hold (Lofrano and Brown, 2010).
Over the last century, significant changes have
been made to the guidelines and legislation on
wastewater management to further increase the
pollution control and decrease the impact on
ecosystem. These changes start with the Eight
Report created by the Royal Commission on
Sewage and Disposal in 1912, when for the first
time, the inclusion of biochemical oxygen de-
mand (BOD) standard protocol was applied in
wastewater effluents. After that, a cascade of
new technologies, standard protocols, and
different systems were developed, tested, certi-
fied, and patented. However, all this developed
4 1. Introduction
knowledge has been evolved through the time in
different manners and different routes and every
time each process began to be more specific in
the direction of wastewater characteristics and
concerning to the obtained products as an added
value of the entire process (Brown and Lofrano,
2015; Hellweger, 2015; Villarín and Merel,
2020). Currently, a new concept to have a better
exploitation and reliability of wastewater treat-
ment process has been raised during the last de-
cades. The main attribute that the modular
system offers to the wastewater management
process and specially in wastewater treatment
plants is a high independence among all steps
without disturbing the entire process flow.
1.1.1.2 Storm water management
The constant and growing urbanization
derived from the imminent growth population
around the world has undesirable effects in the
natural water cycle because the hydrological cy-
cle is disturbed by artificial paths mainly con-
structed by concrete with low filtration
capacity. The above fact affects the water perme-
ability to the groundwater, which has given a
way to a new paradigm regarding the treatment
of the stormwater management process during
the last decades (Khadka et al., 2020). The new
paradigm has not been focused on nature-
based solutions such as in situ reuse, infiltration,
and storage. Nevertheless, the above solutions
have been addressed using different
processes such as green roofs, permeable con-
crete, bio-retention cells, or rain gardens. All
these technologies are contemplated through
different approaches such as water-sensitive ur-
ban designs (WSUDs), low-impact development
(LID), low-impact urban design and develop-
ment (LIUDD), integrated urban water manage-
ment (IUWM), or sustainable urban drainage
systems (SUDS), among others. All these ap-
proaches are designed in a specific way and ac-
cording to the necessities of each place around
the world in which they are implemented
(Fletcher et al., 2015). Although, the use of the
technologies mentioned above shows three
considerable limitations in the moment of its
development and application. Firstly, they
cannot be used in all the urban places, for
instance, the green roofs only can be used in
some buildings or houses that were designed
with this purpose; secondly, most of them have
a high investment cost and maintenance, and
thirdly, the efficacy in terms of water recovery
and management is relatively low, which com-
plicates its use and application on a large scale.
Besides, once the stormwater has been recov-
ered, most of it is discharged into the conven-
tional drainage system (Saraswat et al., 2016).
So far, the research has been focused to develop
more suitable, efficient, and affordable technolo-
gies with low investment and maintenance costs.
In this sense, the modular treatment concept rep-
resents a great opportunity to create a potential
process that can contribute to solve above chal-
lenges in the sector of stormwater management.
1.1.1.3 Water demand management
The water demand in urban regions has been
increased due to population burst and economic
activities. Derived from the two above situa-
tions, the water demand has been faced chal-
lenges such as enough sources to provide
quality water, water availability, increase de-
mand from the final users, as well as process fac-
tors like high energy demand, high operation,
and maintenance cost. Likewise, another critical
factor is related to the environment and most
specifically to climate change because the
anthropogenic activities disrupt the water cycle
causing changes in raining frequency, period-
icity, as well as the intensity (Da-ping et al.,
2011; Mishra et al., 2020). So far, most of the
developed studies have been focused to generate
models that include environmental and anthro-
pogenic factors. Additionally, both factors func-
tion as a socio-economical characteristics and
water demand at the site where the model has
 1.1 Introduction
been limitedly applied or will be applied. Never-
theless, these models do not consider a drastic
changes in landscape, land use, and urban devel-
opment, as well as extreme climatic events that
may occur over time (Moazeni and Khazaei,
2021; Sanchez et al., 2020). On another hand, to
face the operational and process challenges, the
modular system concept can be a suitable alter-
native to improve the entire water supply pro-
cess through a fast update of the old
technology, easy maintenance, and substitution
of some equipment in specific steps of the pro-
cess, as well as offer alternatives to increase the
water management on specific approaches such
as quality control that is one of the most impor-
tant parameters to consider.
In summary, the management seeks to eval-
uate the impact of urbanization on water cycles.
It requires an understanding the natural, prede-
velopment, and postdevelopment water balance.
Similarly, Sustainable Water Management Im-
proves Tomorrow’s Cities Health (SWITCH) is
a research program funded by European Union
(EU) in 2006 to facilitate modified concepts in ur-
ban water management (Howe et al., 2011). The
SWITCH framework has funded in four charac-
teristics: (i) interactive institutional action that in-
cludes urban water bodies and water cycle, (ii)
foresee the effect of urbanization through
learning alliance approach, (iii) a long-term strat-
egy development for sustainable urban water
management, and (iv) an efficient development
of storm water, wastewater, and urban water
management systems. Finally, the framework
considers all the aspects of the urban water sys-
tem in the cities as well as its modification with
respect to the changes that can happen in the
future time. Likewise, the framework makes
and emphasizes on the used technologies and
their robustness, including the sustainability
concept all the time. Nevertheless, around the
world, each country and each city have their
own programs or can follow some of the interna-
tional protocols that may vary widely between
them.
5
1.1.2 International conventions,
guidelines, and agreements
According to the United Nations (UN), com-
mittee on cultural rights, social, and economic is-
sues right to water statement, based on Article 11
and 12 of the International Covenant; everyone
has the right to get the highest attainable stan-
dard of mental and physical health. Currently,
two international global water conventions are
active (Belinskij et al., 2020); the first one is the
convention on the use and protection of interna-
tional lakes and transboundary watercourses
published in 1992, and the second one is the
convention on international watercourses for its
nonnavigational use published in 1997. Howev-
er, whatever the international guidelines or pro-
tocols are implemented, they share three main
principles regarding utilization, protection, and
sharing the watercourse. Table 1.1 show the
three principles and their main characteristics.
However, although the water management
guidelines follow the three previous principles,
there are still several challenges that need to be
considered for the development and implemen-
tation of models for the improvement of water
management systems (drinking water, storm-
water, and wastewater). And mention how
modular system/technologies will help (five to
six sentences).
1.1.3 Tackling the problem: sustainable
water treatment
There is no denying the fact that water scar-
city has been a foremost problem all over the
world. Moreover, overpopulation, climate
change, pollution of coastal regions, and aquifers
are continuously affecting the accessibility to suf-
ficient quality water (Zhou et al., 2020). In gen-
eral, toxic wastewater or sewage must be
treated before being discharged or reuse. There
are several pollutants which should be removed
or treated as they affect both natural environ-
ment and human beings. These compounds
6 1. Introduction

TABLE 1.1 Demonstrate the principles to use international waterways.

Principles

Reasonable and equitable utilization No-harm rule (UNECE, 2013) Cooperation rule (Belinskij et al., 2020)

The principle states that international
watercourse must be developed and
utilized in reasonable and equitable
manner to achieve sustainable use and
equal benefit through-out the place. In
addition, several other factors should
also be considered before taking the
decisions on water utilization such as
economic and social need, and the effect
of water use on another state or area.
According to no-harm rule principle,
authorities should take appropriate or
strict measures to prevent the harm or
damage to watercourses. For instance,
state can pass the legislation to prevent
to harmful or illegal activities in its
territory.
The principle aims to increase the
cooperation between two watercourse
sharing parties to achieve the principles
of no-harm rule and equitable utilization.
According to the rule, states sharing the
international waters must cooperate for
sovereign equality. It can also include the
joint monitoring, sharing information on
current and future uses, and alarm
procedures.

when discharged in aquatic system results in in-
crease organic load, which further leads to eutro-
phication. Similarly, hormonal disruptors are
another group of pollutants that pose huge
health risk to animals and humans such bisphe-
nol A, pesticides, and several bleaching agents


(Alvarez-Ruiz and Pic
o, 2020). In general, water
treatment methods include several techniques
such as physical, biological, and chemical
methods. These treatments are designed in-
order to achieve different levels of contaminant
removal. Briefly, the physical treatment involves
the screening to remove solids, large plastics,
and grit by sedimentation. The biological
methods mainly remove heavy metals, organic
load, nitrogen, and phosphorus from the waste-
water and sludge using technologies such as
trickling filters, rotating biological contactors,
anaerobic digestion, activated sludge process,
aerated lagoons, and pond stabilization. Finally,
the treated water effluent goes through
advanced treatment systems where pathogens,
viruses, and other bacteria are removed before
discharging into the environment (Osorio-
Gonz
alez et al., 2018). In this sense, the concept
of modular system can be a good alternative
helping to treat the wastewater generated from
the different sources. The main advantage of
modular concept is the independence that can
provide to each system as well as its specificity
for each process. Furthermore, the modular
treatment has the flexibility to use separate mod-
ules or semi-interconnected systems that can be
used as a partial treatment in the same place
where the water facilities are placed. Addition-
ally, modular system offers a wide variety of
adaptability to obtain several by-products such
as bioenergy, biofertilizer, nutrient recovery,
and many more. Further, a widely and detailed
discussion about the application of modular
concept as a potential alternative to improve
the water management will be performed in
the next chapters.
1.1.3.1 Low-grade energy
It has been approximated that global energy
demand would increase by 50% from 2010 to
2040. Hence, it drives the need to design the en-
ergy efficient treatment and recovery process.
The wastewater treatment currently consumed
w4% of total energy consumption in the United
States and the United Kingdom (Xu et al., 2015;
Oh et al., 2010). Approximately, 17.8 kJ/g chem-
ical oxygen demand (COD) is present in munic-
ipal wastewater, which is five times higher than
the energy required for the activated sludge pro-
cess (Heidrich et al., 2011; Wan et al., 2016).
Although, significant amount of COD-based en-
ergy is generally lost during microbial meta-
bolism (Frijns et al., 2013). In the United States
 1.1 Introduction
and Europe, more than 12 plants have been re-
ported to achieve >90% of self-sufficiency en-
ergy (Gu et al., 2017). On the other hand,
methane recovery from anaerobic process could
provide 30%e50% of energy required during
wastewater treatment (McCarty et al., 2011). In
addition, if recovered energy from the process
is used in the same or other process can be a po-
tential alternative to decrease the carbon finger-
print or in some cases it neutrality could be
achieved (Hao et al., 2015).
1.1.3.2 Nutrient recovery
In general, fraction of phosphorus and nitro-
gen applied as a fertilizer in agriculture ends
up in the wastewater plant (Daigger, 2009). It
was estimated that fertilizers account for >1%
of greenhouse gas emission, while 90% of the
emission comes from ammonium fertilizer pro-
duction (Sheik et al., 2014). In addition, ammonia
fertilizer is known to require high input energy
during its production stage, which then requires
a large amount of energy to undergo nitrification
and denitrification procedure. Hence, ammonia
recovery would be an option to save energy
only if it is done with lower energy than its pro-
duction stage (Daigger, 2009). Similarly, the re-
covery of phosphorus also holds importance as
its finite resource, which will soon be exhausted.
It generally enters the wastewater from indus-
trial effluents, detergents, and fecal matter (Xie
et al., 2016). If the phosphorus is not removed,
it can end up in water bodies and ultimately
affect the ecological integrity (Cordell et al.,
2009). The several technologies are available for
nutrient recovery such as bio-electrochemical re-
covery, crystallization, reversible adsorption,
electrodialysis, bio-drying, ammonia stripping,
alkaline humic acid recovery, and membrane
distillation (Kehrein et al., 2020). However,
nutrient recovery procedure generally affected
by lower concentration of nutrients present in
the wastewater effluent; hence, few should be
considered the nutrient accumulation or magni-
fication by physical, chemical, or biological
7
means, the release of concentrated nutrients or
the extraction of these concentrated nutrients
by chemical or physical methods. Nevertheless,
modular treatment allows to develop the model
that can not only remove excess of nutrient such
nitrogen, sulfur, or phosphorus from the water
but can also reuse these extracted nutrients to
grow forest trees as well as biofertilizers to in-
crease the crop growth.
1.1.3.3 Sensing and monitoring
Water such as wetlands, streams, coasts,
rivers, and estuaries are the most important
sources of water for life, while most of them
are polluted in most of the countries (Jiang
et al., 2020). Hence, sensing and monitoring
would allow the people to understand, improve,
and protect the aquatic life and water quality by
developing standards and management prac-
tices. For instance, water quality monitoring
network is designed for protecting and manag-
ing the water environment by collecting the in-
formation on states of water systems.
Researchers have made immense efforts to
further improve the monitoring network such
as budget requirement, sampling frequency
and duration, site selection, quality indicators,
and many more (Behmel et al., 2016; Shi et al.,
2018). In addition, World Health Organization
(WHO) and environmental protection agencies
such as USEPA, EPA, and EUEPA have pub-
lished guidelines on monitoring activities and
have been reviewed elsewhere (Behmel et al.,
2016; Loo et al., 2012; Watkinson, 2000; Zhang
et al., 2011). Water monitoring has evolved
from lab-scale analysis to on-site monitoring
and in-situ sensor-based monitoring, that helps
in great manner to obtain a high knowledge
“in real time”, which contributes to develop
and adjust the water process management. Be-
sides, the biosensor technology contributes to a
sustainable development mainly in places where
the water management has limitations related to
infrastructure, that generate a high impact into
the society (Viviano et al., 2014). Pollutant
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