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Solar Energy
Introduction
The sun is a major source of inexhaustible free energy (i.e., solar energy) for the planet Earth. Currently,
new technologies are being employed to generate electricity from harvested solar energy. Theoretically,
solar energy possesses the potential to adequately fulfil the energy demands of the entire world if
technologies for its harvesting and supplies were readily available. Another major prospect concerning
solar research is associated with the current drive toward reducing global carbon emissions, which has
been a major global environmental, social, and economic issue in recent years. For example, 696,544
metric tons of CO2 emissions have been reduced or avoided via the installation of 113,533 household
solar systems in California, USA. Therefore, the adoption of solar technologies would significantly mitigate
and alleviate issues associated with energy security, climate change, unemployment, etc.
According to well-established measurements, the average power density of solar radiation
just outside the atmosphere of the Earth is 1366 W/m2, widely known as the
solar constant. The definition of the meter is one over 10,000,000 of Earth’s meridian,
from the North Pole to the equator. This definition is still pretty accurate
according to modern measurements. Therefore, the radius of Earth is (2/π) × 107 m.
The total power of solar radiation reaching Earth is then
Solar power = 1366 × (4/π) × 1014 ∼= 1.73 × 1017 W.
Each day has 86,400 s, and on average, each year has 365.2422 days. The total energy
of solar radiation reaching Earth per year is
Annual solar energy = 1.73 × 1017 × 86400 × 365.2422 ∼=5.46 × 1024 J.
However, solar energy could be the best option for the future world because of several reasons: First,
solar energy is the most abundant energy source of renewable energy and the sun emits it at the rate of
3.8 1023kW, out of which approximately 1.8 1014 kW is intercepted by the earth. Solar energy reaches the
earth in various forms like heat and light. As this energy travels, the majority of its portion is lost by
scattering, reflection and absorption by clouds. Studies revealed that global energy demand can be
fulfilled by using solar energy satisfactorily as it is abundant in nature and a freely available source of
energy at no cost. Second, it is a promising source of energy in the world because it is not exhaustible,
giving solid and increasing output efficiencies than other sources of energy. Solar radiation distribution
and its intensity are two key factors which determine the efficiency of the solar PV industry. Utilisation and
tracking of solar energy do not have any harmful impact on the ecosystem in which natural balance is
kept consistent for the betterment of living organisms. Exploitation of fossil fuel leads to ecosystem
damage which in turn damages natural balance. Fourth, solar systems can effectively be used for village
systems, industrial operations and homes since it is easily affordable and applicable.
Generation
Solar radiation may be converted directly into electricity by solar cells (photovoltaic cells). In such cells, a
small electric voltage is generated when light strikes the junction between a metal and a semiconductor
(such as silicon) or the junction between two different semiconductors. (See photovoltaic effect.) The
power generated by a single photovoltaic cell is typically only about two watts. By connecting large
numbers of individual cells, however, as in solar-panel arrays, hundreds or even thousands of kilowatts of
electric power can be generated in a solar electric plant or a large household array. The energy efficiency
of most present-day photovoltaic cells is only about 15 to 20 per cent, and, since the intensity of solar
radiation is low to begin with, large and costly assemblies of such cells are required to produce even
moderate amounts of power.

Small photovoltaic cells that operate on sunlight or artificial light have found major use in low-power
applications—as power sources for calculators and watches, for example. Larger units have been used to
provide power for water pumps and communications systems in remote areas and for weather and
communications satellites. Homeowners and businesses can install classic crystalline silicon panels and
emerging technologies using thin-film solar cells, including building-integrated photovoltaics, on their
rooftops to replace or augment the conventional electric supply.
Concentrated solar power plants employ concentrating, or focusing, collectors to concentrate sunlight
received from a wide area onto a small blackened receiver, thereby considerably increasing the light’s
intensity to produce high temperatures. The arrays of carefully aligned mirrors or lenses can focus enough
sunlight to heat a target to temperatures of 2,000 °C (3,600 °F) or more. This heat can then be used to
operate a boiler, which in turn generates steam for a steam turbine electric generator power plant. For
producing steam directly, the movable mirrors can be arranged to concentrate large amounts of solar
radiation upon blackened pipes through which water is circulated and thereby heated.

NISE
The National Institute of Solar Energy (NISE) is an autonomous institute under the Ministry of New and
Renewable Energy (MNRE), Government of India, mandated for research and development, solar
component testing and certification, capacity building, and development of solar products and
applications. NISE is situated at Gwal Pahari on the Gurugram-Faridabad road in Haryana.
The objectives of NISE are:
To function as the National Research Organization for undertaking and/or sponsoring Research and
Development Projects on various aspects of solar energy technologies.
To act as an Apex Organization for Testing, Certification, and development of specifications, and
standards.
To create skilled manpower and offer consultancy services on Solar energy technologies.
Initiatives
The initiatives taken are:
Launch of national Portal on Rooftop solar: The Ministry launched a National Portal for Rooftop Solar
(solarrooftop.gov.in) on 30.07.2022 to enable residential consumers from any part of the country to apply
for rooftop solar without waiting for Discom to finalise tender and empanel vendors. Since its launch, the
portal received applications worth 117 MW solar capacity, and more than 18 MW projects have been
granted.
Green Hydrogen: The National Green Hydrogen Mission with an initial outlay of Rs.19,744 crore was
approved in January 2023 with the overall objective to develop at least 5 million metric tons of green
hydrogen production capacity per annum with an associated renewable energy capacity addition of about
125 GW in the country by 2030.
Energy storage: Solar Energy Corporation of India (SECI) concluded the bidding process for setting up pilot
Projects of 500 MW/1000 MWh Standalone BESS under Tariff-Based Global Competitive Bidding (ESS-I) at
Fatehgarh III Substation of Powergrid.
Schemes
The major schemes and progress of India in space are as follows:
Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha Evam Utthaan Mahabhiyan (PM-KUsUM):
The Scheme was launched in 2019 with 3 components:
Component-A: For Setting up 10,000 MW of Decentralized Grid Connected Renewable Energy Power
Plants on barren land. Under this component, renewable energy-based power plants (REPP) of capacity
500 kW to 2 MW will be set up by individual farmers/groups of farmers/ cooperatives/ panchayats/ Farmer
Producer Organisations (FPO)/Water User associations (WUA) on barren/fallow land. These power plants
can also be installed on cultivable land on stilts where crops can also be grown below the solar panels. The
renewable energy power project will be installed within a five km radius of the sub-stations to avoid the
high cost of sub-transmission lines and to reduce transmission losses. The power generated will be
purchased by local DISCOM at a pre-fixed tariff
Component-B: For Installation of 17.50 Lakh stand-alone solar agriculture pumps. Under this Component,
individual farmers will be supported to install standalone solar Agriculture pumps of capacity up to 7.5 HP
for replacement of existing diesel Agriculture pumps / irrigation systems in off-grid areas, where grid
supply is not available. Pumps of capacity higher than 7.5 HP can also be installed, however, the financial
support will be limited to a 7.5 HP capacity
Component-C: For Solarisation of 10 Lakh Grid Connected Agriculture Pumps. Under this Component,
individual farmers having grid-connected agriculture pumps will be supported by solarise pumps. The
farmer will be able to use the generated solar power to meet the irrigation needs and the excess solar
power will be sold to DISCOMs at a pre-fixed tariff

National Solar Mission

Ministry of New & Renewable Energy, Govt of India has launched Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission
to create conditions, through rapid scale-up of capacity and technological innovation to drive down costs
towards grid parity. The Mission anticipates achieving grid parity by 2022 and parity with coal-based
thermal power by 2030. The Mission aims to add grid-connected solar power generation of 1000 MW by
2013, an additional 3000 MW by 2017 and 20,000 MW by 2022 through mandatory use of Renewable
Purchase Obligation(RPO) by utilities backed with a preferential tariff.
PHASE-I (2010-13)
In phase I i.e.2010-13, 1000MW grid-connected Solar Power Projects will be developed. Under this
mission, the following two types of projects are to be developed in phase I:
1. LARGE CAPACITY SOLAR PV & THERMAL POWER PROJECTS IN THE RANGE OF 5 MW to 100 MW.
Under this programme, Projects of 5MW capacity in case of SPV & 5 MW to 100 MW in case of Solar
Thermal of a total of 1000 MW solar power projects to be implemented by NTPC Vidyut Vyapar Nigam Ltd.
(NVVN) for which it has invited proposals on 17.08.10. These projects shall be connected to the grid at 33
KV level and above for which the developers shall enter into a power purchase agreement with the NVVN.
The NVVN shall further enter into a Power Sale Agreement with the State Utilities on the tariff notified by
the CERC by bundling it with an equal quantity of conventional unallocated power. CERC has notified a
tariff of Rs. 17.91 per unit for SPV projects without accelerated depreciation benefits & Rs. 14.95 per unit if
the developer has claimed accelerated depreciation benefits. Similarly, for solar thermal projects, the tariff
of Rs. 15.31 per unit without accelerated depreciation benefits & Rs. 12.85 per unit if the developer has
claimed accelerated depreciation benefits have been fixed.
2. SMALL CAPACITY SOLAR PV PROJECTS IN THE RANGE OF 100 KW to 2 MW.
Under this programme, smaller solar projects including rooftop installations ranging from 100Kw to 2 MW
capacity (total 100 MW in phase-I in the country)to be implemented by the Indian Renewable Energy
Development Agency (IREDA) through State Nodal Agencies shall be promoted. These projects shall be
connected to the grid at below 33 Kv level & the power shall be directly purchased by the State Utilities for
which the State Electricity Regulatory Commission has to notify the tariff. Under this programme, the
Ministry shall provide Generation Based Incentives (GBI) to the State Utilities equal to the difference
between CERC tariff & base rate i.e. Rs. 5.50 per unit with 3% annual escalation through IREDA for 25
years.
State Govt has declared HAREDA as a Competent Authority for the pre-registration of Solar Power Projects
under JNNSM. Accordingly, HAREDA had invited proposals through press advertisement for pre-
registration of SPV power projects of 100 KW to 2 MW capacity under JNNSM. In response to the
advertisement, 141 developers have submitted their proposals of 195.16 MW capacity Out of the 141
proposals received for pre-registration, HAREDA has shortlisted the 22 proposals being eligible for the
production of 20 MW Solar power in Haryana. After pre-registration, these developers entered into an
MoU with the Haryana Power Purchase Centre & applied for final online registration with the Indian
Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA). After the release of the initial shortlist by IREDA, 10
shortlisted developers entered into PPA with Haryana Power Purchase Centre for 9.8 MW capacity & have
submitted their papers to IREDA for issue of final registration.
3. OFFGRID DECENTRALISED SOLAR APPLICATIONS
To create a sustained interest within the investor community, the Ministry of New & Renewable Energy
(MNRE), Govt. of India has decided to support viable business models to promote off-grid application of
solar energy (both SPV & Solar Thermal). Under this scheme, the Ministry shall provide Central Financial
Assistance for setting up Solar power
Wind Energy

Introduction
Windmills have been used for at least 3000 years, mainly for grinding grain or pumping water; while in
sailing ships the wind has been an essential source of power for even longer. From medieval times,
horizontal axis windmills were an integral part of the rural economy and only fell into disuse with the
advent of cheap fossil-fuelled stationary engines and then the spread of rural electrification (Musgrove,
2010). The use of windmills (or wind turbines) to generate electricity can be traced back to the late
nineteenth century with the 12 kW direct current windmill generator constructed by Charles Brush in the
USA and the research undertaken by Poul la Cour in Denmark. However, for much of the twentieth
century, there was little interest in using wind energy for electricity generation, other than for battery
charging for remote dwellings; and these low-power systems were quickly removed once access to the
electricity grid became available. One notable development was the 1250 kW Smith-Putnam wind turbine
constructed in the USA in 1941. This remarkable machine had a steel rotor 53 m in diameter, full-span
pitch control and flapping blades to reduce loads. Although a blade spar failed catastrophically in 1945, it
remained the largest wind turbine constructed for some 40 years.
The stimulus for the development of wind energy in 1973 was the increase in the price of oil and concern
over limited fossil fuel resources. From around 1990, the main driver for the use of wind turbines to
generate electrical power was the very low CO2 emissions (over the entire life cycle of manufacture,
installation, operation and de-commissioning) and the potential of wind energy to help mitigate climate
change. Then from around 2006 the very high oil price and concerns over the security of energy supplies
led to a further increase of interest in wind energy and a succession of policy measures were put in place
in many countries to encourage its use. In 2007 the European Union declared a policy that 20% of all
energy should be from renewable sources by 2020. Because of the difficulty of using renewable energy for
transport and heat, this implies that in some countries 30–40% of electrical energy should come from
renewables, with wind energy likely to play a major part.
The power output from a wind turbine is given by the well-known expression:
P = (1⁄2) Cpρ AU3
Where,
ρ is the density of air (1.25 kg/m3).
Cp is the power coefficient.
A is the rotor-swept area.
U is the wind speed.
Ultimately the winds are driven almost entirely by the sun’s energy, causing differential surface heating.
The heating is most intense on land masses closer to the equator, and obviously, the greatest heating
occurs in the daytime, which means that the region of greatest heating moves around the earth’s surface
as it spins on its axis. Warm air rises and circulates in the atmosphere to sink back to the surface in cooler
areas. The resulting large-scale motion of the air is strongly influenced by Coriolis forces due to the earth’s
rotation. The result is a large-scale global circulation pattern. Certain identifiable features of this are well
known, such as the trade winds and the ‘roaring forties’. The non-uniformity of the earth’s surface, with its
pattern of land masses and oceans, ensures that this global circulation pattern is disturbed by smaller-
scale variations on continental scales. These variations interact in a highly complex and non-linear fashion
to produce a somewhat chaotic result, which is at the root of the day-to-day unpredictability of the
weather in particular locations. Though, underlying tendencies remain which lead to clear climatic
differences between regions. These differences are tempered by more local topographical and thermal
effects.
The share of wind power in India’s total installed capacity is only 10 per cent. With total power generation
at 1,456 BU, wind power accounted for just 5 per cent of electricity generation. India ranks fourth in the
world in terms of installed wind power, with a capacity of 41.6 GW as of November 2022. Tamil Nadu and
Gujarat have 25 and 22 per cent of this capacity respectively. The National Institute of Wind Energy (NIWE)
estimates that the country has a wind potential of 302 GW at a hub height of 100 m and 695 GW at a hub
height of 120 m above ground level. Most of this potential exists in the seven windy states— Rajasthan,
Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
Generation
The conversion process takes place through turbines which convert the kinetic energy of wind into
mechanical or electrical energy that can be used for power. Historically, wind power in the form of
windmills has been used for centuries for such tasks as grinding grain and pumping water. Modern
commercial wind turbines produce electricity by using rotational energy to drive an electrical generator.
They are made up of a blade or rotor and an enclosure called a nacelle that contains a drive train atop a
tall tower. The largest turbines can produce 4.8–9.5 megawatts of power, have a rotor diameter that may
extend more than 162 metres (about 531 feet), and are attached to towers approaching 240 metres (787
feet) tall.

The most common types of wind turbines (which produce up to 1.8 megawatts) are much smaller; they
have a blade length of approximately 40 metres (about 130 feet) and are attached to towers roughly 80
metres (about 260 feet) tall. Smaller turbines can be used to provide power to individual homes. Wind
farms are areas where several wind turbines are grouped, providing a larger total energy source.

NIWE
The National Institute of Wind Energy (NIWE) is a technical arm of the Ministry for the smooth
development of the wind energy sector in the country. NIWE’s main activities include Wind (onshore &
offshore) & Solar Radiation Resource Assessment; preparation of standards for wind turbines; testing and
certification of wind turbines and associated systems; information dissemination; human resource
development; and offering various consultancy services to customers. The major activities of NIWE during
this period are given below:
Wind solar resource measurements/offshore, Testing & Research Station.
NIWE is capable of providing the following services: Wind Resource Modeling Techniques, Wind Speed
Statistics and Energy Calculations, Micro-siting and layout of wind farms, Wind Resource Measurement,
Wind Turbine Technology, Design and Safety requirements as per the standards.
Wind resources are site-specific. According to NIWE estimates, India has an exploitable wind potential of
800 GW at 100–120 meters in height. However, the best Class I wind sites (with high wind speeds and high
wind power densities) have already been exhausted during the one-and-half decades of the sector’s
development (since the 90s). Also, the CUFs of the old wind turbines populating these sites are very low—
10 to 15 per cent—compared to more than 35 per cent that modern wind turbines are capable of
achieving. Repowering old Class I turbines can increase the project capacity and CUF by two to three
times, resulting in a five-fold increase in the annual production of wind energy. Wind turbines are
designed for a lifespan of about 20 years. They need to be decommissioned on the completion of their
designed life; otherwise, they can pose a safety risk. However, several old wind farms in India have
completed their design life of 20 years and continue to run, as they are still profitable to their owners. This
is a national concern when it comes to wasting wind resources and windy sites as these old wind farms
run with significantly lower CUF than is currently possible. As per the India Wind Power Directory 2017,
over 1.5 GW of installed capacity with turbine sizes of less than 1 MW has completed 20 years of its design
life
Scheme
Generation-Based Incentive Scheme
The Ministry of New & Renewable Energy has already introduced Generation Based Incentive (GBI)
schemes separately for wind.
Under the scheme for wind power, a GBI @ Rs. 0.50 per unit of electricity fed into the grid is provided for a
period not less than 4 years and a maximum period of 10 years with a cap of Rs. 62 lakhs per MW. The
scheme is in parallel with accelerated depreciation but in a mutually exclusive manner. The total
disbursement in a year should not exceed one-fourth of the maximum limit of the incentive i.e. Rs. 15.50
lakhs per MW during the first four years. The Scheme includes captive wind power projects but excludes
third-party sales, (viz. merchant power plants). There is no minimum capacity fixed under the scheme. The
scheme is applicable for the projects commissioned on/after 17.12.2009. Eligibility criteria are that
projects should not avail accelerated depreciation and should sell the electricity to the grid at a tariff fixed
by SERC and/or/State Govt. The projects have to register online with the Indian Renewable Energy
Development Agency (IREDA).
Small Hydro Energy
Introduction
Small hydropower refers to hydroelectric power plants that generate up to 50 megawatts (MW) of
electricity. These systems are a mature, renewable energy technology that utilises the power of moving
water to generate electricity. Unlike large hydropower dams, small hydro projects have minimal
environmental impact and can be efficiently integrated into existing ecosystems. In India, Hydro Power
plants with a capacity of 25 MW or below are classified as Small Hydro. Hydro Power was looked after by
the Ministry of Power before 1989. In 1989, plant capacity up to 3MW and below was transferred to the
Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE). India has a history of about 120 years of hydropower. The
first small hydro project of 130 kW commissioned in the hills of Darjeeling in 1897 marked hydropower
development in India. The Sivasamudram project of 4500 kW was the next to come up in the Mysore
district of Karnataka in 1902, for the supply of power to the Kolar gold mines. Following this, several small
hydro projects were set up in various hilly areas of the country. Till the Independence (1947), the country
had an installed capacity of 1362 MW, which included 508 MW hydropower projects, mainly small and
medium. As per MNRE, the estimated potential of a small hydropower plant is 20 GW across the country.
Depending upon the capacity of the project, a Small hydro Project can be classified as a Micro, Mini or
Small project.

Micro Hydro Project

MNRE has been vested with the responsibility of developing Small Hydro Power (SHP) projects up to 25
MW capacities. SHP projects can play a critical role in improving the overall energy scenario of the country
and, in particular, for remote and inaccessible areas. Most of the potential is in the Himalayan States as
river-based projects and in other States on irrigation canals.
MNRE had identified and created a database of 6,474 potential sites with an aggregate capacity of 19,749
MW. The State Governments also assessed the potential in their respective States. The independent
Power Producers could also identify the potential and install projects.
Central Electricity Authority (CEA): The CEA functions under the MNRE and is responsible for regulating the
power sector in India. It sets technical standards for grid interconnection of small hydropower plants. The
CEA also publishes guidelines for the development of small hydro projects.
Basic Principle of Hydropower:

Where, P=Power in kW
Q=Turbine Discharge in Cu. M. per second or cumecs
H=Net head in meters
η=Overall unit efficiency (Turbine and generator efficiency)
g=Gravitational constant generally taken as 9.81
Depending upon the capacity of the project, a Small hydro Project can be classified as below:

Small hydro projects can be broadly classified into the following two types:
1)Small Hydro Projects on Hill Streams:
Small streams with steep bed slopes are available in the hills, giving rise to medium as well as high-head
projects utilising small discharges. These schemes are normally run off the river type with a small
diversion structure to divert the flows through the head regulator located in the intake portion of the
diversion structure. The water conductor system would usually comprise a diversion and head regulator, a
power channel, a desilting basin, a forebay, a penstock, a powerhouse and a tail race leading from the
powerhouse to the stream.

2)Small Hydro Projects on Canal Falls / Dam Toe:

Irrigation canals carrying relatively high but assured discharges have several falls along their route. Small
hydel projects utilising low heads can be constructed at such falls. Small hydel projects can also be located
just downstream of a dam, barrage or similar structure to utilise the difference in the water level in the
reservoir and in the canal downstream. A bypass channel to bypass the flows adjacent to the fall structure
is constructed and the powerhouse is constructed in the bypass channel. The bypass channel is suitably
connected to the main channel.
Canal-based hydro projects:

Dam Toe hydro projects:

Generation
Small Hydro Power (SHP) plants in India utilise the kinetic energy of flowing water to generate electricity.
Here's a breakdown of the process:
1. Hydrological Energy Conversion:
Flowing water in rivers, streams, or canals possesses kinetic energy due to its mass (m) and velocity (v)
described by the equation: E_k = 1/2 * mv^2.
2. Water Diversion and Channel Design:
A weir or diversion structure partially diverts a controlled flow rate (Q) of water from the main source into
a channel.
The channel design optimizes water flow using principles of fluid mechanics to minimize head loss (energy
loss due to friction). The Bernoulli equation can be applied to analyze pressure (P), velocity (v), and
elevation (z) relationships within the channel: P + 1/2 * ρv^2 + ρgz = constant (where ρ is water density
and g is acceleration due to gravity).
3. Energy Transfer via Turbine:
The diverted water flows through the channel towards a hydraulic turbine. The moving water impinges on
the turbine blades, transferring its kinetic energy to the turbine shaft through a momentum transfer
process described by Newton's second law (F = ma).
4. Electromechanical Conversion:
The rotating turbine shaft is connected to a generator. The principle of electromagnetic induction governs
this conversion. The relative motion between the turbine shaft and the generator's magnetic field induces
a current in the generator's windings, following Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.
5. Power Distribution and Utilization:
The generated electricity is characterized by voltage (V) and current (I). Depending on the application, the
power (P) delivered by the SHP plant can be calculated using P = VI. Electricity can be Fed into the local
power grid for distribution at higher voltage levels. Utilized directly by a nearby community microgrid for
local consumption.

Key Considerations for SHPs in India:

Capacity Limitation: As per MNRE guidelines, SHPs have a maximum capacity of 25 MW.
Environmental Impact: Compared to large hydropower projects with massive dams, SHPs generally have
lower environmental impacts due to minimal water storage requirements.
Efficiency Optimization: Turbine selection and operational parameters are crucial for maximizing energy
conversion efficiency (ratio of electrical power output to hydraulic power input).
Biomass
Introduction
Renewable energy is of growing importance in responding to concerns over the environment and the
security of energy supplies. Biomass is unique in providing the only renewable source of fixed carbon,
which is essential in meeting many of our fuel and consumer goods requirements. Wood and annual
crops and agricultural and forestry residues are some of the main renewable energy resources available.
The biodegradable components of municipal solid waste (MSW) and commercial and industrial wastes are
also significant bio-energy resources, although particularly in the case of MSW, they may require extensive
processing before conversion. Biomass is considered the renewable energy source with the highest
potential to contribute to the energy needs of modern society for both developed and developing
economies worldwide.1,2 In addition, energy from biomass based on short rotation forestry and other
energy crops can contribute significantly towards the objectives of the Kyoto Protocol in reducing
greenhouse gas emissions and alleviating problems related to climate change.3 Biomass fuels and
residues can be converted to energy via the thermal, biological and mechanical or physical processes
summarised in Fig. 1.4 Thermal processing currently attracts the most interest in Europe and Canada
while ethanol production is the focus of attention in the USA for security of supply reasons. Gasification
has traditionally received the most RD&D support as it offers potentially higher efficiencies compared with
combustion. Fast pyrolysis is still at a relatively early stage of development but offers the benefits of a
liquid fuel with concomitant advantages of easy storage and transport as well as comparable higher
power generation efficiencies at the smaller scales of operation that are likely to be achieved from bio-
energy systems compared to fossil-fuelled systems. Combustion systems are widely available at domestic,
small industrial and utility scales; biological conversion processes (fermentation and digestion) and
mechanical processing (e.g. vegetable oils) are well established and are all commercially offered with
performance guarantees. This review therefore focuses on the thermal conversion processes of
gasification and pyrolysis as they offer high conversion efficiencies, potentially competitive costs, and
considerable flexibility in scale of operation and range of products. The key difference between thermal
and biological conversion is that biological conversion gives single or specific products such as ethanol or
biogas (which contains up to 60% methane) and is a slow process, typically taking hours, days, weeks
(anaerobic fermentation and farm digestion) or years (landfill gas by digestion) for reactions to be
completed. Thermal conversion gives multiple and often complex products, with catalysts often used to
improve the product quality or spectrum, and takes place in terse reaction times of typically seconds or
minutes. A commercial process for the realisation of energy and fuel products from biomass comprises a
biomass production system and five main stages in the conversion plant:
1. Production of biomass as a short rotation coppice, such as willow; forest residues; annually harvested
crops, such as miscanthus; and agricultural residues, such as straw. This includes harvesting, in-field
processing such as chipping, and transport to the conversion plant.
2. Feed reception, storage, handling and pre-treatment to prepare the biomass for the subsequent
conversion process.
3. Conversion of solid biomass to a more usable form of energy by means such as gasification or pyrolysis.
4. Conversion of the primary product to a marketable end-product such as electricity, heat, liquid biofuels
or chemicals
Due to the dependency of a large population of India on agriculture, cattle and livestock also survive on a
large scale. This makes the biomass potential availability of diverse kinds in Indian villages. Crops that
have been used for biomass power include corn, sugarcane, grains, pulses, rubber, etc. Residues from
crops obtained as biomass for energy application are dry and wet biomass. These crops differentiate
themselves by several factors which enable them to be considered as biomass potential like calorific
value, moisture content, carbon proportion, ash content, etc. These properties are significant for wet and
dry biomass conversion into useful energy. Research reported that good potential crops have a high yield
of dry material. Prominent biomasses used currently as energy plantations are kadam, babul, bamboo
and Julie flora.
National Bioenergy Programme
The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), Government of India has notified the National
Bioenergy Programme on November 2, 2022. MNRE has continued the National Bioenergy Programme for
the period from FY 2021-22 to 2025-26. The Programme has been recommended for implementation in
two Phases. Phase I of the Programme has been approved with a budget outlay of Rs. 858 crore.
The National Bioenergy Programme will comprise of the following sub-schemes:
Waste to Energy Programme (Programme on Energy from Urban, Industrial and Agricultural Wastes
/Residues) to support the setting up of large Biogas, BioCNG and Power plants (excluding MSW to Power
projects).
Biomass Programme (Scheme to Support Manufacturing of Briquettes & Pellets and Promotion of
Biomass (non-bagasse) based cogeneration in Industries) to support setting up of pellets and briquettes
for use in power generation and non-bagasse based power generation projects.
Biogas Programme to support the setting up of family and medium-sized Biogas in rural areas.
Generation
With a large surplus of biomass and other waste available in the country, energy recovery from these
resources is a viable solution. Modern bioenergy is unique as it provides several social and environmental
benefits apart from providing clean fuels. For example, bioenergy applications can help mitigate air, water,
and land pollution. It can also create local jobs, and business opportunities, and reduce energy import
bills. It can help develop decentralised and independent communities. There are benefits to the private
sector, as well, in the form of opportunities to decarbonise their industries. Other benefits include savings
on fertiliser subsidies and a reduction in waste management costs. Therefore, the Ministry of New and
Renewable Energy (MNRE) has notified the National Bioenergy Programme for the period 01.04.2021 to
31.03.2026 with an outlay of Rs.858 crore under Phase-I.

Biomass being a product of natural resources viz. land, water, air and sun’s energy, gives much hope as an
alternative, reliable and renewable source of energy. Biomass is an organic matter produced by plants,
both terrestrial and aquatic and their derivatives. Plant materials use the sun’s energy to convert
atmospheric carbon dioxide to sugars during photosynthesis. On combustion of the Biomass, energy is
released as the sugars are converted back to carbon dioxide. Thus energy is harnessed and released in a
short time frame, making Biomass a renewable energy source. Though fossil fuels have also been derived
from atmospheric carbon dioxide, the time frame is very long - in the order of millions of years as
compared to a few years in the case of Biomass. Currently, Biomass contributes 14% of the total energy
supply worldwide and 38% of this energy is consumed in developing countries, predominantly in the rural
and traditional sectors of the economy. Biomass feedstock is an organic matter used as fuel for
heat/gas/electricity generation. The resource of biomass feedstock can be categorized as follows:

Biopower technologies convert renewable biomass fuels into heat and electricity using processes similar
to those used with fossil fuels. There are three ways to release the energy stored in biomass to produce
biopower: burning, bacterial decay, and conversion to gas/liquid fuel.
BURNING
Most electricity generated from biomass is produced by direct combustion. Biomass is burned in a boiler
to produce high-pressure steam. This steam flows over a series of turbine blades, causing them to rotate.
The rotation of the turbine drives a generator, producing electricity. Biomass can also serve as a substitute
for a portion of coal in an existing power plant furnace in a process called co-firing (combusting two
different types of materials at the same time).
BACTERIAL DECOMPOSITION (ANAEROBIC DIGESTION)
Organic waste material, such as animal dung or human sewage, is collected in oxygen-free tanks called
digesters. Here, the material is decomposed by anaerobic bacteria that produce methane and other
byproducts to form a renewable natural gas, which can then be purified and used to generate electricity.
CONVERSION TO A GAS OR LIQUID FUEL
Biomass can be converted to a gaseous or liquid fuel through gasification and pyrolysis. Gasification is a
process that exposes solid biomass material to high temperatures with very little oxygen present, to
produce synthesis gas (or syngas)—a mixture that consists mostly of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The
gas can then be burned in a conventional boiler to produce electricity. It can also be used to replace
natural gas in a combined-cycle gas turbine.
Pyrolysis uses a similar process to gasification but under different operating conditions. In this scenario,
biomass is heated at a lower temperature range but in the complete absence of oxygen to produce a
crude bio-oil. This bio-oil is then substituted for fuel oil or diesel in furnaces, turbines, and engines for
electricity production.
Auxiliary Infrastructure
State-level policies
India utilizes a two-pronged approach to promoting renewable energy, with both central and state
government policies playing a crucial role. Here's a breakdown of state-level policies for renewable energy
in India:
Understanding the Landscape:
MNRE as a Guiding Force: The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) sets the broad framework
for renewable energy development in India. However, states have the flexibility to design and implement
their specific policies within this framework.
Focus Areas of State Policies:
Feed-in Tariffs: Many states offer attractive feed-in tariffs for electricity generated from renewable energy
sources like solar and small hydro. These tariffs incentivize project developers by guaranteeing a higher
purchase price for the electricity produced.
Net Metering Policies: These policies allow electricity consumers who install rooftop solar panels to sell
excess electricity back to the grid and receive credits on their electricity bills. This encourages investment
in distributed renewable energy generation.
Renewable Purchase Obligations (RPOs): Some states mandate that electricity distribution companies
(DISCOMs) must source a certain percentage of their electricity from renewable sources. This creates a
guaranteed market for renewable energy producers.
Subsidies and Financial Assistance: Several states offer additional subsidies or financial assistance to
promote specific renewable energy technologies. This can reduce the upfront investment cost for project
developers and homeowners considering rooftop solar.
Land Allotment and Permissions: States can streamline the process of acquiring land and obtaining
necessary permissions for renewable energy projects. This can expedite project development.
Focus on Specific Renewables: Some states might have policies that particularly focus on promoting
specific renewable energy sources that are well-suited to their geographical conditions. For example, a
coastal state might offer additional incentives for wind power projects.
Examples of State Policies:
Tamil Nadu: A pioneer in renewable energy, Tamil Nadu has ambitious solar power targets and offers
attractive feed-in tariffs for solar power generation.
Gujarat: Known for its wind power potential, Gujarat has established wind parks and offers subsidies for
wind energy projects.
Karnataka: A leader in rooftop solar adoption, Karnataka has a net metering policy and offers subsidies
for rooftop solar installations.
Finding Specific Policy Details:
State Government Websites: Each state government website often has a dedicated section for renewable
energy where you can find detailed information about their specific policies and programs.
MNRE Website: The MNRE website also provides resources on state-level renewable energy policies. You
can search for information on specific states.
Importance of State Policies:
State-level policies play a crucial role in supplementing and amplifying the central government's initiatives
for renewable energy development. These policies can cater to the specific needs and resources of each
state, leading to a more targeted and effective approach to promoting clean energy across India.

DISCOM Performance
Distribution companies (DISCOMs) play a vital role in India's power sector, delivering electricity to end
consumers. However, their performance significantly impacts the overall health of the sector. Here's an
overview of factors affecting DISCOM performance across Indian states, with pointers to resources for
further exploration:
Key Performance Indicators (KPIs):
Aggregate Technical and Commercial (AT&C) Losses: This metric represents the difference between the
power purchased by DISCOMs and the electricity billed to consumers. High AT&C losses indicate
inefficiencies like power theft, transmission losses, and meter tampering.
Billing Efficiency: This refers to the accuracy and timeliness of electricity bills issued to consumers. Higher
billing efficiency ensures timely revenue collection for DISCOMs.
Collection Efficiency: This metric reflects the percentage of billed amount that consumers pay.
Challenges Affecting DISCOM Performance:
High AT&C Losses: These losses strain DISCOM finances, hindering their ability to invest in infrastructure
upgrades and improve service quality.
Subsidy Burden: Subsidies for certain consumer segments can increase DISCOM liabilities.
Transmission and Distribution Infrastructure Deficits: Aging infrastructure leads to inefficiencies and
power outages.
Inefficient Metering and Billing Systems: Manual meter reading and outdated billing systems can lead to
inaccuracies and revenue leakage.