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Rheology
Concept, Methods, and Applications
4th Edition

Prof. Dr. Alexander Ya. Malkin

Academy od Sciences, Institute of Petrochemical Synthesis
Moscow, Russia

Prof. Dr. Avraam I. Isayev

The University of Akron, Department of Polymer Engineering
Akron, Ohio, USA

Toronto 2022
Published by ChemTec Publishing
38 Earswick Drive, Toronto, Ontario M1E 1C6, Canada

© ChemTec Publishing, 2005, 2012, 2017, 2022

ISBN 978-1-927885-93-2 (hard cover); ISBN 978-1-927885-94-9 (epub)

Cover design: Anita Wypych

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be repro-

duced, stored or transmitted in any form or by any means without
written permission of copyright owner. No responsibility is
assumed by the Author and the Publisher for any injury or/and
damage to persons or properties as a matter of products liability,
negligence, use, or operation of any methods, product ideas, or
instructions published or suggested in this book.

Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication

Title: Rheology : concepts, methods, and applications /

Prof. Dr. Alexander Ya. Malkin, Prof. Dr. Avraam I. Isayev.
Names: Malkin, A. IA. (Aleksandr Iakovlevich), author.
| Isayev, Avraam I., 1942- author.
Description: 4th edition. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: Canadiana (print) 20210194707
| Canadiana (ebook) 2021019474X | ISBN 9781927885932
(hardcover) | ISBN 9781927885949 (PDF)
Subjects: LCSH: Rheology-Textbooks. | LCGFT: Textbooks.
Classification: LCC QC189.5 .M33 2022 | DDC 531/.1134-dc23

Printed in Australia, United Kingdom and United States of America

 PREFACE

A number of books devoted to different aspects of both theoretical and applied rheology
were published in the last 20 years. The keyword in the last sentence is “different aspects.”
Rheology has a unique structure with its own language, fundamental principles, original
concepts, rigorous experimental methods, and a set of well-documented observations with
inherent interrelations between various branches of natural science and numerous practical
applications.
By examining the enormous volume of rheological literature and meeting various
people interested in rheology (university teachers, students, applied scientist, and engi-
neers), the authors felt the need for a systematic presentation of the subject matter in one
book − a book that includes all components of rheology and presents them as an indepen-
dent branch of natural science.
However, it became apparent from the early planning stages that some information
would need to be omitted to provide a clear presentation of the concepts, methods, and
applications which constitute the essence of efforts that created this science. The wish to
present all aspects of rheology will inevitably lead to a book of enormous size. Every
attempt to write a scientific book is personal and objective; objective because science ben-
efits from objective assessments and personal because our experiences make us feel that
certain aspects are more important than others. In our case, we are university teachers and
researchers primarily in the field of applied rheology. An attentive reader will most likely
find some reflections of our personal preferences.
Considering the book's goals and the tasks, the authors tried to limit the choice of ref-
erences to the first publications on a particular subject, including reviews and papers pro-
viding the most expressive examples and illustrations of the topics under discussion.
Accordingly, a significant number of original publications are not mentioned. It is regret-
table because any serious publication is worth mentioning.
The authors hope that the readers of the book will benefit from our presentation of
rheology as an interrelated system of concepts, principal phenomena, experimental meth-
ods, and directions of their application. Our rheology is also a science interwoven with
other branches of theoretical and applied sciences. We take many opportunities to empha-
size these links because they enrich science, make it easier to understand and apply, and
this also helps to fulfill our goals concisely expressed in the book title. To amplify its use-
fulness as a teaching tool, all chapters of the book contain questions to be used by readers
to assess their knowledge of a particular subject. Answers to these questions are included
in the last part of the book.
Finally, the authors are glad to fulfill their pleasing duty to thank Dr. Andrei Andri-
anov (Moscow State University) for his technical assistance in preparing the computer
xii Preface

versions of many figures and realizing the liaison between the authors. The authors are
also grateful to Dr. Sayata Ghose for painstaking proofreading and making corrections for
this book.
Special gratitude goes to Professor J.L. White, who read the book's manuscript and
made many valuable comments, which helped enrich the presented text.
We express our deep gratitude to publishers of various journals (Advances in Poly-
mer Science, Colloid Journal, European Polymer Journal, International Journal of Poly-
meric Materials, Journal of Applied Polymer Science, Journal of Macromolecular
Science, Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics, Journal of Polymer Science, Journal
of Rheology, Macromolecular Chemie, Polymer, Polymer Engineering and Science, Poly-
mer Science USSR, Reviews of Scientific Instruments, Rheologica Acta) and books (Rhe-
ology of Elastomers by P. Mason and N. Wookey (eds), A Practical Approach to Rheology
and Rheometry by G. Schramm for permission to use figures from their publications.

Alexander Ya. Malkin,

Moscow, Russia
Avraam I. Isayev
Akron, Ohio, USA
July, 2005
Preface xiii

PREFACE TO THE 2ND EDITION

In preparing the Second Edition of this book, the book's general structure is maintained,
and some necessary corrections and additions are made. The most important recent results
published in periodicals till the middle of 2011 are added. In particular, Section 2.8.1 of
Chapter 2, Section 3.5.2 of Chapter 3, and Subsection 5.8.1.2 of Chapter 5 are modified. A
new Subsection 5.6.2.6 on Capillary breakup in elongational rheometry is added. Further-
more, Section 3.2.3 on the Viscosity of anisotropic liquids and Section 3.6.3 on Instabili-
ties of the flow of elastic fluids of Chapter 3 are completely rewritten. Many other
modifications in the text are made, and some new figures are added. Also, all the detected
misprints and errors found by ourselves or pointed out by colleagues are corrected.
After the publication of the First Edition of the book, a lot of comments and advice
from our friends and colleagues were received. We are very grateful to all of them for con-
structive criticism and valuable comments.
We are also grateful to our Editor, Dr. G. Wypych, for his hard work in improving the
manuscript and making it ready for publication.

Alexander Ya. Malkin,

Moscow, Russia
Avraam I. Isayev
Akron, Ohio, USA

August 2011
xiv Preface

PREFACE TO THE 3RD EDITION

In the 3rd Edition of the book, we updated the material paying special attention to the
issues which have become the hot spots of rheology during the last decade. These are such
topics as the rheology of polymeric materials containing fillers, the concept of heterogene-
ity of the flow, including the effect of shear-banding, and new ideas in understanding the
visco-plastic media. We have added references to the mostly up-to-date publications in
these fields.
We are grateful to readers who were kind to bring to our attention some misprints
and not quite clear explanations used in the former editions. Necessary corrections have
been implemented.
We hope that this book is continued to be used by students and young researchers
who only start their careers in the intriguing world of the rheology of real materials sur-
rounding us in our life.

Alexander Ya. Malkin,

Moscow, Russia
Avraam I. Isayev
Akron, Ohio, USA

December 2016
Preface xv

PREFACE TO THE 4TH EDITION

Rheology is a living and developing science. Every month. various journals, publish doz-
ens of papers devoted to general problems and foundation of rheology as well as applica-
tion of the rheological methods for solving different applied tasks in the oil industry and
food production, road building, and polymer technology, etc. It is not possible and not
necessary to collect all this information, but among these publications, one can find new
approaches and conceptions which have value for different aspects of rheology. In prepar-
ing the new edition of the book, we tried to catch this new knowledge or put emphasis on
some old works that obtained modified reflections. First of all, the corrections touched on
understanding the nature of instabilities in the flow of viscoelastic liquids, the concept of
plasticity as the part of elastoplastic behavior of highly concentrated suspensions, some
details in the capillary viscometry.
We are grateful to our colleagues who spent their time and were kind to point out
some unclear places in the text and made advice concerning a more rigorous description of
some theoretical aspects of rheology.
This book is addressed to students and young researchers interested in expanding
their theoretical background and applied science-based knowledge and plan to continue
their carrier in physics and technology of complex liquids related to rheological measure-
ments.

Alexander Ya. Malkin

Moscow, Russia

Avraam I. Isayev
Akron, OH, USA

December 2021
Table of Contents iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface xi

Introduction. Rheology: Subject and Goals 1

1 Continuum Mechanics as a Foundation of Rheology 9

1.1 Stresses 9
1.1.1 General theory 9
1.1.2 Law of equality of conjugated stresses 12
1.1.3 Principal stresses 12
1.1.4 Invariants of a stress tensor 14
1.1.5 Hydrostatic pressure - spherical tensor and deviator 16
1.1.6 Equilibrium (balance) equations 19
1.2 Deformations 21
1.2.1 Deformations and displacements 21
1.2.1.1 Deformations 21
1.2.1.2 Displacements 24
1.2.2 Infinitesimal deformations: principal values and invariants 26
1.2.3 Large (finite) deformations 27
1.2.4 Special cases of deformations - uniaxial elongation and
simple shear 30
1.2.4.1 Uniaxial elongation and Poisson’s ratio 30
1.2.4.2 Simple shear and pure shear 31
1.3 Kinematics of deformations 34
1.3.1 Rates of deformation and vorticity 34
1.3.2 Deformation rates when deformations are large 35
1.4 Heterogeneity on flow 36
1.4.1 Particle distribution in disperse systems 37
1.4.2 Phase separation 38
1.4.3 Flow of the large-scale structure elements 38
1.5 Summary - continuum mechanics in rheology 39
1.5.1 General principles 39
1.5.2 Objects of the continuum as tensors 40

2 Viscoelasticity 45
2.1 Basic experiments 45
2.1.1 Creep (retarded deformation) 45
2.1.2 Relaxation 46
2.1.3 Fading memory 48
2.2 Relaxation and creep - spectral representation. Dynamic functions 49
2.2.1 Retardation and relaxation spectra - definitions 49
iv Table of Contents

2.2.2 Dynamic functions 52

2.3 Model interpretations 57
2.3.1 Basic mechanical models 57
2.3.2 Complicated mechanical models - differential rheological equations 61
2.3.3 Non-mechanical models 62
2.4 Superposition − The Boltzmann-Volterra Principle 63
2.4.1 Integral formulation of the superposition principle 63
2.4.2 Superposition principle expressed via spectra 66
2.4.3 Simple transient modes of deformation 67
2.4.3.1 Relaxation after sudden deformation 67
2.4.3.2 Developing stresses at a constant shear rate 67
2.4.3.3 Relaxation after steady shear flow 68
2.4.3.4 Relationship between relaxation and creep functions 68
2.4.3.5 Relaxation function and large deformations 69
2.5 Relationships among viscoelastic functions 71
2.5.1 Dynamic functions - relaxation, creep, and spectra 71
2.5.2 Constants and viscoelastic functions 73
2.5.3 Calculation of a relaxation spectrum 75
2.5.3.1 Introduction - general concept 75
2.5.3.2 Kernel approximation - finding a continuous spectrum 77
2.5.3.3 Computer-aided methods for a discrete spectrum 78
2.6 Viscoelasticity and molecular models 80
2.6.1 Molecular movements of an individual chain 80
2.6.1.1 A spring-and-bead model (“free-draining chain”) 80
2.6.1.2 Model of a non-draining coil 83
2.6.1.3 Model of a rotating coil 84
2.6.2 Relaxation properties of concentrated polymer solutions and melts 84
2.6.2.1 Concept of entanglements 84
2.6.2.2 Two-part distribution of friction coefficient 86
2.6.2.3 Non-equivalent friction along a chain 86
2.6.2.4 Viscoelastic entanglements 87
2.6.2.5 Rubber-like network 87
2.6.2.6 “Tube” (reptation) model 88
2.6.2.7 Some conclusions 89
2.6.3 Viscoelasticity of polydisperse polymers 90
2.7 Time-temperature superposition. Reduced (“master”)
viscoelastic curves 95
2.7.1 Superposition of experimental curves 95
2.7.2 Master curves and relaxation states 99
2.7.3 “Universal” relaxation spectra 102
2.8 Non-linear effects in viscoelasticity 103
2.8.1 Experimental evidence 103
2.8.1.1 Non-Newtonian viscosity 103
2.8.1.2 Non-Hookean behavior of solids 103
2.8.1.3 Non-linear creep 104
Table of Contents v

2.8.1.4 Non-linear relaxation 106

2.8.1.5 Non-linear periodic measurements 110
2.8.2 Linear − non-linear correlations 113
2.8.3 Rheological equations of state for non-linear viscoelastic behavior 115
2.8.3.1 The K-BKZ model 117
2.8.3.2 The Wagner models 117
2.8.3.2 The Leonov model123 119
2.8.3.4 The Marrucci models 121
2.8.4 Comments - constructing non-linear constitutive equations and
experiment 121

3 Liquids 133
3.1 Newtonian and non-Newtonian liquids. Definitions 133
3.2 Non-Newtonian shear flow 137
3.2.1 Non-Newtonian behavior of viscoelastic polymeric materials 137
3.2.2 Non-Newtonian behavior of structured systems − plasticity of liquids 139
3.2.3 Viscosity of anisotropic liquids 146
3.3 Equations for viscosity and flow curves 150
3.3.1 Introduction − the meaning of viscosity measurement 150
3.3.2 Power-law equations 151
3.3.3 Equations with yield stress 153
3.3.4 Basic dependencies of viscosity 155
3.3.4.1 Viscosity of polymer melts 155
3.3.4.2 Viscosity of polymer solutions 157
3.3.4.3 Viscosity of suspensions and emulsions 161
3.3.4.4 Viscosity and viscoelastic behavior of nanocomposites 165
3.3.4.5 Effect of filler surface area on the viscoelastic behavior of polymer
compounds 169
3.3.4.6 Effect of type of filler on the viscoelastic behavior of polymer
compounds 174
3.3.5 Effect of molecular weight distribution on non-Newtonian flow 176
3.4 Elasticity in shear flows 178
3.4.1 Rubbery shear deformations − elastic recoil 178
3.4.2 Normal stresses in shear flow 181
3.4.2.1 The Weissenberg effect 181
3.4.2.2 First normal stress difference − quantitative approach 182
3.4.2.3 Second normal stress difference 184
3.4.3 Normal stresses and elasticity 185
3.4.4 Die swell 187
3.5 Structure rearrangements induced by shear flow 188
3.5.1 Transient deformation regimes 188
3.5.2 Thixotropy and rheopexy 191
3.5.3 Shear induced separation 197
3.5.3.1 General approach 197
3.5.3.2 Shear banding 202
vi Table of Contents

3.6 Limits of shear flow − instabilities 206

3.6.1 Inertial turbulence 206
3.6.2 The Toms effect 207
3.6.3 Instabilities in the flow of elastic liquids 209
3.6.3.1 Dynamic structure formation and secondary flows in inelastic fluids 209
3.6.3.2 Secondary flows in the flow of elastic fluids 210
3.7 Extensional flow 222
3.7.1 Model experiments − uniaxial flow 222
3.7.2 Model experiments − rupture 224
3.7.3 Extension of industrial polymers 228
3.7.3.1 Multiaxial elongation 230
3.7.4 The tubeless siphon effect 231
3.7.5 Instabilities in extension 231
3.7.5.1 Phase separation in extension 231
3.7.5.2 Rayleigh instability 233
3.7.5.3 Instabilities in the extension of a viscoelastic thread 234
3.8 Conclusions − real liquid is a complex liquid 235

4 Solids 251
4.1 Introduction and definitions 251
4.2 Linear elastic (Hookean) materials 253
4.3 Linear anisotropic solids 257
4.4 Large deformations in solids and non-linearity 259
4.4.1 A single-constant model 259
4.4.2 Multi-constant models 264
4.4.2.1 Two-constant potential function 264
4.4.2.2 Multi-member series 267
4.4.2.3 General presentation 268
4.4.2.4 Elastic potential of the power-law type 269
4.4.3 The Poynting effect 270
4.5 Limits of elasticity 271
4.5.1 Standard experiment − main definitions 271
4.5.2 Criteria of plasticity and failure 272
4.5.2.1 Maximum shear stress 272
4.5.2.2 The intensity of shear stresses (“energetic” criterion) 273
4.5.2.3 Maximum normal stress 274
4.5.2.4 Maximum deformation 274
4.5.2.5 Complex criteria 274
4.5.3 Structure effects 276
4.5.3.1 Strengthening 277
4.5.3.2 Thixotropy 278
4.5.4 Plasticity (inelastic deformations) 278

5 Rheometry. Experimental Methods 287

5.1 Introduction − Classification of experimental methods 287
Table of Contents vii

5.2 Capillary viscometry 289

5.2.1 Basic theory 289
5.2.2 Corrections 295
5.2.2.1 Kinetic correction 295
5.2.2.2 Entrance correction 296
5.2.2.3 Pressure losses in a reservoir of viscometer 300
5.2.2.4 Temperature correction 300
5.2.2.5 Pressure correction 301
5.2.2.6 Correction for a slip at a wall 302
5.2.2.7 Adsorption on a channel surface 303
5.2.3 Flow in incompletely filled capillary 303
5.2.3.1 Motion under the action of gravitation forces 303
5.2.3.2 Motion caused by surface tension forces 304
5.2.4 Limits of capillary viscometry 304
5.2.5 Non-viscometric measurements using capillary viscometers 305
5.2.6 Capillary viscometers 306
5.2.6.1 Classification of the basic types of instruments 306
5.2.6.2 Viscometers with the assigned load 306
5.2.6.3 Cup viscometers 309
5.2.6.4 Glass viscometers 310
5.2.7 Viscometers with a controlled flow rate 311
5.2.7.1 Instruments with a power drive 312
5.2.7.2 Instruments with hydraulic drive 313
5.2.7.3 Extrusion rheometers 313
5.2.7.4 Technological capillary tube viscometers 313
5.3 Rotational rheometry 314
5.3.1 Tasks and capabilities of the method 314
5.3.1.1 Viscometric and non-viscometric measurements 314
5.3.1.2 The method of a constant frequency of rotation 314
5.3.1.3 The method of a constant torque 316
5.3.2 Basic theory of rotational instruments 317
5.3.2.1 Instruments with coaxial cylinders 317
5.3.2.2 Instruments with conical surfaces 320
5.3.2.3 Bi-conical viscometers 322
5.3.2.4 Disk viscometers 323
5.3.2.5 Viscometers with spherical surfaces 324
5.3.2.6 End (bottom) corrections in instruments with coaxial cylinders 325
5.3.2.7 On a role of the rigidity of dynamometer 326
5.3.2.8 Temperature effects 327
5.3.3 Limitations of rotational viscometry 327
5.3.4 Rotational instruments 328
5.3.4.1 Introduction - general considerations 328
5.3.4.2 Rheogoniometers and elastoviscometers 330
5.3.4.3 Viscometers with assigned rotational speed 331
5.3.4.4 Rotational viscometers for special purposes 334
viii Table of Contents

5.3.4.5 Rotational instruments for technological purposes 336

5.3.5 Measuring normal stresses 338
5.3.5.1 Cone-and-plate technique 338
5.3.5.2 Plate-and-plate technique 339
5.3.5.3 Coaxial cylinders technique 340
5.3.5.4 Hole-pressure effect 341
5.4 Plastometers 341
5.4.1. Shear flow plastometers 341
5.4.2 Squeezing flow plastometers 343
5.4.3 Method of telescopic shear 345
5.4.3.1 Telescopic shear penetrometer 346
5.5 Method of falling sphere 348
5.5.1 Principles 348
5.5.1.1 Corrections 350
5.5.2 Method of the rolling sphere 351
5.5.3 Viscometers with the falling sphere 352
5.5.4 Viscometers with falling cylinder 353
5.6 Extension 354
5.6.1 General considerations 354
5.6.2 Experimental methods 355
5.6.2.1 The simplest measuring schemes 355
5.6.2.2 Tension in a controlled regime 356
5.6.2.3 Tubeless siphon instruments 358
5.6.2.4 Flow in convergent channels 358
5.6.2.5 High strain rate methods 359
5.6.2.6 Capillary breakup elongational rheometry 359
5.6.3 Biaxial extension 360
5.7 Measurement of viscoelastic properties by dynamic (oscillation)
methods 362
5.7.1 Principles of measurement − homogeneous deformation 362
5.7.2 Inhomogeneous deformations 364
5.7.3 Torsion oscillations 366
5.7.4 Measuring the impedance of a system 367
5.7.5 Resonance oscillations 369
5.7.6 Damping (free) oscillations 370
5.7.7 Wave propagation 372
5.7.7.1 Shear waves 372
5.7.7.2 Longitudinal waves 374
5.7.8 Vibration viscometry 374
5.7.8.1 Torsion oscillations 378
5.7.8.2 Oscillation of a disk in liquid 378
5.7.8.3 Oscillations of the sphere 378
5.7.8.4 Damping oscillations 379
5.7.9 Measuring viscoelastic properties in non-symmetrical flows 379
5.7.10 About experimental techniques 381
Table of Contents ix

5.7.10.1 Rotational instruments 381

5.7.10.2 Devices with electromagnetic excitation 381
5.7.10.3 Torsion pendulums 383
5.8 Physical methods 383
5.8.1 Rheo-optical methods 383
5.8.1.1 Basic remarks 383
5.8.1.2 Stress − optical rules for polymer melts 386
5.8.1.3 Stress-optical rule for polymer solutions 390
5.8.1.4 Viscometers for optical observations 391
5.8.1.5 Polarization methods for measuring stresses 393
5.8.1.6 Visualization of polymer flow in dies 394
5.8.2. Velocimetry 394
5.8.3 Viscometers-calorimeters 395

6 Applications of Rheology 403

6.1 Introduction 403
6.2 Rheological properties of real materials and their characterization 404
6.2.1 Polymer materials 404
6.2.2 Mineral oils and oil-based products 409
6.2.3 Food products 412
6.2.4 Cosmetics and pharmaceuticals 414
6.2.5 Biological fluids 415
6.2.6 Concentrated suspensions 417
6.2.7 Electro- and magneto-rheological materials 419
6.2.8 Concluding remarks 421
6.3 Rheokinetics (chemorheology) and rheokinetic liquids 422
6.3.1 Formulation of the problem 422
6.3.2. Linear polymerization 423
6.3.3 Oligomer curing 426
6.3.3.1 Viscosity change and a gel-point 426
6.3.3.2 Curing at high shear rates 429
6.3.3.3 Curing after gel-point 430
6.3.4 Intermolecular transformations 434
6.3.4.1 Polymeric reaction 434
6.3.4.2 Physical transformations 434
6.4 Solution of dynamic problems 435
6.4.1 General formulation 435
6.4.2 Flow through tubes 439
6.4.3 Flow in technological equipment 442
6.4.3.1 Pumping screw 443
6.4.3.2 Calendering and related processes 445
6.4.3.3 Extension-based technologies 447
6.4.3.4 Molding technologies 449
6.4.3.5 Compression molding 450
x Table of Contents

6.4.3.6 Injection molding 453

6.4.3.7 Injection-compression molding 456

Notation 461
Greek letters 467
Vectors 470

Solutions 471
Chapter 1 471
Chapter 2 474
Chapter 3 479
Chapter 4 488
Chapter 5 493
Chapter 6 499

Index 503
2 Introduction. Rheology: Subject and Goals

New methods are needed to characterize and measure their properties. New fields of appli-
cation can be expected from the application of new concepts and the results of studies. All
these are the essence of rheology.
Superposition of liquid-like and solid-like features in the behavior of technological
materials is directly regarded as the consequence of time effects, i.e., the results of obser-
vations depend on a time scale. Possibly, this is the most common feature of the materials
which were listed above. Time by itself has no meaning, but time is a reflection of changes
in material structure taking place during the period of observation (or experiment).
The primary method of rheology consists of constructing models, which are useful in
qualitative or (better) quantitative descriptions of experimental results of different materi-
als' mechanical behavior. Any natural science pretends to deal with reality and does so by
means of phenomenological models. Any model is created not to reflect all but the most
important characteristic features of an object. The concepts of liquids and solids are also
models, and their formal (mathematical) representation originated from the classical
works by Isaac Newton and Robert Hooke.
Newton (1687) reflected upon resistance of liquids to a cylinder rotating in a vessel.
His ideas were converted to a more accurate form by Stokes, who formulated a general
law of liquid-like behavior, known as the Newton-Stokes law. According to this concept,
the deformation rate is expected to be proportional to stress, and the constant coefficient of
proportionality is called viscosity, which is a material parameter of liquid. This law
assumes that, in flow of liquids, a force (or resistance to flow) is proportional to a velocity
(of movement).
Hooke (1676) formulated a similar proposal concerning the properties of solids. The
law, named after him, was translated to modern form by Bernoulli and then by Euler.
Hooke’s law states that in the deformation of solids, stress is proportional to deformation.
The coefficient of proportionality is called Young’s modulus.
Both models represent properties of many real materials and work well in describing
their behavior with a considerably high degree of accuracy. However, there are many other
materials that are not described by the Newton-Stokes and the Hooke laws. Rheology
relies on the concept that non-Newtonian and non-Hookean materials exist in reality.
These materials are interesting from both theoretical and applied aspects, and that is why
such materials must be the objects of investigation.
It is important to emphasize that every model describes the properties of real materi-
als with a different degree of approximation. The Newton-Stokes and Hooke laws are not
exceptions, and more strict and complex laws and equations give a much better approxi-
mation of reality than the classical Newton-Stokes and Hooke laws known from school
years.
Both basic phenomenological (i.e., taken as probable assumptions, but only assump-
tions) relationships (the Newton-Stokes and Hooke laws) do not include the inherent
structure of matter. Because matter consists of molecules and intermolecular empty
spaces, every material is heterogeneous. At the same time, an observer sees a body as a
homogeneous continuous mass without holes and empty spaces. The obvious way out of
these contradictory evidence lies in the idea of the space scale of observation. This scale
can be small enough to distinguish individual molecules or their parts. Then, molecules
can be combined in regular arrangements, such as crystals, and then crystals can be orga-
Introduction. Rheology: Subject and Goals 3

nized in super-crystalline (or super-molecular) arrangements. All this leads to the concept
of material structure, i.e., more or less well-organized and regularly spaced shapes. The
structure might be well determined. This is the case, for example, of reinforced plastics
and monocrystals. In other cases, “structure” can mean complex intermolecular interac-
tions, which cannot be observed by direct methods. Rheology is especially interested in
structured materials because their properties change due to the influence of applied forces
on the structure of matter.
The definition of rheology as a branch of natural science and the subject of rheologi-
cal studies can be formulated based on the following argument. Traditionally, rheology is
defined as “the study of deformations and flow of matter” (College Dictionary). However,
this definition is ambiguous. The definition is close to the mechanics of continuum and
does not distinguish special features of rheology.
The following points should be emphasized:
• Rheological studies are not about “deformation and flow” but about properties of
matter determining its behavior, i.e., its reaction to deformation and flow.
• Rheology deals with materials having properties not described by the models of
Newton-Stokes and Hooke. It is a negative statement (the rule of contraries). The
positive statement is that rheology studies materials are having properties
described by any relationship between force and deformation. In this sense, the
Newton-Stokes and Hooke laws are limiting cases formally lying on the border
of rheology. The subject of rheology is not about all matters, but only those for
which non-linear dependencies between forces and deformations or rates of
deformations are the main characteristics.
• Rheology is interested in materials, deformation of which results in superposition
of viscous and elastic effects.
• Rheology studies materials with structure changes under the influence of applied
forces.
One of the keywords in rheology is the behavior of various real continuous media.
What is the meaning of “behavior”? For a body of finite size, it is a relationship between
external action (forces applied to a body) and internal reaction (changes of a body shape).
For continuous media, this approach is extrapolated to a point, and the relationship
between forces and deformations at this point (i.e., changes of distance between two arbi-
trary points in a body) is examined. Thus, by discussing what happens in a body at a point
of reference, the problem of a geometrical form of a body as such is avoided, but the sub-
ject of investigations are only its substantial, inherent properties.
The first main goal of rheology consists of establishing the relationship between
applied forces and geometrical effects induced by these forces at a point. The mathemati-
cal form of this relationship is called the rheological equation of state, or the constitutive
equation. The Newton-Stokes and Hooke laws are the simplest examples of such equa-
tions. Rheological equations of state can be (and they are!) very different for numerous
real materials. The rheological equations of state found for different materials are used to
solve macroscopic problems related to the continuum mechanics of these materials. Any
equation is just a model of physical reality.
The independent second goal of rheology consists of establishing relationships
between the rheological properties of the material and its molecular structure (composi-
4 Introduction. Rheology: Subject and Goals

Fig. 1. Rheology as an interdisciplinary science − its place among other sciences.

tion). This is related to estimating the quality of materials, understanding laws of molecu-
lar movements and intermolecular interactions. The term microrheology, related to
classical works by Einstein (1906, 1911), devoted to viscous properties of suspensions, is
sometimes used in this line of thought. It means that the key interest is devoted not only to
movements of physical points but also to what happens inside a point during the deforma-
tion of the medium. Therefore, it is a search for rheological equations of the state of differ-
ent materials based on the basic physical concepts. Then, the constants entering these
models are related to various molecular parameters of the material.
In its origin, the term “rheology” applies to flowing media since the main root of the
word means “to flow” (rheo in Greek). But it is very difficult to classify the material as
solid or fluid, and, therefore, this term is now used for any material. As a result, many ana-
lytical methods used for solids and liquids are very similar. The majority of publications
devoted to rheology and, consequently, the largest part of this book deal with flowing
materials, whereas rheology of solids is frequently treated as a part of the mechanics of
solids and discussed as a separate branch of science.
The place of rheology among other natural sciences and applied problems is shown
in Figure 1. Rheology is a multi-disciplinary science having many relationships with fun-
damental physics and chemistry, as well as many applications in technology and engineer-
ing of materials and many fields of biological sciences.
Indeed, the connection between rheology and physics consists of explanation and
predictions of rheological properties based on knowledge of the molecular structure and
fundamental laws of physics (molecular physics, statistical physics, thermodynamics, and
so on). The connection between rheology and chemistry consists of existing experimental
evidence of a direct correlation between chemical parameters (molecular mass and molec-
ular mass distribution, chemical structure, intermolecular interactions, etc.) and rheologi-
cal properties; therefore, it is possible to synthesize materials with desirable properties.
The second layer of interrelations consists of the connection between rheology and
mechanics of continuum. The results of rheological studies give the background for the
Introduction. Rheology: Subject and Goals 5

formulation of boundary problems in solid-state mechanics as well as in dynamics of liq-

uids. This includes governing equations and their solutions to find numerical values of
macro-parameters, such as pressure, forces, displacements, etc.
In the framework of solid-state mechanics, such effects as long-term behavior, engi-
neering properties of materials as well as their technological properties are the direct
objects of rheological analysis. Solutions of boundary problems in dynamics of liquids are
used for the analysis of flow in technology (calculation of pressure and output, resistance
to movement of solid bodies in liquids, and so on), as well as for standardization of the
methods of quality control in the technology of liquid products.
It is worthwhile to list materials for which the rheological analysis is the most
important. In fact, such a list should include all materials because the Newton-Stokes and
Hooke laws are the limiting cases only. However, the following list gives an impression of
fields that cannot be developed without the participation of rheological studies:
• metals, alloys, and composites at large deformations and different technological
operations
• concrete, ceramics, glass, and rigid plastics (including reinforced plastics) at long
periods of loading
• polymer melts and solutions, including filled composites, rubbers
• foodstuffs
• lubricants, greases, sealants
• pharmaceuticals and cosmetics
• colloid systems, including emulsions and detergents of any types
• paints and printing inks
• mud, coal, mineral dispersions, and pulps
• soils, glaciers, and other geological formations
• biological materials such as bones, muscles, and body liquids (blood, saliva,
synovial liquid, and others).
It is worth mentioning that polymers and plastics continue to be the main object of rheo-
logical studies, and at least half of the publications on rheology are devoted to them.
To recapitulate, it seems useful to point out that the main ideas of the Introduction
permit us to compose a dictionary of rheology.
Rheology is a science concerned with the mechanical properties of various solid-like,
liquid-like, and intermediate technological and natural products. It accomplishes its goals
by means of models representing principal peculiarities of behavior of these materials.
The behavior of the material is a relationship between forces and changes of shape. A
model gives a mathematical formulation of such a relationship. Rheological properties are
expressed by the model structure (i.e., its mathematical image), and values of constants
included in the model are characteristics of the material.
Rheological models are related to a point, which is a physical object including a suf-
ficient number of molecules to neglect the molecular structure of matter and treat it as a
continuum. The rheological analysis is based on the use of continuum theories, meaning
that the following is assumed:
• there is no discontinuity in the transition from one geometrical point to another,
and the mathematical analysis of infinitesimal quantities can be used; discontinu-
ities appear only at boundaries
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 Abide in your calling. Be dutiful to all relations as to the Lord. Be
content with little of the world; little will serve. Think every little much,
because unworthy of the least. Think every one better than thyself;
loathing thyself as one fit to be trampled on by all saints. See the
vanity of the world and love nothing but Christ. Mourn to see so little
of Christ in the world. To a secure soul Christ is but a fable, the
scripture but a story. Mourn to think how many are under church
order that are not under grace. Prepare for the cross; welcome it;
bear it triumphantly like Christ’s cross, whether, scoffs, mockings,
contempt, imprisonments.—But see it be Christ’s cross, not thine
own.

15. Sin will hinder from glorying in the cross of Christ. And
omitting little things against light may breed hell in the conscience,
as well as committing the greatest sins. If thou hast been taken out
of the belly of hell into Christ’s bosom, and made sit among princes
in the houshold of God, Oh, how shouldest thou live as a pattern of
mercy!—Redeemed, restored soul, what infinite sums dost thou owe
Christ! With what zeal shouldst thou walk, and do every duty!
Sabbaths, what praising days should they be to thee!—Church
fellowship! What a heaven, a being with Christ, and angels, and
saints! What a drowning of the soul in eternal love, as a burial with
Christ, dying to all things besides him! Every time thou thinkest of
Christ be astonished; and when thou seest sin, look at Christ’s
grace, that did pardon it; and when thou art proud, look at Christ’s
grace, that shall strike thee down in the dust.
 *Remember Christ’s time of love. When thou wast naked, then he
chose thee. Canst thou ever have a proud thought? Remember
whose arms supported thee from sinking, and delivered thee from
the lowest hell, and shout in the ears of angels and men, and for
ever sing praise, praise! Grace, grace! Daily repent and pray; and
walk in the sight of grace, as one that hath the anointings of grace
upon thee. Remember thy sins, Christ’s pardonings; thy deserts,
Christ’s merits; thy weakness, Christ’s strength; thy pride, Christ’s
humility; thy guilts, Christ’s new application of his blood; thy wants,
Christ’s fulness; thy temptations, Christ’s tenderness; thy vileness,
Christ’s righteousness.

16. Trifle not with ordinances. Be much in meditation and prayer.

Wait diligently upon all opportunities of hearing. We have need of
doctrine, reproof, exhortation, consolation, as the tender herb and
the grass hath of the rain, the dew, the small rain, and showers. Do
all thou dost as unto Christ, as immediately dealing with Christ
Jesus, as if he were looking on thee, and thou on him, and fetch all
thy strength from him.

*Observe what holy motions you find in your souls to duties; prize
the least good thought thou hast of Christ. The least good word thou
speakest of him from the heart, is rich mercy: O bless God for it!
Observe, if every day you have the Day-spring from on high, with his
morning dews of mourning for sin, constantly visiting thee. Have you
the bright morning star, with fresh influences of grace and peace
constantly arising, and Christ sweetly greeting the soul in all duties?
What duties make not more spiritual, will make more carnal; what do
not quicken and humble, will deaden and harden.
 17. Judas had a sop: but John leaned on Christ’s bosom; that’s
the posture in which we should pray, and hear, and perform all
duties. Nothing but lying in that bosom will dissolve all hardness of
heart, and make thee to mourn kindly for sin. That will humble
indeed, and make the soul cordial to Christ, and sin vile to the soul.
Never think thou art as thou shouldst be, until thou come to this,
always to see and feel thyself lying in the bosom of Christ, who is in
the bosom of his Father. Come and move the Father for a sight of
Christ, and you shall be sure to speed; you can come with no
request that pleaseth him better; he gave him out of his own bosom
for that very end, to be held up before the eyes of all sinners, as the
everlasting monument of his Father’s love.

Looking at the natural sun weakeneth the eye. The more you look
at Christ, the son of righteousness, the stronger and clearer will the
eye of faith be. Look but at Christ, you will love him, and live on him.
Think on him continually; keep the eye constantly upon Christ’s
blood, or every blast of temptation will shake you. If you will see sin’s
sinfulness, to loath it and mourn, do not stand looking on sin only,
but look upon Christ as suffering and satisfying. If you would see
your grace, your sanctification, do not stand gazing upon them, but
look at Christ’s righteousness first; look at your grace in the second
place.

18. *Have nothing to do with thy graces and sanctification till thou
hast seen Christ first. He that looks upon Christ through his graces,
is like one that sees the sun in water, which wavereth and moveth as
the water doth. Look upon Christ as shining in the firmament of the
Father’s love, and you will see him in his own glory. Pride and
unbelief will put you upon seeing somewhat in yourself first; but faith
will have to do with none but Christ, who must swallow up thy
sanctification as well as thy sin. He that sets up his sanctification to
look at first, he sets up the greatest idol, which will strengthen his
doubts and fears. Do but look off Christ, and presently (like Peter)
you sink in doubts.
 If you would pray and cannot, and so are discouraged, see Christ
praying for you: if you are troubled, see Christ your peace leaving
you peace when he went up into heaven, again and again charging
you not to be troubled, so as to obstruct your comfort or your
believing. He is now upon the throne, having spoiled upon his cross
all whatsoever can hurt or annoy thee: he hath borne all thy sins,
sorrows, troubles, temptations, and is gone to prepare mansions for
thee.

19. *Thou who hast seen Christ all, and thyself absolutely
nothing, who makest Christ all thy life, and art dead to all
righteousness besides; do Christ this one favour for all his love to
thee, love all his poor saints, (the meanest, the weakest,
notwithstanding any difference in judgment) they are engraven on
his heart, let them be so on thine. Pray for the peace of Jerusalem,
they shall prosper that love thee. Psalms cxxii. 6.
 CHRISTIAN LETTERS.
By Mr. JOSEPH ALLEINE.
To the READER.

T HE letters of Mr. Samuel Rutherford, have been generally

admired by all the children of God, into whose hands they
have fallen, for the vein of piety, trust in God, and holy zeal, which
runs through them. The same piety, zeal, and confidence in God,
shine through all the letters of Mr. Alleine: so that in this respect he
may well be stiled, the English Rutherford. But yet there is a very
discernible difference between them: in piety and fervour of spirit
they are the same: but the fervour of the one more resembles that of
St. Paul, of the other, that of St. John. They were both men of the
most intrepid courage: but in love Mr. Alleine has the pre-eminence.
He seems to excel in bowels of mercies, meekness, gentleness, in
tenderness, mildness, and sweetness of spirit, even to his bitterest
enemies. I do not therefore scruple to give these letters the
preference, even to Mr. Rutherford’s: as expressing, in a still higher
degree, the love that is long-suffering and kind, which is not
provoked, which thinketh no evil, and which hopeth, believeth, and
endureth all things.

JOHN WESLEY.

London,
March 7, 1767.
 L E T T E R I.
To his wife concerning his acceptance of Taunton.

My dear heart,

B Y this time I hope thou hast received mine, touching Taunton. I

find my heart much inclining that way. I will tell thee the
principles upon which I go.

First, I lay this for a foundation, That a man’s life consists not in
the abundance of the things that he possesseth. It was accounted a
wise prayer that Agur put up, to be fed with food convenient for him.
And certain it is, that where men have least of the world, they
esteem it least, and live more by faith in God, casting their care and
burden upon him. O the sweet breathing of David’s soul! The strong
actings of his faith when his condition was low and mean! How fully
doth he rely upon God. And certainly could we that are
unexperienced, but feel the thorns of those cares and troubles, that
there are in gathering and keeping much, and the danger when
riches increase of setting our hearts upon them, we should prize the
happiness of a middle condition. Doubtless, godliness with
contentment is great gain. Seekest thou great things for thyself (said
the prophet to Baruch) seek them not. Certainly a good conscience
is a continual feast, and enough for a happy life.
 *Secondly, I take this for an undoubted truth, that a dram of grace
is better than a talent of wealth; and therefore such a place where
we have little to do with the world to take off our thoughts from the
things of eternity, and have the advantage of abundance of means,
and the daily opportunities of warming our hearts with the blessed
society of Christians, is (if we pass a true spiritual judgment) without
comparison before another place, void of those spiritual advantages.
Let us think, what though our purses may thrive better in a place of
large maintenance; yet where are our souls like to thrive any way
answerable to what they are in this? We should have but little in the
world, but what is this, if it be made up to us, in communion with God
and his people? If we thrive in faith, and love, humility, and heavenly-
mindedness, what matter is it, though we do not raise ourselves in
the world? Oh! Who would leave so much grace, and so much
comfort in communion with Christ and his saints, for the probabilities
of living a little more handsomely. ’Tis a strange thing to see how
Christians generally judge. What is it worth a year? Is the
maintenance certain? What charges are there like to be? These are
the questions we commonly ask first, when we speak of settling. But
alas, though those things are to be considered too, yet what good
am I like to do? What good am I like to get? These should be the
chief things we should judge by. What if we have but a little in the
world? Why then we must keep but a short table, and give the
meaner entertainment to our friends. O, but will not this be
abundantly made up, if we have more outward and inward peace?
Let others hug themselves in their corn, and wine, and oil, in their fat
livings, and their large tables, if we have more of the light of God’s
countenance, who would change with them?
 Thirdly, That the surest way to have any outward mercy, is to be
content to want it. When men’s desires are over-eager after the
world, they must have thus much a year, and a house well furnished,
and wife, and children, thus and thus qualified, God doth usually,
break their wills by denying them, as one would cross a froward child
of his stubborn humour: or else puts a sting into them, that a man
had been as well without them. The best way to get riches, is out of
doubt to set them lowest in one’s desires. Solomon found it so: he
did not ask riches, but wisdom, but God was so pleased, that he
threw in them into the bargain. Nothing sets God’s mercies farther off
than the want of free submission to want them. Certainly, God will
never be behind hand with us. Let our care be to build his house,
and let him alone to build ours.

*Fourthly, That none ever was, or ever shall be, a loser by Jesus
Christ. Many have lost much for him, but never did, never shall any
lose by him. Take this for a certainty, whatsoever outward comforts
we leave, or outward advantages, that we may glorify him in our
services, and enjoy him in all his ordinances more than other-where
we could, we shall receive an hundred fold in this life. ’Tis a sad thing
to see how little Christ is trusted; men will trust him no farther than
they can see him. Alas, hath he not a thousand ways, both outward
and inward, to make up a little outward advantage to us? Have any
ventured themselves upon him in his way, but he made good every
promise to them? Let us therefore exercise our faith, and stay
ourselves on the promise, and see if ever we are ashamed of our
hope.
 Fifthly, That what is wanting in the means, God will make up in
the blessing. This I take for a certain truth, while a man commits
himself and his affairs to God, and is in any way that God put him
into; and if a man have but a little income, if he have a great
blessing, that will make it up. Alas, we must not account of mercies
by the bulk. What if another have a pound to my ounce, if mine be
gold for his silver, I will never change with him. As ’tis not bread that
keeps men alive, but the word of blessing that proceedeth out of the
mouth of God; so ’tis not the largeness of the means, but the
blessing of the Lord that maketh rich. Oh! If men did but believe this
they would not grasp so much of the world as they do. Well, let
others take their course, and we will take ours, to wait upon God by
faith and prayer: let others toil to enlarge their income, we will pray
God to enlarge our blessing, and I doubt not but we shall prove the
gainers.

Sixthly, That every condition hath its snares, and troubles, and
therefore we may not expect to be without them wherever we be;
only that condition is most eligible that hath fewest and least. I
cannot object any thing against the proposal of Taunton, but the
meanness of the maintenance. And let us consider how
inconsiderable this inconvenience is, in comparison of those we
must reckon upon meeting with, if God cast us into another place.
Upon these considerations, I find my heart much inclined to accept
of their offer at Taunton. I beseech thee to weigh the matter and tell
me thy thoughts, and which way thy spirit inclines, for I have always
resolved the place I settled in should be to thy content. I have been
so large in delivering my judgment, that I must thrust up my
affections into a corner. Well, though they have but a corner in my
letter, I am sure they have room enough in my heart: but I must
conclude; the Lord keep thee my dear, and cherish thee for ever in
his bosom; farewell, mine own soul.

I am, as ever, thine own heart,

JOS. ALLEINE.

Oxon, May 27, 1659.

 L E T T E R II.
To my most dearly beloved, my Christian friends in Taunton,
salvation.

Most loving brethren,

I SHALL never forget your old kindnesses; would I never so fain
forget them, yet I could not, they are so continually renewed; for
there is never a day but I hear of them: nay, more than hear of them,
I feel and taste them. The God that hath promised they that give to a
prophet but a cup of cold water, shall receive a prophet’s reward: he
will recompense your labour of love, your fervent prayers, your care
for my welfare, and your bountiful supplies. I do and will bless the
Lord as long as I live, that he hath cast my lot in so fair a place, to
dwell in your communion; and especially to go in and out before you,
and to be the messenger of the Lord of hosts to you, to proclaim his
law, and to preach his excellencies, to be his spokesman to you, and
to woo for him, to espouse you to one husband, and to present you
as a chaste virgin unto Christ. Lord! how unworthy am I, of this
glorious dignity, which I verily believe the brightest angels in heaven
would be glad of! I cannot repent, notwithstanding all the difficulties
that attend his despised servants, and that are like to attend them; I
have set my hand to his plough; and when I was entered into the
sacred office, I told you, “Most gladly do I take up this office with all
the persecution, affliction, difficulties and inconveniences that do and
may attend it.” And blessed be God, I am through his goodness of
the same mind still; and my tribulations for Christ, confirm my choice
and resolution to serve him with much more than my labours.
*Brethren, let them take up with the world that have no better portion;
be content that they should bear away the riches, and preferments,
and glory, and splendor of the world. Alas! You have no reason to
envy them: verily they have a lie in their right-hand: Ah! How soon
will their hopes fail them! How soon will the crackling blast be out,
and leave them in eternal darkness! They shall go to the generation
of their fathers, they shall never see light; like sheep they shall be
laid in their graves, and the upright shall have dominion over them in
the morning. But for you, my brethren, I am jealous that none of you
should come short of the glory of God. I am ambitious for you that
you should be all the heirs of an endless life, of the inheritance
incorruptible, undefiled, and that fadeth not away.
 Ah my brethren! Why should you not be all happy? I am jealous
for you with a godly jealousy, lest a promise being left you of entering
into his rest, any of you should come short of it. O look diligently, lest
any man fail of the grace of God! How it grieves me that any of you
should fall short of mercy at last! That any of that flock over which
the Holy Ghost made me overseer, should perish: when Christ hath
done so much for you, and when we, (through his grace,) have done
somewhat to save them. Ah dear brethren! I was in great earnest
with you, when I besought you out of the pulpit, many a time, to give
a bill of divorce to your sins, to accept of the mercy that in the name
of God Almighty I did there offer to you. Alas! how it pitied me to look
over so great a congregation, and to think that I could not for my life,
persuade them, one quarter of them, to be saved? How it moved me
to see your diligence in flocking to the most hazardous opportunities,
since the law forbad my public preaching; and yet to think that many
of you that went so far, were like to perish for ever for want of going
farther! How fain would I carry you farther than the outward
profession: O, how loath am I to leave you there? How troubled to
think that any of you should hazard much for religion, and yet
miscarry for ever by the hand of secret pride or untamed passion, or
an unbridled tongue, or which I fear most of all, a predominant love
of the world in your hearts. Alas, is there no remedy, but I must carry
you to heaven’s gate and leave you there? Oh, that I should leave
the work of your souls but half done; and bring you no farther than
the almost of Christianity! Hear, O my people, hear! Altho’ I may
command you, upon your utmost peril, in the name of the Lord Jesus
that shall shortly judge you, I beseech you, I warn you as a father
doth his children: to look to the securing of your everlasting
condition: take heed of resting in the outer part of religion, but be
restless till you find a thorough change within, that you are quite new
in the bent of your hearts; for here is the main of religion: for Christ’s
sake, for your soul’s sake look to it, that you build upon the rock, that
you unfeignedly deliver yourselves to the Lord to be under his
command, and at his disposal in all things. See that you make no
exceptions, no reserve, that you cast over-board all your worldly
hopes, and count upon parting with all for Christ: that you take him
alone for your whole happiness. Wonder not that I often inculcate
this: if it be well here, it is well all; if unsound here, the error is in the
foundation, and you are undone. Brethren, I see great trials coming,
when we shall see professors fall like leaves in autumn. Therefore is
it that I would so fain have you look to your standing, and to secure
the main. O make sure whatever you do; get and keep your
evidences clear! How dreadful would your temptation be, if you
should be called to part with all for Christ, and not be sure of him
neither! Get a clear understanding of the terms of life, which I have
set before you in that form of covenanting with God in Christ, that I
commended to you. I would that none of you should be without a
copy of it: be much in observing your own hearts, and crying mightily
to God for assurance: be strict and watchful in your whole course,
and I doubt not but you will quickly have it.

I cannot conclude till I have given you my unfeigned thanks for

your most kind and gracious letter. Sure it shall be in store with me,
and laid up among my treasures. That God is pleased to make use
of me for your edification, is matter of highest joy unto me: as also to
see your stedfastness in Christ, your unshaken resolutions,
notwithstanding all the tempter’s wiles. Go on, my dearly beloved,
and the Lord strengthen your hands and your hearts, and lift you up
above the fear of men. The Lord strengthen, establish, settle you
and after you have suffered awhile, make you perfect: I leave my
brethren in the everlasting arms, and rest,

Your embassador in bonds,

JOS. ALLEINE.

From the common ♦goal at Ivelchester,

June 13th, 1663.

♦ “goal” is an old English form of the word “gaol”

 L E T T E R III.
To the beloved people, the inhabitants of the town of
Taunton, grace, mercy, and peace, from God our Father,
and from the Lord Jesus Christ.

Most endeared and beloved friends:

I READILY acknowledge myself a debtor to you all, and a servant

of all, and therefore I have sent to salute you all. My lines fell in
a fair place when the Lord cast my lot among you; I remember the
tears and prayers you have sent me hither with. How can I forget
how you poured out your souls upon me; and truly you are a people
much upon my heart, whose welfare is the matter of my continual
prayers, care, and study. And oh! that I knew how to do you good:
Ah! how certainly should never a son of you miscarry. Ah! how it
pities me to think, that so many of you should still remain in your
sins. Once more, oh! my beloved, once more hear the call of the
most high God unto you. The prison preaches to you the same
doctrine as the pulpit did. Hear, O people, hear; he that hath an ear
let him hear. The Lord of life and of glory offers you all mercy, and
peace, and blessedness; Oh! why should we die? Whosoever will,
let him take of the waters of life freely! What miss of life, when it is to
be had for the taking! God forbid. O my brethren, my soul yearns for
you, and my bowels towards you. Ah, that I did but know what
arguments to use with you: who shall chuse my words that I may
prevail with sinners not to reject their own mercy? How shall I get
within them? How shall I reach them? O that I could get but between
their sins and them. Beloved brethren, the Lord Jesus hath made
me, most unworthy, his spokesman, to bespeak your hearts for him:
and oh, that I knew but how to woo for him, that I might prevail!
These eight years have I been calling, and yet how great a part
remain visibly in their sins, and how few have I gained to Christ by
sound conversion?
 Many among you remain under the power of ignorance: ah: how
often have I told you the dangerous, yea, damnable state that such
are in. Never flatter yourselves that you shall be saved though you
go on in this; I have told you often, and now tell you again, God must
be false, if ever you be saved without being brought out of the state
of ignorance: if ever you enter in at the door of heaven, it must be by
the key of knowledge, you cannot be saved, except you be brought
to the knowledge of the truth. A people that remain in gross
ignorance, that are without understanding, the Lord that hath made
them, will not have mercy on them. Oh, for the love of God and your
souls, I beseech you awake and bestir yourselves to get the saving
knowledge of God. You that are capable of learning a trade, are you
not capable of learning the way to be saved? And is it not pity that
you should perish for ever for want of a little pains, and study, and
care to get the knowledge of God? Study the catechism; if possible,
get it by heart; if not, read it often, or get it read to you; cry unto God
for knowledge; improve the little you have by living answerably.
Search the scriptures daily, get them read to you if you cannot read
them. Improve your sabbaths diligently, and I doubt not but in the
use of these means, you will sooner arrive to the knowledge of Christ
than of a trade.

Many have escaped the gross pollutions of the world, but stick in
the form of godliness. O I am jealous for you! That you may not lose
the things that you have wrought, for the Lord’s sake put on, and
beware of perishing in the suburbs of the city of refuge. Beg of God
to make thorough work with you; be jealous for yourselves and try
your estates, but only with those marks, that you are sure will abide
God’s trial.
 But for you that fear the Lord in sincerity, I have nothing but good
and comfortable words: may your souls ever live. What condition can
you devise wherein there will not be matter of joy unspeakable to
you. O beloved, know your own happiness, and live in that holy
admiring, adoring, praising of your gracious God, that becomes the
people of his praise. The good will of him that dwelt in the bush with
you all. The Lord create a defence upon you, and deliverance for
you: The Lord cover you all the day, and make you to dwell between
his shoulders! I desire your constant, instant, earnest prayers for me,
and rest,

A willing labourer, and thankful sufferer for you.

JOS. ALLEINE.

From the common goal, in Ivelchester,

July 4th, 1663.
 L E T T E R IV.
To my most endeared friends, the servants of Christ in
Taunton, grace and peace.

Most dearly beloved and longed for,

my joy and crown:
M Y heart’s desire and prayer to God for you is, that you may be
saved. I know that you are the butt of men’s rage and malice:
but you may satisfy yourselves as David in sustaining Shimei’s
curses: it may be the Lord will look upon your affliction, and requite
good for their cursing this day. But however that be, hold on your
way. Your name indeed is cast out as evil, and you are hated of all
men for Christ’s sake, for cleaving to his ways and servants: but let
not this discourage you, for you are now more than ever blessed:
only hold fast, that no man take your crown. Let not any that have
begun in the spirit end in the flesh. Do not forsake God, till he
forsake you; he that endureth to the end shall be saved: the promise
is to him that overcometh; therefore think not of looking back: now
you have set your hands to Christ’s plough, though you labour and
suffer, the crop will pay for all: now the Lord is trying who they be
that will trust him. The world are all for a present pay; they must have
something in hand, and will not follow the Lord when there are
hazard and hardship in his service. But now is the time for you, to
prove yourselves believers, when there is nothing visible but hazard
and expence, and difficulty in your Maker’s service. Now, my
brethren, stand fast in faith, quit you like men, be strong: if you can
trust in his promises now, when nothing appears but bonds, and
losses, and tribulation, this will be like believers. *Brethren, I
beseech you to reckon upon no other but crosses here. Let none of
you flatter yourselves with dreams of sleeping in your ease, and
temporal prosperity, and carrying heaven too. Count not upon rest till
you come to the land of promise. Not that I would have any of you to
run upon hazards uncalled: no, we shall meet them soon enough in
the way of our duty, without we turn aside: but I would have you cast
over-board your worldly hopes, and be content to wait till you come
on the other side the grave. Is it not enough to have a whole eternity
of happiness? If God throws in the comforts of this life too, I would
not have you throw them back again, or despise the goodness of the
Lord: but I would, that you should use this world, as not abusing it,
that you should be crucified to the world, and the world to you; that
you should declare plainly that you seek a better country, which is an
heavenly. Ah! my dear brethren, I beseech you carry it like pilgrims
and strangers; abstain from fleshly lusts which war against your
souls; for what have we to do with the customs and fashions of this
world, who are strangers in it? Be contented with travellers lots:
know you not that you are in a strange land? All is well as long as it
is well at home; I pray you brethren, daily consider your condition:
Do you not remember that you are at an inn? And what though you
be but meanly accommodated? Though you fare hard, and lie hard!
Is this a strange thing? What should travellers look for else? Indeed
if you were of the world, the world would love his own. But now God
hath called you out of the world; therefore the world hateth you. But
remember, it is your duty to love them, even while they hate you; and
to pray for mercy for them, that will shew no mercy, or justice. This I
desire you to observe as a great duty of the present times: and let
not any so forget their duty, as to wish evil to them that do evil to us,
or to please themselves with the thoughts of being even with them.
Let us commit ourselves to him that judgeth righteously, and shew
ourselves the children of the Most High, who doth good to his
enemies, and is kind to the unkind and unthankful: And what though
they do hate us? Their love and goodwill were much more to be
feared, than their hatred. Brethren, keep yourselves in the love of
God; here is wisdom. O happy souls, that are his favourites! For the
Lord’s sake look to this, make sure of something: look to your
sincerity above all things: let not any of you conclude, that because
you are of the suffering party, therefore all is well: look to the
foundation, that your hearts be taken off from every sin, and set
upon God as your blessedness: beware that none of you have only a
name to live, and be no more than almost Christians. For the love of
your souls, make a diligent search, and try upon what ground you
stand; for it pities me to think any of you should hazard so much, and
yet lose all at last. But when once you bear the mark of God’s favour,
you need not fear the world’s frowns: chear up therefore, brethren,
be strong in the Lord, and of good courage under the world’s usage:
fear not, in our Father’s house there is bread enough, and room
enough: this is sufficient to comfort us under all the inconveniences
of the way, that we have so happy a home, so ready a Father, so
goodly an heritage. Oh, comfort one another with these words: let
God see that you can trust in his word: let the world see that you can
live upon God. I shall share my prayers and loves among you all,
and commit you to the almighty God: the keeper of Israel that never
slumbereth nor sleepeth, be your watchman and keeper to the end,
farewell. I am,

A fervent well-wisher of your temporal and eternal affairs,

JOS. ALLEINE.

From the common goal at Ivelchester,

July 24, 1663.

L E T T E R V.
To my most dearly beloved friends, in Taunton, grace and
peace.

Most endeared Christians.