Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines (3141906)

Contents
1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 1.2

1.2 Application Areas of Fluid Mechanics ........................................................................................ 1.2
1.3 Definition of a Fluid ....................................................................................................................... 1.3
1.4 Hypothesis of continuum ............................................................................................................. 1.3
1.5 Properties of Fluids ....................................................................................................................... 1.3
1.6 Classification of Fluid ................................................................................................................... 1.7
1.7 Cohesion and Adhesion ................................................................................................................ 1.7
1.8 Surface tension .............................................................................................................................. 1.8
1.9 Capillarity or Meniscus Effect .................................................................................................... 1.10
1.10 Vapour pressure and Cavitaion.................................................................................................. 1.11
1.11 Compressibility and bulk modulus ............................................................................................ 1.12
1.12 Pressure ........................................................................................................................................ 1.13
1.13 Pascal’s Law ................................................................................................................................ 1.13
1.14 Pressure variation in a fluid at rest (Hydrostatic Law) ............................................................ 1.14
1.15 Absolute, Gauge, Atmospheric and Vacuum Pressures ......................................................... 1.15
1.16 Measurement of Pressure .......................................................................................................... 1.16
1.17 Simple Manometers .................................................................................................................... 1.16
1.1 Introduction
Fluid mechanics is encountered in almost every area of our physical lives. Blood flows through our veins
and arteries, a ship moves through water, airplanes fly in the air, air flows around wind machines, air is
compressed in a compressor, steam flows around turbine blades, a dam holds back water, air is heated
and cooled in our homes, and computers require air to cool components. All engineering disciplines
require some expertise in the area of fluid mechanics.
Mechanics: It is the oldest physical science that deals with both stationary and moving bodies under the
influence of forces.
Statics: The branch of mechanics that deals with bodies at rest is called statics.
Dynamics: The branch that deals with bodies in motion under the action of forces is called dynamics.
Fluid mechanics: It is defined as the science that deals with the behavior of fluids at rest (fluid statics) or
in motion (fluid dynamics), and the interaction of fluids with solids or other fluids at the boundaries.
Fluid mechanics itself is also divided into several categories.
Hydrodynamics: The study of the motion of fluids that can be approximated as incompressible (such as
liquids, especially water, and gases at low speeds) is usually referred to as hydrodynamics.
Hydraulics: A subcategory of hydrodynamics is hydraulics, which deals with liquid flows in pipes and open
channels.
Gas dynamics: It deals with the flow of fluids that undergo significant density changes, such as the flow
of gases through nozzles at high speeds.
Aerodynamics: The category aerodynamics deals with the flow of gases (especially air) over bodies such
as aircraft, rockets, and automobiles at high or low speeds. Some other specialized categories such as
meteorology, oceanography, and hydrology deal with naturally occurring flows.
1.2 Application Areas of Fluid Mechanics

It is important to develop a good understanding of the basic principles of fluid mechanics, since fluid
mechanics is widely used both in everyday activities and in the design of modern engineering systems
from vacuum cleaners to supersonic aircraft. For example, fluid mechanics plays a vital role in the human
body. The heart is constantly pumping blood to all parts of the human body through the arteries and veins,
and the lungs are the sites of airflow in alternating directions. All artificial hearts, breathing machines, and
dialysis systems are designed using fluid dynamics.
An ordinary house is, in some respects, an exhibition hall filled with applications of fluid mechanics. The
piping systems for water, natural gas, and sewage for an individual house and the entire city are designed
primarily on the basis of fluid mechanics. The same is also true for the piping and ducting network of
heating and air-conditioning systems. A refrigerator involves tubes through which the refrigerant flows, a
compressor that pressurizes the refrigerant, and two heat exchangers where the refrigerant absorbs and
rejects heat. Fluid mechanics plays a major role in the design of all these components. Even the operation
of ordinary faucets is based on fluid mechanics.
We can also see numerous applications of fluid mechanics in an automobile. All components associated
with the transportation of the fuel from the fuel tank to the cylinders—the fuel line, fuel pump, and fuel
injectors or carburetors—as well as the mixing of the fuel and the air in the cylinders and the purging of
combustion gases in exhaust pipes—are analyzed using fluid mechanics. Fluid mechanics is also used in
the design of the heating and air-conditioning system, the hydraulic brakes, the power steering, the
automatic transmission, the lubrication systems, the cooling system of the engine block including the
Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

1.2
FMHM (3141906) | Unit-1 Fluids and Their Properties
radiator and the water pump, and even the tires. The sleek streamlined shape of recent model cars is the
result of efforts to minimize drag by using extensive analysis of flow over surfaces.
On a broader scale, fluid mechanics plays a major part in the design and analysis of aircraft, boats,
submarines, rockets, jet engines, wind turbines, biomedical devices, cooling systems for electronic
components, and transportation systems for moving water, crude oil, and natural gas. It is also considered
in the design of buildings, bridges, and even billboards to make sure that the structures can withstand
wind loading. Numerous natural phenomena such as the rain cycle, weather patterns, the rise of
groundwater to the tops of trees, winds, ocean waves, and currents in large water bodies are also governed
by the principles of fluid mechanics.
1.3 Definition of a Fluid
A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously when subjected to tangential or shear stress, however
small the shear stress may be.
As such, this continuous deformation under the
application of shear stress constitutes a flow. For example
(Fig.1.1), if a shear stress 𝜏 is applied at any location in a
fluid, the element 011' which is initially at rest, will move to
022', then to 033' and to 044' and so on. In other words, the
tangential stress in a fluid body depends on the velocity of
deformation and vanishes as this velocity approaches
zero. Fig.1.1 – Shear Stress in Fuild
1.4 Hypothesis of continuum

A fluid is composed of molecules which may be widely spaced apart, especially in the gas phase. A fluid
may be treated as a continuous substance or continuum, rather than as a group of discrete molecules.
Therefore, this concept is called the continuum hypothesis.
Fluids are the aggregation of molecules, widely spaced for a gas, closely spaced for a liquid. The distance
between molecules is very large compared with the diameter of the molecule. Molecules are not fixed in
a lattice but move about freely relative to each other. Thus fluid density, or mass per unit volume, has no
precise meaning because the number of molecules occupying a given volume continuously changes.
To illustrate consider a large container filled with a very small mass of gas such that only a few molecules
are present. Due to the lesser number of molecules the force exerted per unit area on the tank wall due to
the boundary of the molecules will depend on the probability of molecules bouncing of a particular wall at
a time. The pressure will vary in a discontinuous fashion. Therefore the distribution of matter is not
continuous i.e. continuum does not exist.
Similarly, in the case of very small volumes of a dense gas which contains very few molecules, the
continuum will not exit. It is necessary to consider that the actual molecular structure is replaced by a
hypothetical continuous medium, called the continuum. Without the concept of continuum, one would
have to take into account the action of each molecule or group of molecules in a flow.
1.5 Properties of Fluids
Density or Mass Density

The density or mass density of a fluid is defined as the ratio of the mass of a fluid to its volume. It is
denoted by the symbol ρ (rho).

1.3
Mass of fluid m
ρ= =
Volume of fluid V
Density has a unit of kg/m3.
Specific Weight or Weight Density

Specific weight or weight density of a fluid is defined as the ratio of the weight of a fluid to its volume.
Thus specific weight is the weight of fluid per unit volume. It is denoted by the symbol w.
w = ρg
where g is the gravitational acceleration. Just as weight must be clearly distinguished from mass, so must
the specific weight be distinguished from density. In SI units, w will be expressed in N/m3.
Specific Volume
Specific volume of a fluid is defined as the volume of a fluid occupied by a unit mass or volume per unit
mass of a fluid is called specific volume. Mathematically, it is expressed as
Volume of fluid 1 1
Specific volume = = =
Mass of fluid Mass of fluid ρ
Volume of fluid
Thus specific volume is the reciprocal of mass density. It is expressed as m 3/kg. It is commonly applied
to gases.
Specific Gravity
Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the density (or weight density) of a fluid to the density (or weight
density) of a standard fluid.
For liquids, standard fluid is taken water and for gases, standard fluid is taken air. Specific gravity is also
called relative density. It is a dimensionless quantity and is denoted by symbol S. Mathematically,
Weight density (density) of liquid
S (for liquids) =
Weight density (density) of water
Weight density (density) of gas
S (for gases) =
Weight density (density) of air
Specific gravity of mercury is 13.6.
Viscosity
Viscosity is a quantitative measure of a fluid’s
resistance to flow. More specifically it determines
the fluid strain rate that is generated by given applied
shear stress.
We can easily move through the air, which has a very
low viscosity. Movement is more difficult in water,
which has 50 times higher viscosity. Still, more
resistance is found in SAE30 oil, which is 300 times
more viscous than water. Glycerin is five times more
Fig.1.2 – Velocity variation near a solid boundary.
viscous than SAE30 oil.
Though viscosity is a fluid property, the effect of this property is understood when the fluid is in motion.
Viscosity is defined as the property of the fluid which offers resistance to the movement of one layer of fluid
over another adjacent layer of fluid.

1.4
When two layers of a fluid distance ‘dy’ apart, move one over another at different velocities, say u and (u +
du) as shown in Fig.1.2, the viscosity together with relative velocity causes shear stress acting between
the fluid layers.
The top layer causes shear stress on the adjacent lower layer while the lower layer causes shear stress on
the adjacent top layer. This shear stress is proportional to the rate of change of velocity with respect to y.
It is denoted by symbol 𝜏 (Tau).
Mathematically,
𝑑𝑢
𝜏 ∝
𝑑𝑦
du
∴τ=μ Eq. (1.1)
dy
where µ (called mu) is the constant of proportionality and is known as the coefficient of dynamic viscosity
or only viscosity, (du/dy) represents the rate of shear strain or rate of shear deformation or velocity
gradient.
From the above equation, we have
𝜏
𝜇 =
𝑑𝑢 Eq. (1.2)
𝑑𝑦
1.5.5.1 Units of Viscosity
The units of viscosity are obtained by putting the dimensions of the quantities in Eq. (1.2).
Shear stress Force/Area
∴μ = =
Change of velocity Length 1
( )×
Change of distance Time Length
Force
(Length)2 Force × Time
∴μ= =
Length 1 Length2
( )×
Time Length
N∙s
In SI system, unit of Viscosity is =Pa ∙ s.
m2
kgf ∙ sec
In MKS system, unit of Viscosity is .
m2
dyne∙s
In CGS system, unit of Viscosity is or Poise.
cm2
N∙s
NOTE: 1 Poise = 0.1
m2
1.5.5.2 Newton’s Law of Viscosity

It states that the shear stress (𝜏) on a fluid element layer is directly proportional to the rate of shear
𝑑𝜃
strain( ). The constant of proportionality is called the coefficient of viscosity. Mathematically, it is
𝑑𝑡
expressed as given by Eq. (1.2) or as
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝜃
∴ 𝜏 = 𝜇 =𝜇
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡
Fluids which obey the above relation are known as Newtonian fluids and the fluids which do not obey the
above relation are called Non-Newtonian fluids.

1.5
1.5.5.3 Variation of Viscosity with Temperature
The viscosity of the fluid is due to two contributing factors, namely
a) Cohesion between the fluid molecules
b) Transfer of momentum between the molecules
In the case of gases, the interspace between the molecules is larger and so the intermolecular cohesion
is negligible. However, in the case of liquids, the molecules are very close to each other and accordingly a
intermolecular cohesive force decreases with the rise of temperature and hence with the increase in
temperature the viscosity of a liquid decreases. Poiseuille gave the following formula, showing the
interdependence of the viscosity of a liquid on temperature.
For Liquids
1
𝜇 = 𝜇0 ( ) Eq. (1.3)
1 + 𝛼𝑡 + 𝛽𝑡 2
where
μ = Viscosity of liquid at t °C, in poise
μ0 = Viscosity of liquid at 0 °C, in poise
α, β = Constants for the liquid
For water,
-3
μ0= 1.79 x 10 poise, α = 0.03368 and β = 0.000221.
Eq. (1.3) shows that with the increase in temperature, the viscosity decreases.
For a Gas
𝜇 = 𝜇0 + 𝛼𝑡 − 𝛽𝑡 2 Eq. (1.4)
-9
For air, μ0 = 0.000017, α = 0.000000056, β = 0.1189× 10
Eq. (1.4) shows that with the increase of temperature, the viscosity increases.
Kinematic Viscosity
It is defined as the ratio between the dynamic viscosity and density of the fluid. It is denoted by the Greek
symbol ν (called ‘nu’). Mathematically,
Viscosity
ν=
Density
μ
∴ν =
ρ
Units of Kinematic viscosity:
unit of μ Force × Time Force × Time
ν= = =
unit of ρ (Length)2 × Mass Mass
(Length) 3 Length
Length
Mass × × Time (Length)2
(Time)2
= =
Mass Time
Length
In MKS system and SI the unit of kinematic viscosity is m2/s.
In CGS system it is cm2/s.
NOTE:
cm2 m2
1 =1 stoke =10-4
s s

1.6
1.6 Classification of Fluid
The fluids may be classified into the following five types:
1) Ideal Fluid
A fluid, which is incompressible and is having no
viscosity, is known as an ideal fluid. Ideal fluid is only
an imaginary fluid because all the fluids, which exist,
have some viscosity.
2) Real Fluid
A fluid which possesses viscosity is known as real
fluid. All the fluids in practice are real fluids.
3) Newtonian fluid
A real fluid, in which the shear stress is directly
proportional to the rate of shear strain (or velocity
gradient), is known as the Newtonian fluid.
Example: Water, Air, Thin motor oil
4) Non-Newtonian Fluid
A real fluid, in which the shear stress is not Fig.1.3 – Shear stress and deformation rate
proportional to the rate of shear strain (or velocity relationship of different fluids
gradient), is known as the non-Newtonian fluid.
a. Dilatant or Shear thickening fluids
Fluids for which the apparent viscosity increases with the rate of deformation are referred to as
dilatant or shear thickening fluids.
Example: Solution with suspended starch or sand
b. Pseudoplastics or Shear thinning fluids
Fluids for which apparent viscosity decreases with the rate of deformation are referred to as
pseudoplastics or shear thinning fluids.
Example: Paint
5) Ideal Bingham plastic fluid
Some material can resist a finite shear stress and thus behave as a solid but deform continuously
when the shear stress exceeds the yield stress and thus behave as a fluid. Such material are referred
to as Bingham plastics.
Example: Toothpaste, Mayonnaise
1.7 Cohesion and Adhesion

Cohesion: The force with which the neighbouring or adjacent fluid molecules are attracted to each other.
Adhesion: It represents the adhering or clinging ability of the fluid molecules to the solid surface with
which they come in contact.
In brief, forces between like molecules are cohesive and the forces between unlike molecules are
adhesive.
When a liquid like mercury, is spilled on a smooth horizontal surface it tends to gather into droplets
because the cohesive molecular forces are greater than the adhesive forces between the mercury
molecules and the material of the surface.
Mercury tends to stay away from the surface and is said to be a non-wetting liquid.
In the case of water, adhesive forces are greater than cohesive forces. Naturally, when water is poured on
the same smooth horizontal surface, it would spread out and wet the horizontal surface.

1.7
The wetting and non-wetting of the surface is dictated by the angle of contact between the liquid and the
surface material.
Fig.1.4 – Wetting and non-wetting liquid
Refer Fig.1.4 which illustrates the liquid-gas interface with a solid surface.
The liquid would wet the surface when 𝜃 < (𝜋/2) and the degree of wetting increases as 𝜃 decreases to
zero. For a non-wetting liquid 𝜃 > (𝜋/2). The contact angle dependent on the nature and type of liquid, the
solid surface and its cleanliness.
For pure water in contact with a clean glass surface 𝜃 is essentially zero degree. Even when the water is
slightly contaminated, 𝜃 becomes as high as 25 degree. Mercury a non-wetting liquid has 𝜃 between 130
to 150 degree.
1.8 Surface tension
A liquid is not able to expand freely so it will form an interface/free

surface with a second liquid or gas.
Surface tension is defined as the tensile force acting on the
surface of a liquid in contact with a gas or on the surface between
two immiscible liquids such that the contact surface behaves like
a membrane under tension. The magnitude of this force per unit
length of the free surface is called surface tension(σ). In MKS units,
it is expressed as kgf/m while in SI units as N/m. Fig.1.5 – Surface tension
The effect is also called surface energy and is expressed in the
equivalent unit of (𝑁 ∙ 𝑚/𝑚2 ). It is denoted by Greek letter σ (called sigma). The phenomenon of surface
tension is explained by Fig.1.5.
To visualize how surface tension arises, consider three molecules A, B, C of a liquid in a mass of liquid.
Molecule A is attracted in all directions equally by the surrounding molecules of the liquid. Thus the
resultant force acting on the molecule A is zero. But molecule B, which is situated near the free surface, is
acted upon by upward and downward forces which are unbalanced.
Thus a net resultant force on molecule B is acting in the downward direction. Molecule C, situated on the
free surface of the liquid, does experience a resultant downward force. Therefore there is a net attractive
force acting on the molecule at the surface of the liquid, which tends to pull the molecules on the surface
towards the interior of the liquid. This force is balanced by the repulsive forces from the molecules below
the surface that are being compressed.
The resulting compression effect causes the liquid to minimize its surface area. This is the reason for the
tendency of the liquid droplets to attain a spherical shape, which has a minimum surface area for a given
volume.

1.8
The surface tension varies greatly from substance to substance, and with temperature for a given
substance. For example, at 20 ℃ the surface tension is 0.073 N/m for water and 0.44 N/m for mercury
surrounded by atmospheric air.
The surface tension of a liquid in general decreases with temperature and becomes zero at critical point.
The effect of pressure on surface tension is negligible.
The surface tension of a substance can be changed considerably by impurities. Therefore certain
chemicals called surfactants can be added to a liquid to decrease its surface tension. For example, soaps
& detergents lower the surface tension of water and enable it to penetrate through the small openings
between fibres for more effective washing.
Surface Tension on Liquid Droplet

Consider a small spherical droplet of a liquid of radius r.
On the entire surface of the droplet, the tensile force due
to surface tension will be acting.
Let σ = Surface tension of the liquid
p = Pressure intensity inside the droplet (in excess of
the outside pressure intensity)
d = Dia. of droplet. Fig.1.6 – Force on droplet
Let the droplet is cut into two halves. The forces acting
on one half (say left half) will be
a) tensile force due to surface tension acting around the circumference of the cut portion as shown
in Fig.1.6(b) and this is equal to
= σ × Circumference
𝜋
b) pressure force on the area 𝑑 2 as shown in Fig.1.6(c).
4
These two forces will be equal and opposite under equilibrium conditions, i.e.,
𝜋
𝑝 × 𝑑 2 = 𝜎 × 𝜋𝑑
4
𝜎 × 𝜋𝑑 4𝜎
∴ 𝑝 = 𝜋 = Eq. (1.5)
𝑑2 𝑑
4
Eq. (1.5) shows that with the decrease of the diameter of the droplet, pressure intensity inside the droplet
increases.
Surface Tension on a Hollow Bubble

A hollow bubble like a soap bubble in air has two surfaces in contact with air, one inside and other outside.
Thus two surfaces are subjected to surface tension.
𝜋 2
𝑝 × 𝑑 = 2(𝜎 × 𝜋𝑑)
4
2(𝜎 × 𝜋𝑑) 8𝜎
∴ 𝑝 = 𝜋 2 = Eq. (1.6)
𝑑 𝑑
4
Surface Tension on a Liquid Jet

Consider a liquid jet of diameter ‘d’ and length ‘L’ as shown in Fig.1.7.
Let σ = Surface tension of the liquid
p = Pressure intensity inside the liquid jet above the outside pressure
d = Dia. of jet.
Consider the equilibrium of the semi jet, we have

1.9
Fig.1.7 – Forces on liquid jet
Force due to pressure = p x area of semi jet
=pxLxd
Force due to surface tension = σ x 2L
Equating the forces we have
𝑝 × 𝐿 × 𝑑 = 𝜎 × 2𝐿
𝜎 × 2𝐿 2𝜎
𝑝 = = Eq. (1.7)
𝐿 × 𝑑 𝑑
1.9 Capillarity or Meniscus Effect

Capillarity is defined as a phenomenon of rise or fall of s liquid surface in a small tube relative to the
adjacent general level of liquid when tube is held vertically in the liquid.
The rise of the liquid surface is known as capillarity rise while the fall of liquid surface is known as
capillarity depression or fall. It is expressed in terms of cm or mm of liquid.
Its value depends upon the specific weight of the liquid, diameter of the tube and surface tension of the
liquid.
Expression for Capillary Rise

Consider a glass tube of small diameter ‘d' opened at both ends and
is inserted in a liquid, say water. The liquid will rise in the tube above
the level of the liquid.
Let, h = height of the liquid in the tube.
Under a state of equilibrium, the weight of liquid of height h is
balanced by the force at the surface of the liquid in the tube. But the
force at the surface of the liquid in the tube is due to surface tension.
Let σ = Surface tension of liquid
θ = Angle of contact between liquid and glass tube. Fig.1.8 – Capillary Rise
The weight of liquid of height h in the tube
= (Area of tube x h ) x ρ x g
𝜋
= ( 𝑑2 × ℎ ) × 𝜌 × 𝑔 Eq. (1.8)
4
where ρ = Density of liquid
Vertical component of the surface tension force
1.10
= (σ × Circumference) × cos θ
= 𝜎 × 𝜋𝑑 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 Eq. (1.9)
For equilibrium, equating Eq. (1.8) and Eq. (1.9), we get

𝜋
( 𝑑 2 × ℎ) × 𝜌 × 𝑔 = 𝜎 × 𝜋𝑑 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
4
𝜎 × 𝜋𝑑 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
∴ℎ= π
d2 × ρ × g
4
4𝜎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
∴ℎ= Eq. (1.10)
𝜌𝑔𝑑
The value of 𝜃 between water and clean glass tube is approximately equal to zero and hence cos 𝜃
to unity.
Then rise of water is given by
4𝜎
∴ℎ=
𝜌𝑔𝑑
Expression for Capillarity Fall

If the glass tube is dipped in mercury, the level of mercury in the
tube will be lower than general level of the outside liquid as
shown in Fig.1.9.
Let h = height of depression in tube
Then in equilibrium, two forces are acting on the mercury inside
the tube. First one is due to surface tension acting in the
downward direction and is equal to
= 𝜎 × 𝜋𝑑 × cos 𝜃
Second force is due to hydrostatic force acting upward and is
equal to intensity of the pressure at the depth ‘h’ X Area
𝜋 𝜋 Fig.1.9 – Capillarity fall
= 𝑝 × 𝑑 2 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ × 𝑑 2
4 4
Equating the two forces
𝜋 2
∴ 𝜎 × 𝜋𝑑 × cos 𝜃 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ × 𝑑
4
4𝜎 cos 𝜃
∴ℎ=
ρgd
Value of  for mercury and glass tube is 128.
1.10 Vapour pressure and Cavitaion

A change from a liquid state to gaseous state is known as vaporization. Vaporization (which is depend
upon the prevailing pressure and temperature condition) occure because of continuous escaping of the
molecules through the free liquid surface.
Consider a liquid (say water) which is confined in a closed vessel. Let the temperature of liquid is 20°C
and pressure is atmospheric. This liquid will vaporize at 100°C. When vaporization takes place, the
molecules escapes from the free surface of the liquid. These vapor molecules get accumulated in the
space between the free liquid surface and top of the vessel. These accumulated vapors exert pressure on

1.11
the liquid surface. This pressure is known as vapor pressure of the liquid or this is the pressure at which
the liquid is converted into vapors.
Again consider the same liquid at 20°C at the atmospheric pressure in the closed vessel. If the pressure
above the liquid surface is reduced by some means, the boiling temperature will also reduce.
If the pressure is reduced to such an extent that it become equal to or less than vapor pressure, the boiling
of liquid will start, though the temperature of liquid is 20°C. Thus a liquid may boil even at ordinary
temperature, if the pressure above the liquid surface is reduced so as to be equal or less than the vapor
pressure of the liquid at that temperature.
Now consider a flowing liquid in a system. If the pressure at any point in this flowing liquid becomes equal
to or less than the vapor pressure, the vaporization of the liquid starts. The bubbles of these vapors are
carried by the flowing fluid into the region of the high pressure where they collapse, giving rise to high
impact pressure. The pressure developed by the collapsing bubbles is so high that the material from
adjoining boundaries gets eroded and cavities are formed on them. This phenomenon is known as
cavitation.
Hence the cavitation is the phenomenon of formation of vapor bubbles of a flowing liquid in a region where
the pressure of the liquid falls below the vapor pressure and sudden collapsing of these vapor bubbles in
a region of higher pressure. When vapor bubbles collapse, a very high pressure is created. The metallic
surface, above which the liquid is flowing, is subjected to these high pressures, which cause pitting action
on the surface. Thus cavities are formed on the metallic surface and hence the name is cavitation.
1.11 Compressibility and bulk modulus

Compressibility is the reciprocal of the bulk modulus of elasticity.
Bulk modulus is defined as the ratio of compressive
stress (increase in pressure) to volumetric strain.
Consider a cylinder fitted with a piston as shown in
Fig.1.10.
Let the pressure is increase from p to (p + dp), the
volume of gas decrease from V to (V – dV).
Then increase in pressure = dp
Fig.1.10 – Change in volume of gas under pressure
Decrease in volume = dV
𝑑𝑉
∴ 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = −
𝑉
-ve sign means the volume decreases with increase of pressure.
∴ Bulk modulus
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
∴𝐾=
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑝
∴𝐾= =− 𝑉
−𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉
𝑉
Compressibility
1
=
𝐾

1.12
1.12 Pressure
When a certain mass of fluids is held in static equilibrium by confining it within solid boundaries, it exerts
force along direction perpendicular to the boundary in contact. This force is called fluid pressure Fig.1.11.
Fig.1.11 – Normal force exerted by a fluid to the boundary of surface
“Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area, when fluid is stationary.”
𝐹
p= Eq. (1.11)
𝐴
∴ Force or force due to pressure is

𝐹 = 𝑝 × 𝐴
Units of Pressure: N/m2, N/mm2, Pa, MPa, kgf/m2, kgf/cm2, bar
1.13 Pascal’s Law

Pascal’s law states that “The pressure or intensity of pressure at a point in a static fluid is equal in all
directions.”
Proof of Pascal’s law:
Consider an arbitrary fluid element of wedge shape in a
fluid mass at rest as shown in Fig.1.12.
The fluid element is of very small dimensions i.e., dx, dy
and ds.
Let the width of the element perpendicular to the plane of
paper is unity and px, py and pz are the pressures or
intensity of pressure acting on the face AB, AC and BC
Fig.1.12 – Forces on a fluid element
respectively.
Let ∠ 𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 𝜃. Then the forces acting on the element are:
I. Pressure forces normal to the surfaces, and
II. Weight of element in the vertical direction.
The forces on the faces are:

Force on the face AB = 𝑝𝑥 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝐵
= 𝑝𝑥 × 𝑑𝑦 × 1
Similarly force on the face AC = 𝑝𝑦 × 𝑑𝑥 × 1
Force on the face BC = 𝑝𝑧 × 𝑑𝑠 × 1
Weight of the element = (mass of the element) x g

1.13
𝐴𝐵 × 𝐴𝐶 𝑑𝑥 × 𝑑𝑦
= (𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 × 𝜌) × 𝑔 = ( × 1) × 𝜌 × 𝑔 = ( × 1) × 𝜌 × 𝑔
2 2
where 𝜌 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑.
Resolving the forces in x-direction, we have
∴ 𝑝𝑥 × 𝑑𝑦 × 1 − {(𝑝𝑧 × 𝑑𝑠 × 1) sin(90° − 𝜃)} = 0
∴ 𝑝𝑥 × 𝑑𝑦 × 1 − {(𝑝𝑧 × 𝑑𝑠 × 1) cos 𝜃} = 0
But from Fig. 2.1, 𝑑𝑠 cos 𝜃 = 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑑𝑦
∴ 𝑝𝑥 × 𝑑𝑦 × 1 − 𝑝𝑧 × 𝑑𝑦 × 1 = 0
∴ 𝑝𝑥 = 𝑝𝑧 Eq. (1.12)
Similarly, resolving the forces in y-direction, we get

𝑑𝑥 × 𝑑𝑦
∴ 𝑝𝑦 × 𝑑𝑥 × 1 − {(𝑝𝑧 × 𝑑𝑠 × 1) cos(90° − 𝜃)} − {( × 1) × 𝜌 × 𝑔} = 0
2
𝑑𝑥 × 𝑑𝑦
∴ 𝑝𝑦 × 𝑑𝑥 × 1 − {(𝑝𝑧 × 𝑑𝑠 × 1) sin 𝜃} − { × 𝜌 × 𝑔} = 0
2
But 𝑑𝑠 sin 𝜃 = 𝑑𝑥 and also the element is very small and hence weight is negligible.
∴ 𝑝𝑦 × 𝑑𝑥 × 1 − 𝑝𝑧 × 𝑑𝑥 × 1 = 0
∴ 𝑝𝑥 = 𝑝𝑧 Eq. (1.13)
From Eq. (1.12) and Eq. (1.13)Eq. (1.26), we have

∴ 𝑝𝑥 = 𝑝𝑦 = 𝑝𝑧 Eq. (1.14)
The above equation shows that the pressure at any point in x, y and z directions is equal.
Since the choice of fluid element was completely arbitrary, which means the pressure at any point is the
same in all directions.
1.14 Pressure variation in a fluid at rest (Hydrostatic Law)

The pressure at any point in a fluid at rest is obtained by the Hydrostatic Law which states that the rate of
increase of pressure in a vertically downward direction must be equal to the specific weight of the fluid at
that point. This is proved as:
Consider a small fluid element as shown in Fig.1.13
Let ∆𝐴 = Cross-sectional area of element
∆𝑍 = Height of fluid element
𝑝 = Pressure on face AB
𝑍 = Distance of fluid element from free surface.
The forces acting on the fluid element are:
1. Pressure force on AB acting perpendicular to face AB in the
downward direction.
= 𝑝 × ∆A
2. Pressure force on CD acting perpendicular to face CD in Fig.1.13 – Forces on a fluid element
vertically upward direction.

1.14
𝜕𝑝
= (𝑝 + × ∆𝑍) × ∆A
𝜕𝑍
3. Weight of fluid element.
= 𝜌 × 𝑉 × 𝑔 = 𝜌 × (∆𝐴 × ∆𝑍) × 𝑔
4. Pressure forces on surfaces BC and AD are equal and opposite.
For equilibrium of fluid element, we have

𝜕𝑝
∴ 𝑝 × ∆A − (𝑝 + × ∆𝑍) × ∆A + 𝜌 × (∆𝐴 × ∆𝑍) × 𝑔 = 0
𝜕𝑍
𝜕𝑝
∴ 𝑝 × ∆A − 𝑝 × ∆A − × ∆𝑍 × ∆A + 𝜌 × (∆𝐴 × ∆𝑍) × 𝑔 = 0
𝜕𝑍
𝜕𝑝
∴ × ∆𝑍 × ∆A = 𝜌 × (∆𝐴 × ∆𝑍) × 𝑔
𝜕𝑍
𝜕𝑝
∴ =𝜌×𝑔=𝑤 Eq. (1.15)
𝜕𝑍
where w = Weight density of fluid.
Eq. (1.15) states that rate of increase of pressure in a vertical direction is equal to weight density of the
fluid at that point. This is Hydrostatic Law.
By integrating the above Eq. (1.15) for liquids, we get
∴ ∫ 𝑑𝑝 = ∫ 𝜌𝑔𝑑𝑧 = 𝜌𝑔𝑧
∴ 𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔𝑧 Eq. (1.16)
where p is the pressure above atmospheric pressure and Z is the height of the point from free surfaces.
From Eq. (1.16), we have
𝑝
∴𝑧= Eq. (1.17)
𝜌𝑔
Here Z is called pressure head.
1.15 Absolute, Gauge, Atmospheric and Vacuum Pressures

The pressure on a fluid is measured in two different systems. In one system, it is measured above the
absolute zero or complete vacuum and it is called the absolute pressure and in another system, the
pressure is measured above the atmospheric pressure and it is called gauge pressure. Thus:
1. Absolute pressure: It is defined as the pressure which is measured with reference to absolute vacuum
pressure.
2. Gauge pressure: It is defined as the pressure which is measured with the help of a pressure measuring
instrument, in which the atmospheric pressure is taken as the datum. The atmospheric pressure on
the scale is marked as zero.
3. Vacuum pressure: It is defined as the pressure below the atmospheric pressure.
The relationship between the absolute pressure, gauge pressure and vacuum pressure are shown in
Fig.1.14.

1.15
Fig.1.14 – Relationship between pressures
Mathematically,
Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure + Gauge pressure
𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝑝𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒
Vacuum pressure = Atmospheric pressure - Absolute pressure.

𝑝𝑣𝑎𝑐 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 − 𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠
1.16 Measurement of Pressure

Various devices used to measure fluid pressure can be classified into,
1. Manometers
2. Mechanical gauges
Manometers
Manometers are defined as the devices used for measuring the pressure at a point in a fluid by balancing
the column of fluid by the same or another column of the fluid. They are classified as:
(a) Simple Manometers,
(b) Differential Manometers.
1.17 Simple Manometers

A simple manometer consists of a glass tube having one of its ends connected to a point where pressure
is to be measured and the other end remains open to atmosphere. Common types of simple manometers
are:
1. Piezometer
2. U-tube Manometer, and
3. Single Column Manometer.

1.16
Piezometer
It consists of a glass tube inserted in the wall of the vessel or pipe at the
level of a point at which the intensity of pressure is to be measured as
shown in Fig.1.15. The other end of the piezometer is exposed to air.
The height of the liquid in the piezometer gives the pressure head from
which the intensity of the pressure can be calculated. If at a point A, the
height of liquid say water h in piezometer tube, then the pressure at point
A is given by
𝑁
𝑝𝐴 = 𝜌 × 𝑔 × ℎ
𝑚2
Merits:
1. Simple in construction
Fig.1.15 – Piezometer
2. Economical
Demerits:
1. Not suitable for high pressure intensity.
2. The pressure of gases cannot be measured.
U-tube Manometer
It consists of a glass tube bent in U-shape, one end of which is connected to a point at which pressure is
to be measured and the other end remains open to the atmosphere as shown in Fig.1.16.
The tube generally contains mercury or any other liquid whose specific gravity is greater than the specific
gravity of the liquid whose pressure is to be measured.
Fig.1.16 – U-tube Manometer

A) For Gauge Pressure
Let B is the point at which pressure is to be measured, whose value is p. The datum line is A -A as shown
in Fig.1.16(a).
Let
h1 = Height of light liquid above the datum line
h2 = Height of heavy liquid above the datum line

1.17
S1 = Specific gravity of light liquid
ρ1 = Density of light liquid = 1000 × S1
S1 = Specific gravity of heavy liquid
ρ1 = Density of heavy liquid = 1000 × S1
As the pressure is the same for the horizontal surface. Hence pressure above the horizontal datum line A-
A in the left column and in the right column of the U-tube manometer should be the same.
Pressure above A-A in the left column = 𝑝 + (𝜌1 × 𝑔 × ℎ1 )
Pressure above A-A in the right column = 𝜌2 × 𝑔 × ℎ2
Hence equating the two pressures
∴ 𝑝 + (𝜌1 × 𝑔 × ℎ1 ) = 𝜌2 × 𝑔 × ℎ2
∴ 𝑝 = 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2 − 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1 Eq. (1.18)
B) For Vacuum Pressure

For measuring vacuum pressure, the level of the heavy liquid in the manometer will be as shown in
Fig.1.16(b). Then as per pascal’s law
Pressure above A-A in the left column = Pressure above A-A in the right column
∴ 𝑝 + 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2 + 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1 = 0
∴ 𝑝 = −(𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2 + 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1 ) Eq. (1.19)
Single Column Manometer

A single column manometer is a modified form of a U-tube manometer in which a reservoir having a large
cross-sectional area (100 times) as compared to the cross-sectional area of U – tube connected to it as
shown in Fig.1.17.
For any change in pressure, change in the level of manometric liquid in the reservoir is small and change
in level of manometric liquid in the U- tube is large. The other limb may be vertical or inclined. Thus there
are two type of single column manometer as:
1. Vertical single column manometer
2. Inclined single column manometer
1.17.3.1 Vertical Single Column Manometer

Fig.1.17 shows the vertical single column manometer.
Let X–X be the datum line in the reservoir and in the right
limb of the manometer when it is not connected to the
pipe.
When the manometer is connected to the pipe, due to
high pressure at A, the heavy liquid in the reservoir will be
pushed downwards and will rise in the right limb.
Let
∆ℎ = 𝐹𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟
ℎ2 = 𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏
ℎ1 = 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑋 – 𝑋
𝑝𝐴 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝐴, 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝐴 = 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟 Fig.1.17 – Vertical single column manometer
𝑎 = 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏
𝑆1 = 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜌1 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒
𝑆2 = 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜌2 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑

1.18
Fall of heavy liquid in reservoir will cause a rise of heavy liquid level in the right limb.
∴ 𝐴 × ∆ℎ = 𝑎 × ℎ2
𝑎 × ℎ2
∴ ∆ℎ = Eq. (1.20)
𝐴
Now consider the datum line Y–Y as shown in Fig.1.17. Applying Pascal’s law:
Pressure in the left limb above Y-Y = Pressure in the right limb above Y-Y
∴ 𝑝𝐴 + {𝜌1 𝑔(ℎ1 + ∆ℎ)} = 𝜌2 𝑔(ℎ2 + ∆ℎ)
∴ 𝑝𝐴 = {𝜌2 𝑔(ℎ2 + ∆ℎ)} − {𝜌1 𝑔(ℎ1 + ∆ℎ)}
∴ 𝑝𝐴 = ∆ℎ {𝜌2 𝑔 − 𝜌1 𝑔} + 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2 − 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1
Putting value of Eq. (1.20) in above equation
𝑎 × ℎ2
∴ 𝑝𝐴 = {𝜌2 𝑔 − 𝜌1 𝑔} + 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2 − 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1 Eq. (1.21)
𝐴
𝑎
As the area A is very large as compared to a, hence ratio becomes very small and can be neglected. Then
𝐴
𝑝𝐴 = 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2 − 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1 Eq. (1.22)
From Eq. (1.22), it is clear that as h1 is known and hence by knowing h2 or rise of heavy liquid in the right
limb, the pressure at A can be calculated.
1.17.3.2 Inclined Single Column Manometer

Fig.1.18 shows the inclined single column manometer. This manometer is more sensitive. Due to
inclination the distance moved by the heavy liquid in the right limb will be more.
Fig.1.18 – Inclined single column manometer
Let
𝐿 = 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑋 − 𝑋
𝜃 = 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙
ℎ2 = 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑜 𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑋 − 𝑋 = 𝐿 × sin 𝜃
From Eq. (1.22), the pressure at A is
𝑝𝐴 = 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2 − 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1
Substituting the value of h2 , we get
𝑝𝐴 = sin 𝜃 × 𝜌2 𝑔 − 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1 . Eq. (1.23)

1.19
Differential Manometers
Differential manometers are used to measure the pressure difference between two points. It is consists
of a U-tube, containing heavy liquid, whose two ends are connected to the two points, whose difference of
pressure is to be measured.
Types of differential manometers are: 1. U-tube Differential manometers 2. Inverted U-tube differential
manometers
1.17.4.1 U-tube Differential Manometer

Fig.1.19shows the differential manometers of U-tube type.
In Fig.1.19(a), the two points A and B are at different level and also contains liquids of different specific
gravity. These points are connected to the U-tube differential manometer. Let the pressure at A and B are
pA and pB.
Let
ℎ = 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑈 − 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒
𝑦 = 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐵, 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏
𝑥 = 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴, 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏
𝜌1 = 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝐴
𝜌2 = 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝐵
𝜌𝑚 = 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦
Fig.1.19 – U-tube differential manometers.
Taking datum line at X–X .

Applying Pascal’s law
Pressure above X–X in left limb = Pressure above X–X in right limb
∴ 𝑝𝐴 + 𝜌1 𝑔(ℎ + 𝑥) = 𝑝𝐵 + 𝜌2 𝑔𝑦 + 𝜌𝑚 𝑔ℎ
∴ 𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 = 𝜌𝑚 𝑔ℎ + 𝜌2 𝑔𝑦 − 𝜌1 𝑔(ℎ + 𝑥)
∴ 𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 = 𝑔ℎ(𝜌𝑚 − 𝜌1 ) + 𝜌2 𝑔𝑦 − 𝜌1 𝑔𝑥
Difference of pressure at A and B = 𝑔ℎ(𝜌𝑚 − 𝜌1 ) + 𝜌2 𝑔𝑦 − 𝜌1 𝑔𝑥 Eq. (1.24)
In Fig.1.19(b), the two points A and B are at the same level and contains the same liquid of density 𝜌1 . Then
applying Pascal’s law at datum X–X in Fig.1.19(b),
Pressure above X–X in left limb = Pressure above X–X in right limb

1.20
∴ 𝑝𝐴 + 𝜌1 𝑔(ℎ + 𝑥) = 𝑝𝐵 + 𝜌1 𝑔𝑥 + 𝜌𝑚 𝑔ℎ
∴ 𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 = 𝜌𝑚 𝑔ℎ + 𝜌1 𝑔𝑥 − 𝜌1 𝑔(ℎ + 𝑥)
∴ 𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 = 𝑔ℎ(𝜌𝑚 − 𝜌1 ) Eq. (1.25)
1.17.4.2 Inverted U-tube Differential Manometer

It consists of an inverted U-tube, containing a light
liquid. The two ends of the tube are connected to the
points whose difference of pressure is to be measured.
It is used for measuring difference of low pressures.
Fig.1.20 shows an inverted U-tube differential
manometer connected to the two points A and B. Let
the pressure at A is more than the pressure at B.
Let
ℎ1 = 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏
ℎ2 = 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏
ℎ = 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝜌1 = 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝐴
𝜌2 = 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝐵 Fig.1.20 – Inverted U-tube differential manometer
𝜌𝑠 = 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑝𝐴 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝐴
𝑝𝐵 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝐵
Taking X–X as datum line. Applying pascal’s law, then
Pressure in the left limb below X–X = Pressure in the left limb below X–X
∴ 𝑝𝐴 − 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1 = 𝑝𝐵 − 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2 − 𝜌𝑔 𝑔ℎ
∴ 𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 = 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1 − 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2 − 𝜌𝑔 𝑔ℎ Eq. (1.26)

1.21
Contents
3.1 Introduction to Fluid Kinematics and Fluid Flow ............................................................................ 3.2

3.2 Types of Fluid Flow ........................................................................................................................... 3.2
3.3 Methods of Describing the Fluid Flow ............................................................................................. 3.4
3.4 Discharge and Conservation of Mass.............................................................................................. 3.4
3.5 Continuity Equation for 3-D Flow in Cartesian Coordinate System ............................................... 3.5
3.6 Velocity and Acceleration ................................................................................................................. 3.7
3.7 Concepts of Flow Visualization ........................................................................................................ 3.8
3.8 Rotation and Vorticity ..................................................................................................................... 3.10
3.9 Circulation (𝚪) ................................................................................................................................. 3.13
3.10 Stream Function (𝚿) ....................................................................................................................... 3.13
3.11 Velocity Potential Function 𝝓 ......................................................................................................... 3.15
3.12 Vortex Flow ...................................................................................................................................... 3.16
3.13 References ....................................................................................................................................... 3.17
3.1 Introduction to Fluid Kinematics and Fluid Flow
Fluid kinematics deals with describing the motion of fluids without considering the forces and moments
that cause the motion.
When the fluid flows over a surface or any boundary, the velocity of the fluid in contact with the boundary
must be the same as that of the boundary, and a velocity gradient is created at right angles to the boundary.
The shear stresses are developed when the fluid is in motion. The resulting motion is not easily analyzed
mathematically, and it is often necessary to enhance theory by experiment.
3.2 Types of Fluid Flow

The fluid flows can be:
1. Steady and Unsteady
2. Uniform and Non-uniform
3. Laminar and Turbulent
4. Compressible and Incompressible
5. Rotational and Irrotational
6. One, Two and Three Dimensional
3.2.1 Steady and Unsteady Flow

Steady Flow Unsteady Flow
 The flow in which fluid characteristics like  The flow in which fluid characteristics like
velocity, acceleration, pressure or density do velocity, acceleration, pressure or density
not change with time at any point in the fluid is change with time at any point in the fluid is
called steady flow. called unsteady flow.
 Mathematically,  Mathematically,
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑣 ∂p ∂v
= 0, =0 ≠ 0, ≠0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 ∂t ∂t
 Example: Flow of water with a constant  Example: Flow of water with a varying
discharge through a pipe. discharge through a pipe.
3.2.2 Uniform and Non-uniform Flow

Uniform Flow Non-uniform Flow
 The flow in which velocity of the flow at a given  The flow in which velocity of the flow at a given
time does not change with respect to space is time changes with respect to space is called
called uniform flow. non-uniform flow.
 Mathematically,  Mathematically,
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
( ) =0 ( ) ≠0
𝜕𝑠 𝑡=𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝜕𝑠 𝑡=𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
 Example: A flow through a constant diameter  Example: A flow through a pipe having a
pipe. varying cross-section.
Prof. Bhavin J. Vegada, Department of Mechanical Engineering

3.2 Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulic Machines (3141906)
Unit-3 Motion of Fluid Particles and Streams
3.2.3 Laminar and Turbulent Flow
Laminar Flow Turbulent Flow
 Laminar flow is one in which the fluid particles  A turbulent flow is one in which the fluid
moves along well-defined paths or particles moves in a zig-zag way.
streamlines.
 The fluid particles do not move along the well-
 There is no movement of fluid particles from defined path and cross from one layer to
one layer to another. another.
 It is also known as streamline flow or viscous  Thus eddies formation takes place which is
flow where the velocity of flow is very small. responsible for high energy loss.
 Examples: Flow of blood in small veins, Oil flow  Examples: Flow-through river or canals, Smoke
in bearings, etc. from a chimney, etc.
3.2.4 Compressible and Incompressible Flow

Compressible Flow Incompressible Flow
 The flow in which the density of fluid does not  The flow in which the density of fluid remains
remain constant during the flow is called constant during the flow is called
compressible flow. incompressible flow.
 Gases are highly compressible.  Most of the liquids are incompressible.
 Examples: Flow of gases through an orifice,  Examples: Flow of liquids through an orifice,
nozzle, turbine, compressor, etc. nozzle, turbine, pump, etc.
3.2.5 Rotational and Irrotational Flow

Rotational Flow Irrotational Flow
 The rotational flow is a flow in which the fluid  The irrotational flow is a flow in which the fluid
particles while flowing along streamlines, also particles while flowing along streamlines, do
rotates about their own axis. not rotates about their own axis.
 Example: Motion of liquid in a rotating cylinder.  Example: Flow of water in emptying
washbasin.
3.2.6 One, Two and Three Dimensional Flow

1-D Flow 2-D Flow 3-D Flow
 One-dimensional flow is a  Two-dimensional flow is a  Three-dimensional flow is a
flow in which the velocity of flow in which the velocity of flow in which the velocity of
the flow is a function of time the flow is a function of time the flow is a function of time
and one space coordinate and two space coordinates and three space coordinates
(𝑥, 𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑧). (𝑥𝑦, 𝑥𝑧 𝑜𝑟 𝑦𝑧). (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧).
 Mathematically,  Mathematically,  Mathematically,
𝑢 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑡) 𝑢 = 𝑓1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡) 𝑢 = 𝑓1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)
𝑣=0 𝑣 = 𝑓2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡) 𝑣 = 𝑓2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)
𝑤=0 𝑤=0 𝑤 = 𝑓3 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)
 Example: The flow through a  Example: The flow between  Example: Flow in converging
pipe. two parallel plates. or diverging pipe section.

Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulic Machines (3141906) 3.3
3.3 Methods of Describing the Fluid Flow
During fluid motion, each fluid particle has its own velocity and acceleration at any point of time. Velocity
and acceleration of a particle may change with time or position. Two methods are used in describing the
fluid motion (1) Langrangian Method and (2) Eulerian Method.
In the Langrangian method, the observer follows a single fluid particle during its motion and will observe
the change in its properties like velocity, acceleration, density, etc.
In the Eulerian method, the observer concentrates on a fixed point or a region and will observe the change
in velocity, acceleration, density, etc. at that point only.
3.3.1 Difference between the Langrangian and the Eulerian Approach
Table 3.1 - Difference Between Langrangian and Eulerian Approach
Sr. No. Langrangian Method Eulerian Method

1 Observer concentrates on the movement of An observer concentrates on the fixed point
a single fluid particle particles
2 An observer has to move with the fluid An observer remains stationary and
particle to observe its movement. observes changes in the fluid parameters at
the fixed point only
3 The path & changes in velocity, acceleration, The method describes the overall flow
pressure and density of a single particle are characteristics at various points as fluid
described particles pass
4 Not commonly used Commonly used
3.4 Discharge and Conservation of Mass

Discharge:
Discharge is defined as a quantity of fluid flowing per second through a section of pipe or a channel.
For liquids, the units of discharge (𝑄) are 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐 or 𝑙𝑖𝑡/𝑠𝑒𝑐. For gases, the units are 𝑘𝑔𝑓/𝑠𝑒𝑐 or 𝑁/𝑠𝑒𝑐.
Mathematically, Discharge is given by,
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑄= = = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝐴 × 𝑣
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
Conservation of Mass Principle or Continuity Equation:
The principle of conservation of mass states that mass cannot be created nor destroyed.
For a control volume,
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐶. 𝑉. −𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐶. 𝑉.
= 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐶. 𝑉.
𝑑𝑚𝐶𝑉
∴ 𝑚̇𝑖𝑛 − 𝑚̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑚𝐶𝑉
For steady flow, 𝑑𝑡
=0
∴ 𝑚̇𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚̇𝑜𝑢𝑡

For 1-D, steady flow,
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑄 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
∴ 𝑚̇ = 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑣2 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
For incompressible flow,
𝜌 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
∴ 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
3.5 Continuity Equation for 3-D Flow in Cartesian Coordinate System

 Consider a control volume or fluid element of lengths 𝑑𝑥, 𝑑𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑧 in the 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 direction
respectively. Let 𝑢, 𝑣 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤 are the inlet velocity components in 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 directions respectively.
Fig.3.1 – 3-Dimensional Fluid Element
 Mass of fluid entering the face ABCD per second,
𝑚̇𝑖𝑛𝑥 = 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷
∴ 𝑚̇𝑖𝑛𝑥 = 𝜌 × 𝑢 × (𝑑𝑦 × 𝑑𝑧) Eq. (3.1)
 Mass of fluid leaving the face EFGH per second,
𝜕(𝑚̇𝑖𝑛𝑥 )
𝑚̇𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑥 = 𝑚̇𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥
𝜕(𝜌𝑢𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧)
∴ 𝑚̇𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑥 = 𝜌𝑢𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 + 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥
𝜕(𝜌𝑢) Eq. (3.2)
∴ 𝑚̇𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑥 = 𝜌𝑢𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥
 The gain of mass in 𝑥 – direction,
𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑚̇𝑖𝑛𝑥 − 𝑚̇𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑥

𝜕(𝜌𝑢)
∴ 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝜌𝑢𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 − 𝜌𝑢𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 − 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥
𝜕(𝜌𝑢) Eq. (3.3)
∴ 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = − 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥
Similarly,

 The gain of mass in 𝑦 – direction,
𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑦 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑚̇𝑖𝑛𝑦 − 𝑚̇𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑦
𝜕(𝜌𝑣)
∴ 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑦 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝜌𝑣𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 − 𝜌𝑣𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 − 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑦
𝜕(𝜌𝑣) Eq. (3.4)
∴ 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑦 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = − 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑦
And,
 The gain of mass in 𝑧 – direction,
𝜕(𝜌𝑤) Eq. (3.5)

∴ 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑧 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = − 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑧
Therefore,
 Net gain of masses,
𝜕(𝜌𝑢) 𝜕(𝜌𝑣) 𝜕(𝜌𝑤)
∴ 𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 = − [ + + ] 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 Eq. (3.6)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
 Since the mass is neither created nor destroyed, the net increase of mass must be equals to the
rate of increase of mass of fluid in the element.
 But, the mass of fluid in the element is 𝜌𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧, and its rate of increase with time is,
𝜕(𝜌𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧)
=
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝜌
= 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 Eq. (3.7)
𝜕𝑡
 For a control volume or fluid element,
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

𝜕(𝜌𝑢) 𝜕(𝜌𝑣) 𝜕(𝜌𝑤) 𝜕𝜌
∴ −[ + + ] 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
𝝏𝝆 𝝏(𝝆𝒖) 𝝏(𝝆𝒗) 𝝏(𝝆𝒘)
∴ + + + =𝟎 Eq. (3.8)
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛
 Eq. (3.8) is the continuity equation in cartesian coordinates in its most general form. This equation
applies to:
1) Steady and Unsteady flow
2) Uniform and Non-uniform flow
3) Compressible and Incompressible flow
 For Steady flow,

𝜕𝜌
=0
𝜕𝑡
𝝏(𝝆𝒖) 𝝏(𝝆𝒗) 𝝏(𝝆𝒘)
∴ + + =𝟎 Eq. (3.9)
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛
 If the fluid is incompressible, then 𝜌 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒘
∴ + + =𝟎 Eq. (3.10)
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛
 For a 2-D flow, 𝑤 = 0
𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒗
∴ + =𝟎 Eq. (3.11)
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚
3.6 Velocity and Acceleration

Let 𝑉 is the resultant velocity at any point in a fluid flow. Let 𝑢, 𝑣 and 𝑤 are its components in 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧
directions. The velocity components are the functions of space coordinates and time.
Mathematically the velocity components are given as,
𝑢 = 𝑓1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)
𝑣 = 𝑓2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)
𝑤 = 𝑓3 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)
Resultant velocity is given by,
𝑉 = 𝑢𝑖 + 𝑣𝑗 + 𝑤𝑘
∴ 𝑽 = √𝒖𝟐 + 𝒗𝟐 + 𝒘𝟐 Eq. (3.12)
Let 𝑎𝑥 , 𝑎𝑦 and 𝑎𝑧 are the total acceleration in 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧directions respectively. Then by the chain rule of
differentiation, we have,
𝑑𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑢
𝑎𝑥 = = + + +
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡
But,
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= 𝑢, = 𝑣, =𝑤
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝒅𝒖 𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒖
∴ 𝒂𝒙 = =𝒖 +𝒗 +𝒘 + Eq. (3.13)
𝒅𝒕 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒕
Similarly,
𝒅𝒗 𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒗
∴ 𝒂𝒚 = =𝒖 +𝒗 +𝒘 + Eq. (3.14)
And,
𝒅𝒘 𝝏𝒘 𝝏𝒘 𝝏𝒘 𝝏𝒘 Eq. (3.15)
∴ 𝒂𝒛 = =𝒖 +𝒗 +𝒘 +
Resultant acceleration is given by,

𝐴 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑖 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗 + 𝑎𝑧 𝑘
∴ 𝑨 = √𝒂𝒙 𝟐 + 𝒂𝒚 𝟐 + 𝒂𝒛 𝟐 Eq. (3.16)

3.6.1 Local Acceleration
Local acceleration is defined as the rate of increase of velocity with respect to time at a given point in a
u v w
flow field. In Eq. (3.13) to Eq. (3.15), the terms , or is known as local acceleration.
t t t
3.6.2 Convective Acceleration

Convective acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity due to the change of position of fluid
u v w
particles in a fluid flow. In Eq. (3.13) to Eq. (3.15), the terms other than , or are known as
t t t
convective acceleration.
 For Steady flow,
u v w
For steady flow, , and are zero, therefore local acceleration is zero but convective
t t t
acceleration is not necessarily zero.
 For Uniform flow,
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
For uniform flow, derivatives with respect to space coordinates i.e. , , 𝑒𝑡𝑐. are zero, therefore
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
convective acceleration is zero but local acceleration is not necessarily zero.
 For Steady & Uniform flow,
For steady and uniform flow, both local and convective acceleration is zero, therefore, total
acceleration is zero.
3.7 Concepts of Flow Visualization

Flow visualization is useful in physical experiments, numerical solutions as well as in computational fluid
dynamics (CFD). Some of the important concepts of flow visualization to describe the motion of a fluid
are explained below.
3.7.1 Stream Line

“A stream line is an imaginary line drawn through a flowing
fluid in such a way that, at an instant of time, the tangent at
each point on the line represents the instantaneous velocity
vector at that point.”
Key Points:
 There cannot be any flow across the stream line as
Fig.3.2 – The Stream Line
the flow is always tangential to the stream line.
 Two stream lines cannot cross each other as otherwise there would be two velocities at that point
(fluid particle at that point), which is physically impossible.
 At a different time, you will get different streamlines.
 In steady flow, the pattern of stream lines remains the same with time. So you get same
streamlines at all instant of time.
 Since the velocity of the fluid particle at any point on the stream line is tangential to the stream
line, there cannot be any component of velocity normal or right angle to the stream line.

Derivation of Equation of Stream Line:
Let us consider an infinitesimally small distance 𝑑𝑟⃗ as
shown in Fig.3.3. It becomes tangent to the stream line.
Here velocity vector,
⃗⃗ = 𝑢𝑖̂ + 𝑣𝑗̂ + 𝑤𝑘̂
𝑉
And,
𝑟̅ = 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂
∴ 𝑑𝑟̅ = 𝑑𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑑𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑑𝑧𝑘̂ Fig.3.3 – The Stream Line
⃗⃗ are parallel vectors,
As 𝑑𝑟⃗ and 𝑉
⃗⃗ = 0̅ (𝑁𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟)
∴ 𝑑𝑟⃗ × 𝑉
𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
∴ [𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧] = 0
𝑢 𝑣 𝑤
Scalar equations are,
𝑤𝑑𝑦 − 𝑣𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝑤𝑑𝑥 − 𝑢𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝑣𝑑𝑥 − 𝑢𝑑𝑦 = 0
Therefore, the equation of stream line is:
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒛 Eq. (3.17)
∴ = =
𝒖 𝒗 𝒘
3.7.2 Stream Tube

“A stream tube is an imaginary tube consists of stream lines,
forming its boundary surface, which does not permit the fluid
across it.”
Key Points:
 Stream tube may be of regular or irregular shape.
 As stream tube is bounded by stream lines, therefore no

fluid can enter or leave the stream tube from its Fig.3.4 – A Stream Tube
boundary. Hence stream tube behaves as a solid surface tube.
 The general continuity equation can be applied to stream tube though it has no solid boundaries.
 In steady flow with uniform velocity, all stream lines are straight and parallel.
3.7.3 Streak Line or Filament Line

“It is an instantaneous picture of the positions of all fluid
particles in the flow which have passed or emerged from a given
point.”
Examples:
 The line of smoke from a chimney is a streak line.
 A dye when injected into the flowing fluid and a resultant

coloured lines after some time gives the streak lines.
Fig.3.5 – A Streak Line

3.7.4 Path Line
“It is the actual path travelled by an individual fluid particle over a
period of time.”
 The locus of the same fluid particle over a time period 𝑡1 to 𝑡2
is called a path line.
 The path line may intersect itself at different times.
 A path line is a Langrangian concept in that we simply follow

the path of an individual fluid particle as it moves around in
the flow field. Fig.3.6 – A Path Line
3.7.5 Difference Between Stream Line, Streak Line and Path Line
Table 3.2 - Difference between Stream line, Streak line and Path line
Sr. No. Stream Line Streak Line Path Line

1 It is an imaginary line It is a real line showing It is a real line showing the
showing positions of various instantaneous positions of successive position of one
fluid particles. various particles. particle.
2 Particles may change May change from instant to Particles may cross its path
stream line depending on the instant. line.
type of flow.
3 Stream lines cannot Streak line changes with Two path lines for two
intersect each other, they are time. Two streak lines may particles may intersect each
always parallel. intersect each other. other.
4 No flow across stream line. Flow across the streak line is Flow across a path line is
possible. possible by other particles.
Note: In a steady flow, there is no geometrical distinction between the stream line, streak line and path
line. They are identical if they originate at the same point.
3.8 Rotation and Vorticity
3.8.1 Rotation (𝝎)

“Rotation is defined as the movement of a fluid element in
such a way that both of its horizontal, as well as vertical
axis, rotate in the same direction.”
Flow is said to be rotational if fluid particles are rotating
about their own axis while flowing along the stream line.
Rotation of a fluid particle takes place about an axis which
is perpendicular to the plane formed by the two elements.
E.g. in 𝑥 − 𝑦 plane, the rotation will take place about Z-
axis.
Mathematically, rotation of a fluid particle at a point is
given by the average angular velocity of two perpendicular
linear elements of a fluid particle. Fig.3.7 – Rotation about Z-axis
Let us consider a rectangular fluid element ABCD in 𝑥 − 𝑦 plane as shown in Fig.3.7.
𝜕𝑢
The velocity components in 𝑥 − direction at point A and D are 𝑢 and 𝑢 + 𝑑𝑦. Similarly, the velocity
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑣
components in 𝑦 − direction at points A and B are 𝑣 and 𝑣 + 𝑑𝑥.
𝜕𝑥
Since these velocities are different, there will be angular velocity developed for line AB and AD.
In time interval 𝑑𝑡, the elements AB and AD would move relative to point A. Hence the element ABCD
rotates by angle 𝑑𝜃 and takes new position AB’C’D’.
Consider anti-clockwise rotation as positive.
Here, the distance BB’ is given by,
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐵𝐵′ = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝜕𝑣
∴ 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐵𝐵′ = [𝑣 + 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑣] × 𝑑𝑡
𝜕𝑥
Similarly, distance DD’ is,
𝜕𝑢
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐷𝐷 ′ = [𝑢 − 𝑢 − 𝑑𝑦] × 𝑑𝑡
𝜕𝑦
Now, the angular velocity of element AB about Z-axis is,
𝑑𝜃 (𝐵𝐵′/𝐴𝐵)
𝜔𝐴𝐵 = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜕𝑣
[𝑣 + 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑣] × 𝑑𝑡/𝑑𝑥
∴ 𝜔𝐴𝐵 = 𝜕𝑥
𝑑𝑡
𝜕𝑣
∴ 𝜔𝐴𝐵 =
𝜕𝑥
Similarly, the angular velocity of element AD about Z-axis is,
𝑑𝜃 (𝐷𝐷′/𝐴𝐷)
𝜔𝐴𝐷 = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜕𝑢
[𝑢 − 𝑢 − 𝑑𝑦] × 𝑑𝑡/𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑦
∴ 𝜔𝐴𝐷 =
𝑑𝑡
𝜕𝑢
∴ 𝜔𝐴𝐷 = −
𝜕𝑦
The average of 𝜔𝐴𝐵 and 𝜔𝐴𝐷 will give the rotation of fluid flow about Z-axis.
1
∴ 𝜔𝑧 = [𝜔𝐴𝐵 + 𝜔𝐴𝐷 ]
2
𝟏 𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒖 Eq. (3.18)
∴ 𝝎𝒛 = [ − ]
𝟐 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚
Similarly, rotation about 𝑥 and 𝑦 axis can be obtained as,
𝟏 𝝏𝒘 𝝏𝒗
∴ 𝝎𝒙 = [ − ] Eq. (3.19)
𝟐 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛
𝟏 𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒘
∴ 𝝎𝒚 = [ − ] Eq. (3.20)
𝟐 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒙

In vector notation,
Rotational vector,
𝜔 = 𝜔𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝜔𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝜔𝑧 𝑘̂
OR
1
𝜔 = (𝛻 × 𝑣)
2
Where,
(𝛻 × 𝑣) is the curl of the velocity vector.
𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
(𝛻 × 𝑣) = [ 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑢 𝑣 𝑤
𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
=( − ) 𝑖̂ + ( − ) 𝑗̂ + ( − ) 𝑘̂
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
∴ (𝛻 × 𝑣) = 2𝜔𝑥 𝑖̂ + 2𝜔𝑦 𝑗̂ + 2𝜔𝑧 𝑘̂
𝟏 Eq. (3.21)
∴𝝎= (𝜵 × 𝒗)
𝟐
3.8.2 Vorticity (𝝃)

 It is twice the value of rotation.
∴ 𝜉 = 2𝜔 = (𝛻 × 𝑣)
 Vorticity components can be written as,
𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣
𝜉𝑥 = 2𝜔𝑥 = [ − ]
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤
𝜉𝑦 = 2𝜔𝑦 = [ − ]
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
𝜉𝑧 = 2𝜔𝑧 = [ − ]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
3.8.3 Conditions for Irrotational Flow

The irrotational flow will have both the rotation and vorticity as zero.
Irrotational flow can also be defined as:
“When the components of rotation or vorticity are zero throughout the region in the flow then flow in that
region is described as irrotational flow.”
 Therefore, for irrotational flow,
𝝃 =𝟎
𝝎 =𝟎
(𝜵 × 𝒗) = 𝟎

3.9 Circulation (𝚪)
The flow along a closed curve is called circulation.

Mathematically, Line integral of the tangential velocity of the
fluid around a closed curve is called circulation.
Consider a closed curve or contour as shown in Fig.3.8.
Let, at any point on the curve the velocity of flow of fluid is 𝑣.
If 𝛼 is the angle between a small element 𝑑𝑆 along the curve in
tangential direction and velocity of flow 𝑣. Fig.3.8 – Circulation for a closed contour
Then, the tangential component of velocity = 𝑣 cos 𝛼
By definition, the circulation along a closed contour or curve
is,
∴ 𝛤 = ∫ 𝑣 cos 𝛼 . 𝑑𝑆
Here, an integral sign indicates summation around the

contour.
3.9.1 Circulation for Rectangular Fluid Element

In the case of rectangular fluid element ABCD, as shown in
Fig.3.9, the total circulation is given by,
𝛤 = 𝛤𝐴𝐵 + 𝛤𝐵𝐶 + 𝛤𝐶𝐷 + 𝛤𝐷𝐴 Fig.3.9 – Circulation for rectangular element

𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
∴ 𝛤 = 𝑢𝑑𝑥 + [𝑣 + 𝑑𝑥] 𝑑𝑦 − [𝑢 + 𝑑𝑦] 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑣𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
∴𝛤=[ − ] 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜞 𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒖 Eq. (3.22)
∴ = − = 𝝃𝒛 = 𝟐𝝎𝒛
𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚
 Hence, vorticity can also be defined as circulation per unit area.
 For irrotational flow, vorticity=0, hence circulation around any closed path is zero.
3.10 Stream Function (𝚿)

 It is defined for a 2-d, incompressible & steady flow in such a way that it will satisfy the continuity
equation.
 Continuity equation for 2-D, incompressible and steady flow is:
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
+ =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
 Here we will transform two parameters 𝑢 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 in terms of a single parameter, that satisfy
continuity equation.
𝝏𝝍 𝝏𝝍 Eq. (3.23)
∴∴ 𝒖 = − 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒗 = +
𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒙

Where,
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝜓 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)
𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
∴ 𝑑𝜓 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
∴ 𝑑𝜓 = 𝑣𝑑𝑥 − 𝑢𝑑𝑦
If stream function is constant, then 𝑑𝜓 = 0
∴ 0 = 𝑣𝑑𝑥 − 𝑢𝑑𝑦
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒚
∴ =
𝒖 𝒗
Which is an equation of stream line. Therefore, stream function is always constant along a stream
line.
3.10.1 Continuity Equation for 2-D Flow in terms of Stream Function

 The continuity equation for steady, incompressible, 2-D flow is,
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
+ =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
By substituting the value of 𝑢 and 𝑣 from Eq. (3.23) in terms of stream function, we get,
𝜕 𝜕𝜓 𝜕 𝜕𝜓
(− ) + ( )=0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕2𝛹 𝜕2𝛹
∴− + =0
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑥
∴0=0
 Stream function (𝛹) satisfies the continuity equation, hence the existence of 𝛹 means a possible
case of fluid flow, which may be rotational or irrotational.
3.10.2 Laplace Equation of Stream Function for Irrotational Flow

 For 2-D flow in (𝑥, 𝑦) plane, the rotational component 𝜔𝑧 is given by Eq. (3.18),
1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
𝜔𝑧 = [ − ]
2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
By substituting the value of 𝑢 and 𝑣 from Eq. (3.23) in terms of stream function, we get,
1 𝜕 𝜕𝜓 𝜕 𝜕𝜓
𝜔𝑧 = [ ( ) − (− )]
2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
1 𝜕 𝜕𝜓 𝜕 𝜕𝜓
∴ 𝜔𝑧 = [ ( ) − (− )]
2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
1 𝜕2𝜓 𝜕2𝜓
∴ 𝜔𝑧 = [ 2 + 2 ]
2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
But for irrotational flow, 𝜔𝑧 = 0
𝝏𝟐 𝝍 𝝏 𝟐 𝝍 Eq. (3.24)
∴ + =𝟎
𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒚𝟐
Eq. (3.24) is called the Laplace equation for 𝜓.

3.10.3 Properties of Stream Function
The properties of the stream function are:
1) Stream function (Ψ) is constant along a stream line.
2) If stream function (Ψ) exists, it is a possible case of fluid flow, which may be rotational or
irrotational.
3) If stream function (Ψ) satisfy the Laplace equation, it is a possible case of irrotational flow.
3.11 Velocity Potential Function (𝝓)

 The flow always takes place from higher to lower pressure side. This potential difference resulting
in the flow of fluid is known as velocity potential.
 The velocity potential function is defined as a scalar function of space and time such that its
negative derivative with respect to any direction gives the fluid velocity in that direction.
Hence for a steady flow,
𝜙 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
Then,
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 Eq. (3.25)
∴𝑢=− , 𝑣=− , 𝑤=−
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
(Note: negative sign indicates that flow takes place in the direction in which velocity potential
function decreases. One can consider a positive sign also.)
 For irrotational flow, we have,
(𝛻 × 𝑣) = 0
𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
[ − ] = 0, [ − ] = 0, [ − ]=0
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
 The velocity potential function is defined in such a way that it will satisfy these equations of
irrotational flow. Hence if 𝝓 exists, the flow is irrotational.
3.11.1 Laplace Equation of Velocity Potential Function for Irrotational Flow

 For 3-D, steady, incompressible flow, the continuity equation is,
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
+ + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
By substituting the value of 𝑢, 𝑣 and 𝑤 from Eq. (3.25) in terms of velocity potential function, we get,
𝜕 𝜕𝜙 𝜕 𝜕𝜙 𝜕 𝜕𝜙
(− ) + (− ) + (− ) = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
𝝏𝟐 𝝓 𝝏 𝟐 𝝓 𝝏𝟐 𝝓 Eq. (3.26)
∴ + + =𝟎
𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒚𝟐 𝝏𝒛𝟐
Eq. (3.26) is called the Laplace equation for 𝜙.
3.11.2 Properties of Velocity Potential Function

The properties of the velocity potential function are:
1) velocity potential function (ϕ) is constant along an equipotential line.

2) If velocity potential function (ϕ) exists, the flow is irrotational (as it is defined only for irrotational
flow).
3) If velocity potential function (ϕ) satisfy the Laplace equation, it represents a possible steady,
incompressible and irrotational flow.
3.11.3 Equipotential Line and Stream Line are Orthogonal to Each Other
 Equipotential lines have velocity potential function as constant. For 2-D, steady, incompressible &
irrotational flow,
𝜙 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙
𝑑𝜙 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
∴ 𝑑𝜙 = 𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑑𝑦
If,𝜙 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝑑𝜙 = 0
∴ 0 = 𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑑𝑦
The slope of an equipotential line,
𝑑𝑦 𝑢
∴ =−
𝑑𝑥 𝜙=𝑐 𝑣
 Stream function along a stream line is constant. For 2-D, steady & incompressible flow,
𝜓 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)
𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
∴ 𝑑𝜓 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
∴ 𝑑𝜓 = 𝑣𝑑𝑥 − 𝑢𝑑𝑦
If,𝜓 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝜓 = 0
∴ 0 = 𝑣𝑑𝑥 − 𝑢𝑑𝑦
The slope of streamline,
𝑑𝑦 𝑣
∴ =+
𝑑𝑥 𝜓=𝑐 𝑢
 Now,
𝑣 𝑢
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 × 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = × (− ) = −𝟏
𝑢 𝑣
Hence the equipotential line and stream line are orthogonal or perpendicular to each other.
3.12 Vortex Flow

Vortex flow is defined as the flow of fluid along a curved path or the flow of a rotating mass of fluid is
known as Vortex flow.
The vortex is of two types:
1) Forced vortex flow
2) Free vortex flow

3.12.1 Forced Vortex Flow
Forced vortex flow is defined as a flow in which some external torque is used to rotate the fluid mass. The
fluid mass in forced vortex rotates at constant angular velocity 𝜔. Then the tangential velocity of any fluid
particle is given by,
𝑣 =𝜔×𝑟
Where 𝑟 is the radius of a fluid particle from the axis of rotation.
Examples of forced vortex flow:
1) The flow of fluid inside the impeller of the centrifugal pump.
2) The flow of water through the runner of a turbine.
3) A liquid mass in a container rotated about its central axis with constant angular velocity.
3.12.2 Free Vortex Flow

When the fluid mass rotates without application of external torque, then it is called free vortex flow. The
fluid in free vortex rotates due to the rotation imparted to the fluid previously.
Examples of free vortex flow:
1) A whirlpool in a river.
2) The flow of fluid through a hole provided at the bottom of a vessel.
3) The flow around a circular bend.
4) The flow in a casing of the centrifugal pump.
3.13 References
1) G. S. Sawhney “Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics”, 2008, I. K. International Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.
2) Yunus A. Cengel & John M. Simbala, “Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals & Applications”, 4 th Edition, 2017,
McGraw-Hill Education (India) Pvt. Ltd.
3) D. S. Kumar, “Fluid Mechanics & Fluid Power Engineering”, S. K. Kataria & Sons.
4) R. K. Bansal, “Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulic Machines”, 3 rd Edition, 2007, Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd.

Contents
4.1 Momentum & Fluid Flow ................................................................................................................... 4.2

4.2 Momentum Equation for 2-D Flow along a Streamline .................................................................. 4.2
4.3 Euler’s Equation of Motion along a Streamline ............................................................................... 4.4
4.4 Bernoulli’s Equation From Euler’s Equation .................................................................................... 4.5
4.5 Venturi Meter ..................................................................................................................................... 4.6
4.6 Hydraulic Coefficients ...................................................................................................................... 4.8
4.7 Orifice Meter ...................................................................................................................................... 4.9
4.8 Rotameter – Variable Area Flowmeter .......................................................................................... 4.12
4.9 Notches & Weirs .............................................................................................................................. 4.12
4.10 References ....................................................................................................................................... 4.16
4.1 Momentum & Fluid Flow
Fluid dynamics includes the study of forces causing fluid flow. It provides the methods for studying
complex phenomena like weather patterns, high-speed train, flow around objects, blood circulation, etc.
Thus dynamics of fluid flow is the study of fluid motion with forces causing the flow. The dynamic
behaviour of the flow is analyzed by Newton’s second law of motion.
Momentum:
In mechanics, the momentum of a particle or object is defined as the product of its mass (𝑚) and its
velocity (𝑣):
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = 𝑚 × 𝑣
e.g. A flying baseball can simply be caught with a glove whereas a moving vehicle is difficult to stop due
to its higher momentum.
Newton’s Second Law of Motion:
“Newton’s second law states that the rate of change of the momentum of a body is equal to the net force
acting on the body.”
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝐷𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑑
∴𝐹= (𝑚𝑣)
𝑑𝑡
∴ 𝐹𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑(𝑚𝑣) Eq. (4.1)
Eq. (4.1) is known as the impulse-momentum equation.
If the mass of the body is constant than equation is reduced to

𝑑𝑣
𝐹=𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑑𝑡
The momentum equation is used to find the resultant force exerted by a flowing fluid on any surface when
the fluid changes its velocity in magnitude or direction or both.
Forces Present in the Fluid Flow:
a) Body Forces: Act throughout the entire body of the control volume (such as gravity, centrifugal and
electromagnetic forces)
b) Surface Forces: act on the control surface (such as pressure and viscous forces and reaction
forces at points of contact)
The forces acting on a control volume consist of body forces that act throughout the entire body of the
control volume (such as gravity, electric, and magnetic forces) and surface forces that act on the control
surface (such as pressure and viscous forces and reaction forces at points of contact). Only external
forces are considered in the analysis.
4.2 Momentum Equation for 2-D Flow along a Streamline

Fig.4.1 shows the two-dimensional problem in which 𝑣1 makes an angle 𝜃 with the x-axis, while 𝑣2 makes
a corresponding angle ∅. Since both momentum and force are vector quantities, they can be resolved into
components in the 𝑥 and 𝑦 directions as shown in Fig.4.1.

Unit-4 The Energy Equation & It’s Application
Fig.4.1 – Momentum equation for 2-D flow
Thus if 𝐹𝑥 and 𝐹𝑦 are the components of the resultant force on the element of fluid ABCD, according to
Newton’s second law;
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
∴ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 × 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
∴ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚̇(𝑣2 cos ∅ − 𝑣1 cos 𝜃) = 𝑚̇(𝑣𝑥2 − 𝑣𝑥1 )
Similarly for y-direction,
𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚̇(𝑣2 sin ∅ − 𝑣1 sin 𝜃) = 𝑚̇(𝑣𝑦2 − 𝑣𝑦1 )
These components can be combined to give resultant force,
𝐹 = √𝐹𝑥2 + 𝐹𝑦2
In general,
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
= 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
∴ 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚̇(𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑣𝑖𝑛 )
∴ 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚̇(𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑣𝑖𝑛 ) Eq. (4.2)
4.2.1 Momentum Correction Factor (𝜷)

It is defined as the ratio of momentum of a flow per second based on actual velocity to the momentum of
a flow per second based on average velocity across a section.
Mathematically,
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝛽= Eq. (4.3)
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
4.2.2 Kinetic Energy Correction Factor (𝜶)

The velocity of flow is assumed to be uniform. In actual flow, the velocity is not uniform across the cross-
section and it is larger than what is calculated by the average velocity. In such a case, the kinetic correction
factor is applied to the velocity head.

It is defined as the ratio of the kinetic energy of flow per second based on actual velocity across a section
to the kinetic energy of flow per second based on average velocity across the same section.
Mathematically,
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝛼= Eq. (4.4)
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
4.3 Euler’s Equation of Motion along a Streamline
Consider a streamline in which the flow is taking

place in S-direction as shown in Fig.4.2.
Take a cylindrical element of cross-sectional area 𝑑𝐴
and length 𝑑𝑆 on the streamline.
In Euler’s equation of motion, forces due to gravity
and pressure are taken into consideration.
Forces acting on the cylindrical fluid element are:
 Pressure force in the direction of flow,
= 𝑝𝑑𝐴
 Pressure force in the opposite direction of
flow,
= (𝑝 + 𝑑𝑝)𝑑𝐴
 Weight of element,
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 = 𝜌𝑉𝑔 = 𝜌𝑑𝐴𝑑𝑠𝑔 Fig.4.2 – forces acting on the fluid particle
According to Newton’s 2nd law of motion, “the resultant force on the fluid element in the S-direction must
be equal to the product of the mass of fluid and its acceleration in S-direction”
Therefore,
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 × 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
∴ 𝑝𝑑𝐴 − (𝑝 + 𝑑𝑃)𝑑𝐴 − 𝑊 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚 × 𝑎𝑠 Eq. (4.5)
 As we know that, the velocity of an elementary fluid particle along a streamline is a function of
position and time,
∴ 𝑣 = 𝑓(𝑠, 𝑡)
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
∴ 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑠 + 𝑑𝑡
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑡
Now acceleration,
𝑑𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝑑𝑠 𝜕𝑣 𝑑𝑡
𝑎𝑠 = = +
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑠 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝑑𝑡
For Steady flow,
𝜕𝑣
=0
𝜕𝑡
𝑑𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝑑𝑠 𝜕𝑣 𝑑𝑠
∴ 𝑎𝑠 = = =𝑣 (∵ = 𝑣)
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑠 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑠 𝑑𝑡
In a steady flow, the velocity changes w.r.t. position only so, the partial differential becomes the
total differential.
𝑑𝑣
∴ 𝑎𝑠 = 𝑣 Eq. (4.6)
𝑑𝑠
Now from Eq. (4.5) and Eq. (4.6)

𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑣
∴ −𝑑𝑃𝑑𝐴 − 𝜌𝑑𝐴𝑑𝑠𝑔 × = 𝜌𝑑𝐴𝑑𝑠 × 𝑣
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
∴ −𝑑𝑃 − 𝜌𝑔𝑑𝑧 = 𝜌𝑣𝑑𝑣
𝒅𝑷 Eq. (4.7)
∴ + 𝒗𝒅𝒗 + 𝒈𝒅𝒛 = 𝟎
𝝆
Eq. (4.7) is known as Euler’s equation of motion.
4.4 Bernoulli’s Equation From Euler’s Equation

By integrating Euler’s equation of motion,
𝑑𝑃
∫ + ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑣 + ∫ 𝑔𝑑𝑧 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜌
𝑃 𝑣2
∴ + + 𝑔𝑧 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜌 2
𝑷 𝒗𝟐 Eq. (4.8)
∴ + + 𝒛 = 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝝆𝒈 𝟐𝒈
This is known as Bernoulli’s Equation. Each term indicates energy per unit weight called Head.
Where,
𝑃
= Pressure energy per unit weight of fluid or Pressure Head
𝜌𝑔
𝑣2
= Kinetic energy per unit weight or Kinetic Head
2𝑔
𝑧 = Potential energy per unit weight or Potential Head
4.4.1 The Statement of Bernoulli’s Equation

“It states that in a steady, incompressible and ideal flow, the total energy at any point of the fluid is
constant”
The total energy of the fluid consists of:
1) Pressure Energy
2) Kinetic Energy and
3) Potential Energy
4.4.2 Assumptions in Bernoulli’s Equation

The following assumptions made in the derivation of Bernoulli’s equation:
1) The fluid is ideal i.e. viscosity is zero
2) The flow is steady i.e. flow parameter does not change w.r.t. time
3) The fluid is incompressible i.e. density is constant

4) The flow is irrotational i.e. fluid particle does not rotate about its own axis
5) The flow is 1-D i.e. along a streamline
4.4.3 Bernoulli’s Equation for Real Fluids

The Bernoulli’s equation is derived based on the assumption that the fluid is ideal, i.e. viscosity is zero. But
all real fluids have some viscosity which resists the flow. Thus there are always some losses in fluid flows
and hence these losses have to be considered while applying the Bernoulli’s equation to the real fluids,
and can be written as,
𝑃1 𝑣12 𝑃2 𝑣22
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 + 𝒉𝒇
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
Where,
ℎ𝑓 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
4.5 Venturi Meter

A venturi meter is a device used to measure the flow rate of a fluid flowing through the large-sized pipes
and for large flow rate.
Fig.4.3 – Venturi meter
4.5.1 Construction & Working

It consists of three parts :
1. A short converging section:
In the converging section, the area of flow is decreases and hence the velocity of fluid increases
and the static pressure decreases. Normally the convergent angle is of 21° ± 2°.
2. A throat:
This is the cylindrical section of the minimum area where the velocity is maximum and pressure is
minimum. The throat diameter is usually between 0.25 to 0.5 times the inlet diameter of the pipe.
The length of the throat equals its diameter.
3. A diverging section:
The diverging section is a diffuser where the area is increased back to the pipe entrance area and
hence the pressure is increased. To recover all the pressure energy, the divergent angle is kept of
5° 𝑡𝑜 7°. This angle has to be kept less so that the flowing fluid has the least tendency to separate
from the wall of the pipe. However, with small angles, the length and hence the cost of the venturi
meter would increase. So where pressure recovery is not important, the divergent angle may be
kept as high as 14°.

The small-sized venturi meter, suitable for pipelines less than 5cm diameter, are usually made of brass or
bronze. The inside surface is smoothly finished to reduce friction.
Large-sized venturi meters are usually made of cast iron with throat made of brass or bronze.
Very large-sized venturi meter, up to 6m pipe diameter has been made of smooth surface concrete. Only
the throat is made of machined bronze.
4.5.2 Equation of Rate of Flow-Through Venturi Meter

Consider a venturi meter fitted in a horizontal pipe through which a fluid is flowing, as shown in Fig.4.3.
Let,
𝑑1 = diameter at the inlet of pipe or at section 1
𝑝1 = pressure at the inlet of pipe or at section 1
𝑣1 = velocity at the inlet of pipe or at section 1
𝑑2 , 𝑝2 , 𝑣2 are corresponding values at the throat or at section 2.
 Applying Bernoulli’s equation between section 1 and section 2, we get,
𝑃1 𝑣12 𝑃2 𝑣22
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2
𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑣22 𝑣12
∴ ( − ) + (𝑧1 − 𝑧2 ) = −
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔
But the differential head in the piezometric tubes is given by,
𝑃1 𝑃2
ℎ = ( − ) + (𝑧1 − 𝑧2 )
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔
Hence,
𝑣22 𝑣12
∴ℎ= − Eq. (4.9)
2𝑔 2𝑔
 Now, applying the Continuity equation between section 1 and section 2, we get,
𝑄 = 𝑎1 𝑣1 = 𝑎2 𝑣2
𝑎2 𝑣2
∴ 𝑣1 =
𝑎1
Substituting this value of 𝑣1 in Eq. (4.9),
𝑎2 𝑣2 2
𝑣22 ) (𝑣22 𝑎22
𝑎1
∴ℎ= − = [1 − 2 ]
2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔 𝑎1
𝑣22 𝑎12 − 𝑎22
∴ℎ= [ ]
2𝑔 𝑎12
𝑎12
∴ 𝑣22 = 2𝑔ℎ ×
𝑎12 − 𝑎22
𝑎1
∴ 𝑣2 = × √2𝑔ℎ Eq. (4.10)
√𝑎12 − 𝑎22
Now,

Discharge,
𝑄 = 𝑎2 𝑣2
𝒂 𝟏 𝒂𝟐
∴𝑸= × √𝟐𝒈𝒉
Eq. (4.11)
√𝒂𝟐𝟏 − 𝒂𝟐𝟐
Eq. (4.11) gives discharge under ideal conditions and is called theoretical discharge. The actual discharge
will be always less than the theoretical discharge and is given by,
𝒂 𝟏 𝒂𝟐
∴ 𝑸𝒂𝒄𝒕 = 𝑪𝒅 × √𝟐𝒈𝒉
Eq. (4.12)
√𝒂𝟐𝟏 − 𝒂𝟐𝟐
The coefficient of discharge (𝐶𝑑 ) for venturi meter is usually in the range of 0.95 to 0.98.
4.5.3 Value of ′𝒉′ Given by U-tube Manometer

Case-I Heavier fluid in the manometer
If the U-tube manometer contains a liquid which is heavier than the liquid flowing through the pipe. Then,
𝑆ℎ 𝑃1 𝑃2
∴ ℎ = 𝑥[ − 1] = ( − ) + (𝑧1 − 𝑧2 ) Eq. (4.13)
𝑆𝑜 𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔
Where,
𝑆ℎ = Specific gravity of heavier fluid used in the manometer
𝑆𝑜 = Specific gravity of fluid flowing through the pipe
𝑥 = Difference in the level of heavier fluid in the manometer
Case-II Lighter fluid in the manometer
If the U-tube manometer contains a liquid which is lighter than the liquid flowing through the pipe. Then,
𝑆𝑙 𝑃1 𝑃2
∴ ℎ = 𝑥 [1 − ] = ( − ) + (𝑧1 − 𝑧2 ) Eq. (4.14)
𝑆𝑜 𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔
Where,
𝑆𝑙 = Specific gravity of lighter fluid used in the manometer
𝑆𝑜 = Specific gravity of fluid flowing through the pipe
𝑥 = Difference in the level of lighter fluid in the manometer
4.6 Hydraulic Coefficients
4.6.1 Coefficient of Velocity (𝑪𝒗 )

It is defined as the ratio between the actual velocity of a jet at vena-contracta and the theoretical velocity
of jet at orifice plate.
𝒗𝒂𝒄𝒕
∴ 𝑪𝒗 = Eq. (4.15)
𝒗𝒕𝒉
The theoretical velocity is given by,

𝑣𝑡ℎ = √2𝑔ℎ
The value of 𝐶𝑣 varies from 0.95 to 0.99 for different orifices. For sharp-edged orifice generally, it is taken
as 0.98.
4.6.2 Coefficient of Contraction (𝑪𝒄 )

It is defined as the ratio of the area of the jet at vena-contracta to the area of the orifice.
𝒂𝒄
∴ 𝑪𝒄 = Eq. (4.16)
𝒂𝒐
The value of 𝐶𝑐 varies from 0.61 to 0.69 for different orifices. In general, it is taken as 0.64.
4.6.3 Coefficient of Discharge (𝑪𝒅 )

It is defined as the ratio of the actual discharge to the theoretical discharge from an orifice.
𝑸𝒂𝒄𝒕
∴ 𝑪𝒅 = Eq. (4.17)
𝑸𝒕𝒉
𝑎𝑐 × 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑡
∴ 𝐶𝑑 =
𝑎𝑜 × 𝑣𝑡ℎ
∴ 𝑪𝒅 = 𝑪𝒄 × 𝑪𝒗 Eq. (4.18)
The value of 𝐶𝑑 varies from 0.61 to 0.65 for different orifices. In general, it is taken as 0.62.
4.7 Orifice Meter

An orifice meter is a device used to measure the flow rate of a fluid flowing through the pipe.
It is a cheaper device compared to the venturi meter.
4.7.1 Construction & Working

It consists of a flat circular plate that has a circular sharp-edged hole called orifice, which is concentric
with the pipe. The orifice diameter is kept generally 0.5 times the diameter of the pipe, though it may vary
from 0.4 to 0.8 times the pipe diameter.
Fig.4.4 – Orifice meter

In orifice, minimum cross-section occurs downstream from the orifice plate. The section of the minimum
area is called vena-contracta. Minimum pressure and maximum velocity occur in this section.
A differential manometer is connected at section 1, which is at a distance of about 1.5 to 2 times the pipe
diameter upstream from the orifice plate and at section 2, i.e. vena-contracta, which is at a distance 0.5
times the diameter of the orifice on the downstream side from the orifice plate as shown in Fig.4.4.
4.7.2 Equation of Rate of Flow-Through Orifice Meter

Consider an orifice plate fitted in a horizontal pipe through which a fluid is flowing, as shown in Fig.4.4.
Let,
𝑑𝑜 = diameter of the orifice
𝑑1 = diameter at the inlet of pipe or at section 1
𝑝1 = pressure at the inlet of pipe or at section 1
𝑣1 = velocity at the inlet of pipe or at section 1
𝑑2 , 𝑝2 , 𝑣2 are corresponding values at the vena-contracta or at section 2
𝑎𝑐
𝐶𝑐 = = Coefficient of contraction
𝑎𝑜
𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑡
𝐶𝑣 = = Coefficient of velocity
𝑣𝑡ℎ
𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡
𝐶𝑑 = = 𝐶𝑐 × 𝐶𝑣 = Coefficient of discharge
𝑄𝑡ℎ
 Applying Bernoulli’s equation between section 1 and section 2, we get,
𝑃1 𝑣12 𝑃2 𝑣22
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2
𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑣22 𝑣12
∴ ( − ) + (𝑧1 − 𝑧2 ) = −
But the differential head in the piezometric tubes is given by,
𝑃1 𝑃2
ℎ = ( − ) + (𝑧1 − 𝑧2 )
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔
Hence,
𝑣22 𝑣12
∴ℎ= − Eq. (4.19)
2𝑔 2𝑔
 Now, applying the Continuity equation between section 1 and section 2, we get,
𝑄 = 𝑎1 𝑣1 = 𝑎2 𝑣2
𝑎2 𝑣2
∴ 𝑣1 =
𝑎1
𝐶𝑐 𝑎𝑜 𝑣2
∴ 𝑣1 = {𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐸𝑞. (4.16)}
𝑎1
Substituting this value of 𝑣1 in Eq. (4.19),
𝐶𝑐 𝑎𝑜 𝑣2 2
𝑣22 (
) 𝑣22 𝑎𝑜 2
𝑎1
∴ℎ= − = [1 − 𝐶𝑐2 ( ) ]
2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔 𝑎1

2𝑔ℎ
∴ 𝑣22 =
𝑎 2
[1 − 𝐶𝑐2 ( 𝑜 ) ]
𝑎1
√2𝑔ℎ
∴ 𝑣2 = Eq. (4.20)
𝑎𝑜 2
√[1 − 𝐶𝑐2 ( ) ]
𝑎1
Now,
 Discharge,
𝑄 = 𝑎2 𝑣2 = 𝐶𝑐 𝑎𝑜 𝑣2
Put the value of 𝑣2 from Eq. (4.20), we get,
√2𝑔ℎ
∴ 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑐 𝑎𝑜 × Eq. (4.21)
𝑎𝑜 2
√[1 − 𝐶𝑐2 ( ) ]
𝑎1
 To find the value of 𝑪𝒄 :
From Eq. (4.15),

𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑣2𝑎𝑐𝑡
𝐶𝑣 = =
𝑣𝑡ℎ 𝑣2𝑡ℎ
Actual velocity is given by Eq. (4.20),
√2𝑔ℎ
∴ 𝑣2𝑎𝑐𝑡 =
𝑎𝑜 2
√[1 − 𝐶𝑐2 ( ) ]
𝑎1
And for theoretical velocity 𝐶𝑐 = 1,
√2𝑔ℎ
∴ 𝑣2𝑡ℎ =
𝑎𝑜 2
√[1 − ( ) ]
𝑎1
Hence,
√2𝑔ℎ
𝑎 2 𝑎𝑜 2
√[1 − 𝐶𝑐2 ( 𝑜 ) ] √[1 − ( ) ]
𝑎1 𝑎1
𝐶𝑣 = =
√2𝑔ℎ 𝑎𝑜 2
√[1 − 𝐶𝑐2 ( ) ]
𝑎 2 𝑎1
√[1 − ( 𝑜 ) ]
𝑎1
Therefore,
𝑎𝑜 2
𝐶𝑑 √[1 − 𝐶𝑐2 ( ) ]
𝑎1
𝐶𝑐 = = 𝐶𝑑 ×
𝐶𝑣 𝑎𝑜 2
√[1 − ( ) ]
𝑎1
 Put the value of 𝐶𝑐 in Eq. (4.21), we get,

𝑎𝑜 2
√[1 − 𝐶𝑐2 ( ) ]
𝑎1 √2𝑔ℎ
∴ 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 × × 𝑎𝑜 ×
𝑎𝑜 2 𝑎𝑜 2
√[1 − ( ) ] √[1 − 𝐶𝑐2 ( ) ]
𝑎1 𝑎1
𝒂𝟏 𝒂 𝒐
∴ 𝑸𝒂𝒄𝒕 = 𝑪𝒅 × √𝟐𝒈𝒉
Eq. (4.22)
√𝒂𝟐𝟏 − 𝒂𝟐𝒐
Eq. (4.22) gives the actual discharge through the orifice meter.
4.8 Rotameter – Variable Area Flowmeter
A simple, reliable, inexpensive, and easy-to-install flowmeter with

reasonably low-pressure drop and no electrical connections that
gives a direct reading of flow rate for a wide range of liquids and
gases is the variable area flowmeter, also called a rotameter or
float meter.
A variable-area flowmeter consists of a vertical tapered conical
transparent tube made of glass or plastic with a float inside that is
free to move, as shown in Fig.4.5.
As fluid flows through the tapered tube, the float rises within the
tube to a location where the float weight, drag force, and buoyancy
force balance each other and the net force acting on the float is
zero.
The flow rate is determined by simply matching the position of the
float against the graduated flow scale outside the tapered
transparent tube. The float itself is typically either a sphere or a Fig.4.5 - Rotameter
loose-fitting piston-like cylinder.
The weight and the buoyancy force acting on the float are constant, but the drag force changes with the
flow velocity. Also, the velocity along the tapered tube decreases in the flow direction because of the
increase in the cross-sectional area.
There is a certain velocity that generates enough drag to balance the float weight and the buoyancy force,
and the location at which this velocity occurs around the float is the location where the float settles.
4.9 Notches & Weirs

Notch: A notch is a device used for measuring the discharge of a liquid through a small channel or a tank.
Weir: A weir is a concrete or masonry structure, placed in an open channel over which the flow occurs.
Difference Between Notch & Weir:
 The notch is of small size while the weir is of a bigger size.
 The notch is used to measuring the discharge in small channels, while the weir is used to measure
the discharge in large bodies like river or dam.
 The notch is generally made of the metallic plate while weir is made of concrete or masonry
structure.

Nappe or Vein: The sheet of water flowing through a notch or over a weir is called nappe or vein.
Crest or Sill: The bottom edge of a notch or the top of a weir over which the water flows, is known as sill
or crest.
4.9.1 Classification of Notches

The notches are classified as:
1) According to the shape of the opening
a. Rectangular Notch
b. Triangular Notch
c. Trapezoidal Notch
d. Stepped Notch
2) According to the effect of the sides on the nappe
a. Notch with end contraction
b. Notch without end contraction or suppressed notch
4.9.2 Classification of Weirs

The weirs are classified as:
1) According to the shape of the opening
a. Rectangular weir
b. Triangular weir and
c. Trapezoidal weir or Cippoletti weir
2) According to the shape of the crest
a. Sharp-crested weir
b. Broad-crested weir
c. Narrow-crested weir and
d. Ogee-shaped weir
3) According to the effect of sides on the emerging nappe
a. Weir with end contraction and
b. Weir without end contraction
4.9.3 Discharge over a Rectangular Notch

Consider a rectangular notch or weir provided in a channel carrying water as shown in Fig.4.6.
Fig.4.6 – Rectangular Notch
Let,
𝐻 = Head of water over the crest
𝐿 = Length of the notch or weir
For finding the discharge of water flowing over the weir or notch, consider an elementary horizontal strip
of thickness 𝑑ℎ and length 𝐿 at a depth ℎ from the free surface of the water as shown in Fig.4.6.
The discharge through the strip,
𝑑𝑄 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝 × 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
∴ 𝑑𝑄 = (𝐿 × 𝑑ℎ) × √2𝑔ℎ
The total discharge,
𝐻 𝐻
𝑄 = ∫ 𝑑𝑄 = ∫(𝐿 × 𝑑ℎ) × √2𝑔ℎ

0 0
𝐻
∴ 𝑄 = 𝐿 × √2𝑔 ∫ ℎ1/2 𝑑ℎ
0
1 𝐻
+1
ℎ 2
∴ 𝑄 = 𝐿 × √2𝑔 [ ]
1
+1
2 0
𝐻3/2
∴ 𝑄 = 𝐿 × √2𝑔 [ ]
3/2
2
∴𝑄= 𝐿 × √2𝑔 × 𝐻3/2
3
The actual discharge is given by,
𝟐 Eq. (4.23)
∴ 𝑸𝒂𝒄𝒕 = 𝑪 × 𝑳 × √𝟐𝒈 × 𝑯𝟑/𝟐
𝟑 𝒅
4.9.4 Discharge Over a Triangular Notch

The triangular notch is also known as a V-notch. Consider a triangular notch or weir provided in a channel
carrying water as shown in Fig.4.7.
Fig.4.7 – Triangular Notch
Let,
𝐻 = Head of water over a triangular notch
𝜃 = Angle of a notch
For finding the discharge of water flowing over the weir or notch, consider an elementary horizontal strip
of thickness 𝑑ℎ at a depth ℎ from the free surface of the water as shown in Fig.4.7.

The discharge through the strip,
𝑑𝑄 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝 × 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
∴ 𝑑𝑄 = (𝐴𝐵 × 𝑑ℎ) × √2𝑔ℎ Eq. (4.24)
From Fig.4.7 (b),

𝜃 𝐴𝐶
tan =
2 𝑂𝐶
𝜃
∴ 𝐴𝐶 = tan × 𝑂𝐶
2
𝜃
∴ 𝐴𝐶 = tan × (𝐻 − ℎ)
2
Width of the strip,
𝜃
𝐴𝐵 = 2𝐴𝐶 = 2 × tan × (𝐻 − ℎ)
2
From Eq. (4.24),
𝑑𝑄 = (𝐴𝐵 × 𝑑ℎ) × √2𝑔ℎ

𝜃
∴ 𝑑𝑄 = 2 × tan × (𝐻 − ℎ) × √2𝑔ℎ 𝑑ℎ
2
𝜃
∴ 𝑑𝑄 = 2 × tan × √2𝑔 × (𝐻 ℎ1/2 − ℎ ℎ1/2 ) 𝑑ℎ
2
The total discharge,
𝐻 𝐻
𝜃
𝑄 = ∫ 𝑑𝑄 = ∫ 2 × tan × √2𝑔 × (𝐻 ℎ1/2 − ℎ ℎ1/2 ) 𝑑ℎ
2
0 0
𝐻
𝜃
∴ 𝑄 = 2 × tan × √2𝑔 ∫(𝐻 ℎ1/2 − ℎ3/2 ) 𝑑ℎ
2
0
𝐻
𝜃 𝐻ℎ3/2 ℎ5/2
∴ 𝑄 = 2 × tan × √2𝑔 [ − ]
2 3/2 5/2 0
𝜃 2 2
∴ 𝑄 = 2 × tan × √2𝑔 [ 𝐻5/2 − 𝐻5/2 ]
2 3 5
𝜃 4
∴ 𝑄 = 2 × tan × √2𝑔 [ 𝐻5/2 ]
2 15
𝟖 𝜽
∴𝑸= × 𝐭𝐚𝐧 × √𝟐𝒈 × 𝑯𝟓/𝟐 Eq. (4.25)
𝟏𝟓 𝟐
The actual discharge through triangular notch is given by,

𝟖 𝜽 Eq. (4.26)
∴ 𝑸𝒂𝒄𝒕 = 𝑪𝒅 × 𝐭𝐚𝐧 × √𝟐𝒈 × 𝑯𝟓/𝟐
𝟏𝟓 𝟐
4.9.5 Advantages of Triangular Notch or Weir Over Rectangular Notch or Weir

1. For measuring low discharge, a triangular notch gives more accurate results than a rectangular
notch because the height of water in a V-notch is more as compared to a rectangular notch.

2. In case of a triangular notch, only one reading i.e. 𝐻 is required to find the discharge.
3. Ventilation of a triangular notch is not necessary.
4.9.6 Discharge Over a Trapezoidal Notch

As shown in Fig.4.8, a trapezoidal notch or weir is a combination of a rectangular and triangular notch or
weir. Thus the total discharge will be equal to the sum of discharge through a rectangular notch and the
discharge through a triangular notch.
Fig.4.8 – Trapezoidal Notch
Let,
𝐻 = Head of water over a notch
𝐿 = Length of the crest of the notch
𝐶𝑑1 = Coefficient of discharge for the rectangular portion
𝐶𝑑2 = Coefficient of discharge for the triangular portion
The discharge through a trapezoidal notch or weir is given by,

𝟐 𝟖 𝜽 Eq. (4.27)
𝑸= 𝑪𝒅𝟏 × 𝑳 × √𝟐𝒈 × 𝑯𝟑/𝟐 + 𝑪𝒅𝟐 × 𝐭𝐚𝐧 × √𝟐𝒈 × 𝑯𝟓/𝟐
𝟑 𝟏𝟓 𝟐
Cippoletti Weir
The Cippoletti weir is a trapezoidal weir which has side slope of 1:4 (1 horizontal & 4 vertical). Such slope
increases the discharge through the triangular portion of the weir. Hence such trapezoidal weir does not
have end contractions.
End Contractions: The weir with end contraction means, the width of nappe is less than the width of the
weir. In such a case, the correction factors are to be applied to the calculated discharge for finding
accurate results.
4.10 References
2) Yunus A. Cengel & John M. Simbala, “Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals & Applications”, 4th Edition, 2017,
4) R. K. Bansal, “Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulic Machines”, 3rd Edition, 2007, Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd.

Contents
5.1 Introduction to Dimensional Analysis .............................................................................................. 5.2

5.2 Dimensional Homogeneity ............................................................................................................... 5.4
5.3 Methods of Dimensional Analysis ................................................................................................... 5.5
5.4 Dimensionless Numbers & It’s Significance ................................................................................... 5.7
5.5 Model Analysis ................................................................................................................................ 5.10
5.6 Similitude – Types of Similarities .................................................................................................. 5.11
5.7 Model Laws ..................................................................................................................................... 5.13
5.8 Type of Models ................................................................................................................................ 5.15
5.9 References ....................................................................................................................................... 5.16
5.1 Introduction to Dimensional Analysis
Dimensional Analysis is a method of dimensions. It is a mathematical technique used in research work
for design and for conducting model tests.
Need for Dimensional Analysis & Similarities
The analytical tools available to solve the momentum and energy equations of complex flow problems are
not capable to give accurate results, particularly in turbulent and separating flows. Therefore, solutions to
such problems are mostly determined from experiments.
In any physical phenomenon, there are many variables are involved. In order to reduce the number of
experiments, these variables should be as minimum as possible. The dimensional analysis is a method
for reducing the number and complexity of experimental variables and it will form the dimensionless
numbers. We know that the most popular dimensionless group in fluid mechanics is the Reynolds number.
Also, experimental techniques are quite expensive and time-consuming. Many of the times it is not
possible to perform experiments in the laboratory on the actual prototype. Therefore, experiments are
usually carried out on the models. But, can we apply the data gathered from an experiment on a model to
the design of a full-scale device? The dimensional analysis and similitude (similarity between model and
prototype) help to answer the above question.
Now, no need to build actual aircraft, ship, dam or any large machine before tests are carried out on small
scale models in wind tunnel.
Application of Dimensional Analysis
 To derive a formula that represents the relationship between the physical quantities that affect a
given physical phenomenon.
 To check the dimensional homogeneity of any equation of fluid flow.
 To provide scaling laws that can convert data from small models to large models.
 To develop a dimensionless number which is useful to compare the different problems.
Dimensions & Units

A Dimension is a measure of a physical quantity, while a Unit is expressing a dimension.
For example, length is a dimension that is measured in units such as microns, feet, meter, etc.
Fundamental Dimensions
All physical quantities are measured by comparison. This comparison is always made with respect to
some arbitrarily fixed value.
In fluid mechanics, Mass (M), Length (L) and Time (T) are called fundamental dimensions or primary
quantities, which are independent of each other.
Apart from this, in heat transfer, Temperature (θ) is used as a fundamental dimension.
Derived Dimensions
The quantities, which are expressed in terms of the fundamental quantities are known as derived or
secondary quantities. For example, the force can be expressed in terms of mass, length and time as below:
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑘𝑔×𝑚
The dimension of force: 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑚 × 𝑎 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 2 𝑠2

Unit-5 Dimensional Analysis & Similarities
Kinematic and Dynamic Quantities
The kinematic quantities describe the fluid motion, whereas dynamic quantities cause that fluid motion.
Dimensional Constant
It is quantities, which remains constant for a given case. It may vary from case to case.
Dimensional Variable
It is quantities which vary during a given case.
Dependent & Independent Variable
The dependent variable is one, whose value is to be determined. All other variables which affect the value
of the dependent variable are called Independent variables.
For example,
4𝑓𝐿𝑣 2
ℎ𝑓 =
2𝑔𝐷
Here, ℎ𝑓 is to be determined for a given value of 𝑓, 𝐿, 𝑣, 𝑔, 𝐷 and hence, ℎ𝑓 is a dependent variable whereas,
𝑓, 𝐿, 𝑣, 𝑔, 𝐷 are independent variables.
Table 5.1 - Symbols and dimensions of quantities used in fluid mechanics
Sr. Unit Dimension

Physical Quantity Symbol
No. (SI System) (MLT System)
A Fundamental Quantities
1 Mass 𝑚 𝐾𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 (𝑘𝑔) 𝑀1 𝐿0 𝑇 0
2 Length 𝑙 𝑀𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝑚) 𝑀0 𝐿1 𝑇 0
3 Time 𝑡 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 (𝑠𝑒𝑐) 𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇1
4 Temperature 𝑇 𝐾𝑒𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛 (𝐾) 𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 0 𝜃1
B Derived Quantities
I Geometric Quantities
1 Area 𝐴 𝑚2 𝑀0 𝐿2 𝑇 0
2 Volume 𝑉 𝑚3 𝑀0 𝐿3 𝑇 0
3 Moment of Inertia 𝐼 𝑚4 𝑀0 𝐿4 𝑇 0
4 Roughness 𝜀 𝑚 𝑀0 𝐿1 𝑇 0
II Kinematic Quantities
1 Velocity 𝑣 𝑚⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑀0 𝐿1 𝑇 −1
2 Angular Velocity 𝜔 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 −1

3 Acceleration 𝑎 𝑚⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑀0 𝐿1 𝑇 −2
4 Angular Acceleration 𝛼 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 −2
5 Acceleration due to Gravity 𝑔 𝑚⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑀0 𝐿1 𝑇 −2
6 Rotational Speed 𝑁 𝑟𝑒𝑣/𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 −1
7 Kinematic Viscosity 𝜈 𝑚2 ⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑀0 𝐿2 𝑇 −1
8 Discharge 𝑄 𝑚3 ⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑀0 𝐿3 𝑇 −1
III Dynamic Quantities
1 Force/Weight/Resistance/Thrust 𝐹/𝑊/𝑅/𝑇 𝑁 𝑀1 𝐿1 𝑇 −2
2 Specific Weight 𝑤 𝑁 ⁄𝑚 3 𝑀1 𝐿−2 𝑇 −2
3 Pressure 𝑝 𝑁 ⁄𝑚 2 𝑀1 𝐿−1 𝑇 −2
4 Shear Stress 𝜏 𝑁 ⁄𝑚 2 𝑀1 𝐿−1 𝑇 −2
5 Modulus of Elasticity 𝐸/𝐾 𝑁 ⁄𝑚 2 𝑀1 𝐿−1 𝑇 −2
6 Surface Tension 𝜎 𝑁/𝑚 𝑀1 𝐿0 𝑇 −2
7 Density 𝜌 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 𝑀1 𝐿−3 𝑇 0
8 Dynamic Viscosity 𝜇 𝑁 × 𝑠𝑒𝑐⁄𝑚2 𝑀1 𝐿−1 𝑇 −1
9 Work/Energy 𝑊/𝐸 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑟 (𝑁 × 𝑚) 𝑀1 𝐿2 𝑇 −2
10 Power 𝑃 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝐽/𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑀1 𝐿2 𝑇 −3
11 Torque 𝑇 𝑁×𝑚 𝑀1 𝐿2 𝑇 −2
12 Momentum 𝑀 𝑘𝑔 × 𝑚⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑀1 𝐿1 𝑇 −1
5.2 Dimensional Homogeneity

The law of dimensional homogeneity is stated as,
“Every additive term in an equation must have the same dimensions.”
Thus if the dimensions of each term on both sides of an equation are the same, the equation is called the
dimensionally homogeneous equation.
Thus, the power of fundamental dimensions (M, L, T) on both sides of the equation will be identical for a
dimensionally homogeneous equation. Such equations are independent of the system of units.
For Example,
Consider the equation of velocity,

𝑣 = √2𝑔ℎ
The dimension of L.H.S.,
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑣= = 𝑀0 𝐿1 𝑇 −1
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
The dimension of R.H.S.,
𝐿 𝐿
√2𝑔ℎ = √ 2 × 𝐿 = = 𝑀0 𝐿1 𝑇 −1
𝑇 𝑇
Here, the dimension of L.H.S. = the dimension of R.H.S. = 𝑀0 𝐿1 𝑇 −1
Therefore, 𝑣 = √2𝑔ℎ is a dimensionally homogeneous equation.
5.2.1 Application of Dimensional Homogeneity

 It helps to check whether the equation is dimensionally homogeneous or not.
 To determine the dimensions of a physical quantity.
 It helps to convert the unit from one system to another system.
 To help in dimensional analysis and model testing.
5.3 Methods of Dimensional Analysis

With the help of dimensional analysis, the equation of physical phenomenon can be developed in terms of
dimensionless numbers and the number of variables can be reduced. Based on the principle of
dimensional homogeneity, there are two methods of dimensional analysis are important as follows:
1. Rayleigh’s Method, also known as Indicial Method
2. Buckingham’s π-theorem, also known as Group Method
5.3.1 Rayleigh’s Method

Rayleigh’s method is used for determining the expression for a dependent variable which depends upon a
maximum of three or four variables.
If the number of independent variables increases more than four, it becomes difficult to find the expression
for the dependent variable.
Steps:
1. Let 𝑋 is a dependent variable, which depends on 𝑋1 , 𝑋2 , 𝑋3 … … 𝑋𝑛 variables. Then according to
Rayleigh’s method, the expression can be written as,
𝑋 = 𝑓(𝑋1 , 𝑋2 , 𝑋3 … … 𝑋𝑛 )
2. Now, introduce constant 𝐾 and also put power on independent variables,
∴ 𝑋 = 𝐾(𝑋1𝑎 , 𝑋2𝑏 , 𝑋3𝑐 , … … 𝑋𝑛𝑛 )

3. Express dependent and independent variables in terms of fundamental dimensions M, L and T.
4. The value of power 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 … … 𝑛 can be found by comparing the power of fundamental dimensions
of both sides.
5. Hence the expression for the dependent variable can be obtained.

5.3.2 Buckingham’s π-theorem
Rayleigh’s method of dimensional analysis becomes more laborious if the independent variables are more
than the no. of fundamental dimensions (M, L, T).
This difficulty is overcome by using Buckingham’s π-theorem.
Statement of Buckingham’s π-theorem
It states that,
“If there are 𝒏 no. of variables (dependent & independent) and 𝒎 no. of fundamental dimensions (M, L, T)
in any physical phenomenon then the variables are arranged into (𝒏 − 𝒎) no. of dimensionless terms.
Each term is called π-term.”
Steps:
1. Let 𝑋1 , 𝑋2 , 𝑋3 … … 𝑋𝑛 are the variables involved in a physical problem. Where 𝑋1 depends on
𝑋2 , 𝑋3 … … 𝑋𝑛 .
∴ 𝑋1 = 𝑓(𝑋2 , 𝑋3 , … … 𝑋𝑛 ) Eq. (5.1)
It can also be written as,
∴ 𝑓1 (𝑋1 , 𝑋2 , 𝑋3 , … … 𝑋𝑛 ) = 0 Eq. (5.2)
2. If there are 𝑛 variables with 𝑚 no. of fundamental dimensions, then Eq. (5.2) can be written in terms
of π-terms as
∴ 𝑓1 (𝜋1 , 𝜋2 , … … 𝜋𝑛−𝑚 ) = 0 Eq. (5.3)
3. Each π-term contains 𝑚 + 1 variables in which 𝑚 variables are repeating variables. Let
𝑋2 , 𝑋3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑋4 are repeating variables if the fundamental dimensions are 3.
4. Hence π-terms can be written as,
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝜋1 = 𝑋2 1 , 𝑋3 1 , 𝑋41 𝑋1
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝜋2 = 𝑋2 2 , 𝑋3 2 , 𝑋42 𝑋5
And so on but up to
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝜋𝑛−𝑚 = 𝑋2 𝑛−𝑚 , 𝑋3 𝑛−𝑚 , 𝑋4𝑛−𝑚 𝑋𝑛
5. The above equations are solved by the principle of dimensional homogeneity and the values of
powers are obtained.
6. These values are substituted in π-terms and the π-terms are substituted in Eq. (5.3).
7. The final equation for the given problem is obtained by expressing any one of the π-term as a
function of others as
∴ 𝜋1 = 𝜙(𝜋2 , 𝜋3 … … 𝜋𝑛−𝑚 ) Eq. (5.4)

5.3.2.1 Method of Selecting Repeating Variables
The variables which are repeated in each π-term are called Repeating variables. The no. of repeating
variables is equal to the no. of fundamental dimensions of the problem. The choice of repeating variables
is made on the following considerations:
1. The dependent variable should not be selected as a repeating variable.
2. The repeating variable should be selected in such a way that one variable contains geometric
property (Length, Diameter, etc), another variable contains flow or kinematic property (Velocity,
Acceleration, etc.) and the third variable contains fluid or dynamic property (Density, Viscosity,
etc.).
3. The repeating variables selected should not form a dimensionless group.
4. The repeating variables together must have the same no. of fundamental dimensions. i.e. if total
no. of fundamental dimensions are 3 then repeating variables together must have all 3 fundamental
dimensions.
5. No two repeating variables should have the same dimensions.
Note:
In most of the fluid mechanics problems, the choice of repeating variables may be
(𝑖) 𝜌, 𝑣, 𝑑 or 𝜌, 𝑣, 𝑙
(ii) 𝜇, 𝑣, 𝑑 or 𝜇, 𝑣, 𝑙
5.4 Dimensionless Numbers & It’s Significance

The fluid is generally subjected to various forces such as
a) Inertia Force (Due to its self mass)
b) Viscous Force (Due to viscosity)
c) Gravity Force (Due to gravitational attraction)
d) Pressure Force (Due to difference in pressure)
e) Capillary Force (Due to surface tension)
f) Compressibility/Elasticity Force (Due to elasticity)
For a flowing fluid, the above-listed forces may not always be present. Also, the forces which are present
in a fluid flow problem are not of equal magnitude. There are always one or two forces that dominate the
other forces and these dominating forces govern the flow of fluid.
The ratio of any two forces is a dimensionless number. The most important dimensionless numbers are:
a) Reynolds Number (Re)
b) Froude’s Number (Fr)
c) Euler’s Number (Eu)
d) Weber’s Number (We)
e) Mach Number (M)

5.4.1 Reynolds Number (Re)
Reynolds number is the ratio of inertia force to the viscous force.
Inertia Force, Viscous Force, Reynolds Number,
𝑭𝒊 = 𝒎 × 𝒂 𝑭𝒗 = 𝝉 × 𝑨 𝑭𝒊
𝒗 𝒅𝒖 𝑹𝒆 =
= 𝝆𝑽 × =𝝁 ×𝑨 𝑭𝒗
𝒕 𝒅𝒚
𝒗 𝒗 𝝆𝒗𝟐 𝑳𝟐
= 𝝆𝑨𝑳 × = 𝝁 × 𝑳𝟐 =
𝒕 𝑳 𝝁𝒗𝑳
𝑳
= 𝝆𝑳𝟐 × × 𝒗 ∴ 𝑭𝒗 = 𝝁𝒗𝑳
𝒕 𝝆𝒗𝑳 𝒗𝑳
∴ 𝑹𝒆 = =
∴ 𝑭𝒊 = 𝝆𝒗𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝝁 𝝂
Significance:
 Used in fluid flow problems where viscous forces alone are predominant.
 If the Viscous Force is of prime importance, the dynamic similarity is said to exist between the
model and prototype hence Reynolds Number of model and prototype should be the same.
 Re measures the relative magnitude of the inertia force to viscous force occurring in the flow.
 Smaller the Re, the greater the viscous effect and flow will become laminar.
 Higher the Re, greater the inertia effect and flow will become turbulent.
 In a Pipe flow,
If Re < 2000  Laminar Flow
If 2000 < Re < 4000  Transition between Laminar and Turbulent
If Re > 4000  Turbulent Flow
Examples:
 The flow of incompressible fluid in a closed pipe
 Resistance experienced by submarines, aeroplanes, fully immersed bodies, etc.
5.4.2 Froude’s Number (Fr)

Froude’s number is the square root of the ratio of inertia force to the gravitational force.
Inertia Force, Gravitational Force, Froude’s Number,
𝑭𝒊 = 𝒎 × 𝒂 𝑭𝒈 = 𝒎 × 𝒈
𝒗 = 𝝆𝑽 × 𝒈 𝑭𝒊 𝝆𝒗𝟐 𝑳𝟐
= 𝝆𝑽 × 𝑭𝒓 = √ =√ 𝟑
𝒕 ∴ 𝑭𝒈 = 𝝆𝑳𝟑 𝒈 𝑭𝒈 𝝆𝑳 𝒈
𝒗
= 𝝆𝑨𝑳 ×
𝒕 𝒗
𝑳 ∴ 𝑭𝒓 =
= 𝝆𝑳𝟐 × × 𝒗 √𝑳𝒈
𝒕
∴ 𝑭𝒊 = 𝝆𝒗𝟐 𝑳𝟐
Significance:
 Used in fluid flow problems where gravitational forces alone are predominant.
 If the Gravitational Force is of prime importance, the dynamic similarity is said to exist between
the model and prototype hence Froude’s Number of models and prototype should be the same.

Examples:
 Froude’s number is very much significant for flows with free surface effects such as in case of
flow over spillways, sluices, open-channel flow, etc.
 It is also used where waves are likely to be formed on surface i.e. motion of the ship in a rough and
turbulent sea.
5.4.3 Euler’s Number (Eu)

Euler’s number is the square root of the ratio of inertia force to the Pressure Force.
Inertia Force, Pressure Force, Euler’s Number,
𝑭𝒊 = 𝒎 × 𝒂 𝑭𝒑 = 𝒑 × 𝑨
𝒗 𝑭𝒊 𝝆𝒗𝟐 𝑳𝟐
= 𝝆𝑽 × ∴ 𝑭𝒑 = 𝒑𝑳𝟐 𝑬𝒖 = √ =√
𝒕 𝑭𝒑 𝒑𝑳𝟐
𝒗
= 𝝆𝑨𝑳 ×
𝒕 𝒗
𝑳 ∴ 𝑬𝒖 =
= 𝝆𝑳𝟐 × × 𝒗 𝒑
𝒕 √𝝆
∴ 𝑭𝒊 = 𝝆𝒗𝟐 𝑳𝟐
Significance:
 Used in fluid flow problems where pressure forces alone are predominant.
 If the Pressure Force is of prime importance, the dynamic similarity is said to exist between the
model and prototype hence Euler’s Number of models and prototype should be the same.
Examples:
 Flow-through a closed pipe
 Discharge through an orifice, sluices, etc.
 Water hammer created in the penstock
 Pressure rise due to sudden closure of valves
5.4.4 Weber’s Number (We)

Weber’s number is the square root of the ratio of inertia force to the Surface Tension Force.
Inertia Force, Surface Tension Force, Weber’s Number,
𝑭𝒊 = 𝒎 × 𝒂 𝑭𝒔 = 𝝈 × 𝑳
𝒗 𝑭𝒊 𝝆𝒗𝟐 𝑳𝟐
= 𝝆𝑽 × 𝑾𝒆 = √ =√
𝒕 𝑭𝒔 𝝈𝑳
𝒗
= 𝝆𝑨𝑳 ×
𝒕 𝒗
𝑳 ∴ 𝑾𝒆 =
= 𝝆𝑳𝟐 × × 𝒗 𝝈
𝒕 √𝝆𝑳
∴ 𝑭𝒊 = 𝝆𝒗𝟐 𝑳𝟐
Significance:
 Used in fluid flow problems where surface tension forces alone are predominant.
 If the Surface Tension Force is of prime importance, the dynamic similarity is said to exist between
the model and prototype hence Weber’s Number of models and prototype should be the same.

Examples:
 Capillary tube action
 A very thin sheet of liquid flowing over a surface
 The flow of blood in veins and arteries
5.4.5 Mach Number (M)

Mach number is the square root of the ratio of inertia force to the Elasticity Force. It is also defined as the
ratio of the velocity of the fluid to the velocity of sound.
Inertia Force, Elasticity Force, Weber’s Number,
𝑭𝒊 = 𝒎 × 𝒂 𝑭𝒆 = 𝑲 × 𝑨
𝒗 ∴ 𝑭𝒆 = 𝑲 × 𝑳𝟐 𝑭𝒊 𝝆𝒗𝟐 𝑳𝟐
= 𝝆𝑽 × 𝑴=√ =√
𝒕 𝑭𝒆 𝑲𝑳𝟐
𝒗
= 𝝆𝑨𝑳 ×
𝒕 𝒗 𝒗
𝑳 ∴𝑴= =
= 𝝆𝑳𝟐 × × 𝒗 𝑲 𝑪
𝒕 √
𝝆
∴ 𝑭𝒊 = 𝝆𝒗𝟐 𝑳𝟐
𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆, 𝑪 = 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅
Significance:
 If the Elasticity Force is of prime importance, the dynamic similarity is said to exist between the
model and prototype hence Mach Number of models and prototype should be the same.
 Predominantly used in problems in which fluid compressibility is important.
 If,
𝑣 ≫ 𝐶 ⇒ 𝑀 ≫ 1 ⇒ 𝐻𝑦𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤
𝑣 > 𝐶 ⇒ 𝑀 > 1 ⇒ 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤
𝑣 = 𝐶 ⇒ 𝑀 = 1 ⇒ 𝑆𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤
𝑣 < 𝐶 ⇒ 𝑀 < 1 ⇒ 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤
 It is used in the compressible flow (where density variation is significant).
Examples:
 Aerodynamic testing (e.g. Missiles)
 Water hammer effects
 The flow of gases exceeding sound velocity
5.5 Model Analysis

Engineers are always engaged in the design of hydraulic structures (Dam, Spillways, etc.) or hydraulic
machines (Turbine, Pump, etc.). Actually, they want to find out in advance, how the actual structure or
machine would behave when it is actually constructed.
For this purpose, they need to do experiments, but experiments can not be carried out on the full-size
structure or machines. Then it is necessary to construct a small scale replica of the structure or machines
and tests are performed on it.
Prototype: The actual structure or machine is called a prototype.

Model: It is the small scale replica of the actual structure or machine.
Note: It is not necessary that the models should be smaller than the prototype (though in most of cases
it is), they may be larger than the prototype.
Model Analysis: The study of models of actual structure or machine is called model analysis. It is actually
an experimental method of finding solutions for complex flow problems.
Advantages of Model Analysis:
 The performance of the hydraulic structure or machine can be easily predicted, in advance from its
model.
 Model tests are economical and convenient because the design, construction, and operation of the
model can be easily varied in no. of times if required, till all the defects of the model are eliminated,
and efficient and suitable design obtained.
However, model test results can be utilized only if a complete similarity exists between the model and its
prototype.
5.6 Similitude – Types of Similarities

“Similitude is defined as the similarity between the model and its prototype in every respect, which means
that the model and prototype have similar properties or model and prototype are completely similar.”
Following three types of similarities must exist between model and prototype:
1. Geometric Similarity
2. Kinematic Similarity
3. Dynamic Similarity
5.6.1 Geometric Similarity

 The geometric similarity is the similarity of shape. The geometric similarity is said to exist between
the model and prototype if the ratio of all corresponding linear dimension in the model and
prototype are equal. This ratio is usually known as the scale ratio or scale factor.
 Therefore, geometrically similar objects are similar in their shapes but differ in size as shown in
Fig.5.1.
Fig.5.1 – Geometric Similarity

 For geometric similarity,
𝐿𝑝 ℎ𝑝 𝑏𝑝
Scale Ratio or Scale Factor, 𝐿𝑟 = = =
𝐿𝑚 ℎ𝑚 𝑏𝑚
5.6.2 Kinematic Similarity

 Kinematic similarity means the similarity of motion between model and prototype.
 Thus kinematic similarity is said to exist between the model and prototype if the ratio of the velocity
and acceleration at the corresponding points in the model & prototype are the same.
 Since velocity and acceleration are vector quantities, it should be the same in magnitude and
direction as well.
 A well-known example of kinematic similarity is a planetarium.
Fig.5.2 – Kinematic Similarity
 For Kinematic similarity,

𝑣𝑝 𝑣𝑝
Velocity Ratio, 𝑣𝑟 = 𝑣 𝐴
=𝑣 𝐵
𝑚𝐴 𝑚𝐵
𝑎𝑝 𝑎𝑝
Acceleration Ratio, 𝑎𝑟 = 𝐴
= 𝐵
𝑎𝑚 𝐴 𝑎𝑚 𝐵
The geometric similarity is the necessary condition for the kinematic similarity to be achieved but not a
sufficient one.
5.6.3 Dynamic Similarity

 Dynamic similarity means the similarity of forces between
the model and prototype.
 Thus dynamic similarity is said to exist between model
and prototype if the ratios of corresponding forces acting
at the corresponding points are equal.
 Also, the direction of corresponding forces at the
corresponding points should be the same.
 For Dynamic similarity,
(𝐹𝑖 )𝑝 (𝐹𝑣 )𝑝
Force Ratio, 𝐹𝑟 = (𝐹 ) = (𝐹 )
𝑖 𝑚 𝑣 𝑚
 In other words, the ratio of magnitudes of any two forces

in the prototype must be the same as the ratio of the
magnitude of the corresponding forces in the model or
the dimensionless numbers discussed earlier should be
Fig.5.3 – Dynamic Similarity
the same for model and prototype.
Both geometric and kinematic similarities are prerequisites for dynamic similarity.
5.7 Model Laws
For dynamic similarity between model and prototype, the dimensionless numbers should be the same for
model and prototype. But, It is difficult to satisfy the condition that all dimensionless numbers are the
same for model & prototype. Hence models are designed on the basis of the ratio of the force, which is
dominating the phenomenon.
“The laws on which the models are designed for dynamic similarity are called Model laws or Similarity
laws.”
The model laws are:
1. Reynolds Model Law 4. Weber Model Law
2. Froude Model Law 5. Mach Model Law
3. Euler Model Law
5.7.1 Reynolds Model Law

Fluid flow problems where viscous forces alone are predominant, the models are designed for dynamic
similarity based on Reynolds model law.
“It stats that the Reynolds number for the model must be equal to the Reynolds number for the prototype”
According to Reynolds model law,
𝑅𝑒𝑚 = 𝑅𝑒𝑝
𝜌𝑚 𝑣𝑚 𝑙𝑚 𝜌𝑝 𝑣𝑝 𝑙𝑝
∴ =
𝜇𝑚 𝜇𝑝
𝜌𝑚 𝑣𝑚 𝑙𝑚 1
∴ ×𝜇 =1
𝜌𝑝 𝑣𝑝 𝑙𝑝 𝑚
𝜇𝑝
𝝆𝒓 𝒗𝒓 𝒍𝒓
∴ =𝟏
𝝁𝒓
Application of Reynolds model law
 The flow of incompressible fluid in a closed pipe
 Resistance experienced by submarines, aeroplanes, fully immersed bodies, etc.
 Flow-through Venturi meter, Orifice meter, etc.
5.7.2 Froude Model Law

Fluid flow problems where gravitational forces alone are predominant, the models are designed for
dynamic similarity based on Froude model law.
“It stats that the Froude number for the model must be equal to the Froude number for the prototype”
According to Froude model law,
𝐹𝑟𝑚 = 𝐹𝑟𝑝
𝑣𝑚 𝑣𝑝
∴ =
√𝑔𝑚 𝑙𝑚 √𝑔𝑝 𝑙𝑝

𝑣𝑚 𝑙𝑚
∴ =√
𝑣𝑝 𝑙𝑝
∴ 𝒗𝒓 = √𝒍𝒓
Application of Froude model law
 Free surface flows such as open channel flow, Spillways, weirs, notches, etc.
 The flow of jet from an orifice or nozzle
 Where waves are likely to be formed on the surface
 Where fluids of different densities flow over one another
By using Froude model law, we can derive the following scale ratios (for derivation refer FMHM by R. K.
Bansal):
 Scale ratio for time, 𝒕𝒓 = √𝒍𝒓
 Scale ratio for acceleration, 𝒂𝒓 = 𝟏
 Scale ratio for discharge, 𝑸𝒓 = 𝒍𝟐.𝟓

𝒓
 Scale ratio for force, 𝑭𝒓 = 𝒍𝟑𝒓
 Scale ratio for pressure, 𝒑𝒓 = 𝒍𝒓
 Scale ratio for work, energy, torque & moment, 𝑻𝒓 = 𝒍𝟒𝒓
 Scale ratio for power, 𝑷𝒓 = 𝒍𝟑.𝟓

𝒓
5.7.3 Euler Model Law

Fluid flow problems where pressure forces alone are predominant, the models are designed for dynamic
similarity based on Euler model law.
“It stats that the Euler number for the model must be equal to the Euler number for the prototype”
According to Euler model law,
𝐸𝑢𝑚 = 𝐸𝑢𝑝
𝒗𝒎 𝒗𝒑
∴ =
𝒑𝒑
√𝒑𝒎⁄𝝆𝒎 √ ⁄𝝆𝒑
Application of Euler model law

 Enclosed fluid flow where the turbulence is fully developed (viscous force are negligible, also
gravity and surface tension forces are absent).
 Where the phenomenon of cavitation takes place.
 To avoid water hammer effect.
5.7.4 Weber Model Law

Fluid flow problems where surface tension effects are predominant, the models are designed for dynamic
similarity based on the Weber model law.
“It stats that the Weber number for the model must be equal to the Weber number for the prototype”

According to the Weber model law,
𝑊𝑒𝑚 = 𝑊𝑒𝑝
𝒗𝒎 𝒗𝒑
∴ =
𝝈𝒎 𝝈𝒑
√ ⁄𝝆 𝒍 √ ⁄𝝆 𝒍
𝒎 𝒎 𝒑 𝒑
Application of the Weber model law

 The capillary rise in a narrow passage.
 Capillary movement of water in the soil.
 A thin sheet of liquid flows over a surface.
 Study of droplets and very small jets.
5.7.5 Mach Model Law

Fluid flow problems where forces due to elastic compression are predominant, the models are designed
for dynamic similarity based on Mach model law.
“It stats that the Mach number for the model must be equal to the Mach number for the prototype”
According to Mach model law,
𝑀𝑚 = 𝑀𝑝
𝒗𝒎 𝒗𝒑
∴ =
√𝑲𝒎⁄𝝆 𝑲
𝒎 √ 𝒑⁄𝝆 𝒍
𝒑 𝒑
Application of Mach model law

 Aerodynamic testing.
 Water hammer problems.
 The flow of air on the aeroplane and projectiles with supersonic speed.
 Underwater testing of torpedoes
5.8 Type of Models

The hydraulic models are classified as :
1. Undistorted models and
2. Distorted models
5.8.1 Undistorted Models

 The models which are geometrically similar to their prototypes or in other words if the scale ratio
for the linear dimensions of the model and its prototype is same, model is called undistorted
model.
 The behavior of the prototype can be easily predicted from the result of undistorted model.
Advantages of undistorted models:

 The behaviour of the prototype can be easily predicted from the result of the undistorted model.
 Same scale ratio is taken for the horizontal and vertical dimension.
Limitations of undistorted models:
 Small dimension such as the height of the model cannot be accurately measured as scale ratio is
the same.
5.8.2 Distorted Models

 A model is said to be distorted if it is not geometrically similar to its prototype.
 For a distorted model, different scale ratios for the linear dimensions are adopted.
 For example,
In the case of rivers, reservoirs etc., two different scale ratios, one for horizontal and other for
vertical dimensions are taken. Thus the model of river and reservoir will become a distorted model.
If for the river, the horizontal and vertical scale ratios are taken to be same so that the model is
undistorted model, then the depth of water in a model of the river will be very-very small which may
not be measured accurately.
Advantages of the distorted model:
 The vertical dimension of the model can be measured accurately.
 The cost of the model can be reduced.
 Turbulent flow in the model can be maintained.
Limitations of distorted models:

 The results of the distorted model cannot be directly applied to its prototype.
5.9 References
1) Donald F. Elger, Barbara A. Lebret, Clayton T. Crowe & John A. Roberson “Engineering Fluid
Mechanics”, 11th Edition, 2016, John Wiley & Sons.
2) Yunus A. Cengel & John M. Simbala, “Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals & Applications”, 4th Edition, 2017,
4) R. K. Bansal, “Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulic Machines”, 3rd Edition, 2007, Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd.
5) S. K. Som & G. Biswas, “Introduction to Fluid Mechanics & Fluid Machines”, Revised 2 nd Edition, 2008,
McGraw-Hill Education (India) Pvt. Ltd

Contents
6.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 6.2

6.2 The Flow of Viscous Fluid through Circular Pipe – Hagen Poiseuilles Equation ......................... 6.3
6.3 The Flow of Viscous Fluid Between Two Parallel Plates ............................................................... 6.7
6.4 Power Absorbed in Viscous Flow .................................................................................................. 6.11
6.5 Turbulent Flow ................................................................................................................................. 6.16
6.6 References ....................................................................................................................................... 6.18
6.1 Introduction
All fluids are viscous. In the case where the viscous effect is negligible, the flow can be treated as an ideal
fluid, otherwise, the fluid must be treated as a viscous fluid.
The flow in a conduit (pipe or duct) is classified as being either laminar or turbulent, depending on the
magnitude of Reynolds number. Laminar flow is characterized by smooth streamlines and highly ordered
motion, and turbulent flow is characterized by velocity fluctuations and highly disordered motion. The
transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs over some region in which the flow fluctuates between
laminar and turbulent flows before it becomes fully turbulent.
Most flows encountered in practice are turbulent. Laminar flow is encountered when highly viscous fluids
such as oils flow in small pipes or narrow passages.
We can verify the existence of these laminar, transitional and turbulent flow regimes by Reynolds
experiment.
6.1.1 Reynolds Experiment

The apparatus design by Reynolds for his experimental setup consists of:
• A constant head tank
• A small tank containing dye
• A glass tube and
• A flow regulating valve
The general arrangement of the set up is shown in Fig.6.1.
Fig.6.1 – Reynolds Experimental Setup Fig.6.2 – Reynolds Observations
The head of water is maintained constant in the tank. The flow of water through the glass tube is now
regulated by opening the flow regulated valve. The velocity of flow depends upon the opening of the flow
regulating valve.
The nature of flow in the pipe is visible by allowing a coloured dye to flow slowly from a capillary tube
which was so placed that the filament of coloured dye entered the pipe centrally.
Reynolds observed that when the flow velocities are low, the dye remains a thin straight line along the
entire length of the glass tube without mixing with water. Such flow is laminar flow.
As the velocity of flow is gradually increased, a disturbance starts to develop in the dye line and develops
a wavy form. This indicates the laminar flow has become unstable. On further increasing the velocity of
flow, the dye starts mixing with the surrounding water. This flow is called turbulent flow.

Unit-6 Viscous and Turbulent Flow
The intermediate flow when dye develops a wavy form is called the transition from laminar to turbulent
flow.
In case of laminar flow, the loss of pressure head was found to be proportional to the velocity but in case
of turbulent flow, Reynold observed that loss of head is approximately proportional to the square of
velocity.
6.2 The Flow of Viscous Fluid through Circular Pipe – Hagen Poiseuilles Equation
Consider a horizontal pipe of radius 𝑅. The viscous fluid is flowing from the left to right direction as shown
in Fig.6.3.
Consider a cylindrical fluid element at radius 𝑟 and thickness 𝑑𝑟. Let the length of the fluid element be 𝑑𝑥.
If 𝑝 is the intensity of pressure on the face AB, then the intensity of pressure on face CD will be (𝑝 +
𝜕𝑝
𝑑𝑥).
𝜕𝑥
Then the forces acting on the fluid element are:

1. The Pressure force, 𝒑 × 𝝅𝒓𝟐 on face AB
𝝏𝒑
2. The pressure force (𝒑 + 𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒙) × 𝝅𝒓𝟐 on face CD
3. The shear force, 𝝉 × 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝒅𝒙 on the surface of the fluid element.
Fig.6.3 – Viscous flow through a circular pipe
For equilibrium, the summation of the pressure and viscous forces in the 𝑥-direction must be equal to zero.
𝜕𝑝
∴ 𝑝𝜋𝑟 2 − [𝑝 + 𝑑𝑥] 𝜋𝑟 2 − 𝜏 × 2𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑝
∴− 𝑑𝑥 × 𝜋𝑟 2 − 𝜏 × 2𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑝
∴− 𝑟 − 2𝜏 = 0
𝜕𝑥
𝝏𝒑 𝒓
∴𝝉=− Eq. (6.1)
𝝏𝒙 𝟐
𝜕𝑝
As is constant across the section, the shear stress 𝜏 across the section varies with 𝑟. Hence the shear
𝜕𝑥
stress distribution across a section is linear as shown in Fig.6.4.

Fig.6.4 – Shear stress & velocity distribution
Maximum Shear Stress

Shear stress will be maximum at the wall, i.e. at 𝒓 = 𝑹 → 𝝉 = 𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙
From Eq. (6.1),
𝝏𝒑 𝑹
∴ 𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = − Eq. (6.2)
𝝏𝒙 𝟐
Velocity Distribution
We know that Newton’s law of viscosity is,
𝑑𝑢 Eq. (6.3)
𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦
Here, the value of 𝑦 is measured from the pipe wall. Hence,
𝑦 =𝑅−𝑟
∴ 𝑑𝑦 = 0 − 𝑑𝑟 = −𝑑𝑟
From Eq. (6.3),
𝑑𝑢 Eq. (6.4)
∴ 𝜏 = −𝜇
𝑑𝑟
Comparing Eq. (6.1) and Eq. (6.4),
𝑑𝑢 𝜕𝑝 𝑟
∴ −𝜇 =−
𝑑𝑟 𝜕𝑥 2
𝑑𝑢 1 𝜕𝑝
∴ = 𝑟
𝑑𝑟 2𝜇 𝜕𝑥
Integrating the above equation with respect to 𝑟,
1 𝜕𝑝 2 Eq. (6.5)
∴𝑢= 𝑟 +𝐶
4𝜇 𝜕𝑥
Where,
𝐶 = Constant of integration and its value is obtained from boundary condition, i.e. at 𝒓 = 𝑹 → 𝒖 = 𝟎
1 𝜕𝑝 2
∴0= 𝑅 +𝐶
4𝜇 𝜕𝑥
𝟏 𝝏𝒑 𝟐
∴𝑪=− 𝑹
𝟒𝝁 𝝏𝒙
Substituting this value of 𝐶 in Eq. (6.5), we get,

1 𝜕𝑝 2 1 𝜕𝑝 2
∴𝑢= 𝑟 − 𝑅
4𝜇 𝜕𝑥 4𝜇 𝜕𝑥
𝟏 𝝏𝒑 𝟐
∴𝒖=− [𝑹 − 𝒓𝟐 ] Eq. (6.6)
𝟒𝝁 𝝏𝒙
𝜕𝑝
Here, values of 𝜇, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅 is constant, which means the velocity 𝑢 varies with the square of 𝑟. Thus Eq.
𝜕𝑥
(6.6) is an equation of the parabola. This shows that the velocity distribution across the section of a pipe
is parabolic and it is shown in Fig.6.4.
Maximum Velocity
The velocity is maximum at the centre, i.e. 𝒂𝒕 𝒓 = 𝟎 → 𝒖 = 𝒖𝒎𝒂𝒙
From Eq. (6.6),
𝟏 𝝏𝒑 𝟐 Eq. (6.7)
∴ 𝒖𝒎𝒂𝒙 = − 𝑹
𝟒𝝁 𝝏𝒙
Discharge through the Pipe
The total discharge through the pipe is obtained by integrating the discharge through the elementary ring
from 0 to 𝑅.
Discharge through the elementary ring of thickness 𝑑𝑟 is,
𝑑𝑄 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑟 × 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔
∴ 𝑑𝑄 = 𝑢 × 2𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝑟
1 𝜕𝑝 2
∴ 𝑑𝑄 = − [𝑅 − 𝑟 2 ] × 2𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝑟
4𝜇 𝜕𝑥
Total discharge,
𝑅 𝑅
1 𝜕𝑝 2
𝑄 = ∫ 𝑑𝑄 = ∫ − [𝑅 − 𝑟 2 ] × 2𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝑟
4𝜇 𝜕𝑥
0 0
𝑅
𝜋 𝜕𝑝
∴𝑄=− ∫[𝑅 2 𝑟 − 𝑟 3 ] 𝑑𝑟
2𝜇 𝜕𝑥
0
𝑅
𝜋 𝜕𝑝 𝑅 2 𝑟 2 𝑟 4
∴𝑄=− [ − ]
2𝜇 𝜕𝑥 2 4 0
𝜋 𝜕𝑝 𝑅 4 𝑅 4
∴𝑄=− [ − ]
2𝜇 𝜕𝑥 2 4
𝜋 𝜕𝑝 𝑅 4
∴𝑄=− [ ]
2𝜇 𝜕𝑥 4
𝝅 𝝏𝒑 𝟒
∴𝑸=− 𝑹 Eq. (6.8)
𝟖𝝁 𝝏𝒙
Average Velocity
We know that,
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 = 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒

∴ 𝑄 = 𝑢̅ × 𝐴𝑐
𝑄
∴ 𝑢̅ =
𝐴𝑐
𝜋 𝜕𝑝
− 8𝜇 𝑅 4
𝜕𝑥
∴ 𝑢̅ =
𝜋𝑅 2
𝟏 𝝏𝒑 𝟐 Eq. (6.9)
̅=−
∴𝒖 𝑹
𝟖𝝁 𝝏𝒙
The Ratio of Maximum to Average Velocity
From Eq. (6.7) and Eq. (6.9),
1 𝜕𝑝 2
𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 4𝜇 𝜕𝑥 𝑅
=
𝑢̅ 1 𝜕𝑝 2
− 𝑅
8𝜇 𝜕𝑥
𝒖𝒎𝒂𝒙 Eq. (6.10)
∴ =𝟐
̅
𝒖
Loss of Pressure Head for a Given Length (𝑳) of a Pipe
The average velocity is given by,
1 𝜕𝑝 2
𝑢̅ = − 𝑅
8𝜇 𝜕𝑥
𝑑𝑝 8𝜇𝑢̅
∴ =− 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑅
By integrating the above equation with respect to 𝑥,
𝑃1 𝑥1
8𝜇𝑢̅
∫ 𝑑𝑝 = ∫ − 𝑑𝑥
𝑅2 Fig.6.5 – Loss of pressure head
𝑝2 𝑥2
8𝜇𝑢̅
∴ [𝑝1 − 𝑝2 ] = − [𝑥 − 𝑥2 ]
𝑅2 1
8𝜇𝑢̅
∴ [𝑝1 − 𝑝2 ] = [𝑥 − 𝑥1 ]
𝑅2 2
8𝜇𝑢̅𝐿
∴ [𝑝1 − 𝑝2 ] = {∵ (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) = 𝐿}
(𝐷/2)2
32𝜇𝑢̅𝐿
∴ [𝑝1 − 𝑝2 ] =
𝐷2
Loss of pressure head,
̅𝑳
𝒑𝟏 − 𝒑𝟐 𝟑𝟐𝝁𝒖
𝒉𝒇 = = Eq. (6.11)
𝝆𝒈 𝝆𝒈𝑫𝟐
Eq. (6.11) is known as the Hagen Poiseuille Equation.
6.2.1 The Relation between Co-efficient of Friction & Reynolds Number for Laminar Flow
Head loss due to friction in a pipe for laminar and turbulent flow is also given by Darcy-Weishback
equation.

̅𝟐
𝟒𝒇𝑳𝒖
𝒉𝒇 = Eq. (6.12)
𝟐𝒈𝑫
By comparing Eq. (6.11) and Eq. (6.12),

32𝜇𝑢̅𝐿 4𝑓𝐿𝑢̅2
=
𝜌𝑔𝐷 2 2𝑔𝐷
16
∴𝑓=
𝜌𝑢̅𝐷⁄
𝜇
𝟏𝟔 Eq. (6.13)
∴𝒇=
𝑹𝒆
6.3 The Flow of Viscous Fluid Between Two Parallel Plates

Consider two parallel fixed plates kept apart at a distance ′𝑡′ as shown in Fig.6.6. The viscous fluid is
flowing between these two plates from left to right direction.
Consider a rectangular fluid element of length 𝑑𝑥 and thickness 𝑑𝑦 at a distance 𝑦 from the lower fixed
plate. If 𝑝 is the intensity of pressure on the face AB, then the intensity of pressure on the face CD will be
𝜕𝑝
(𝑝 + 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑥).
𝜕𝜏
Let 𝜏 is the shear stress acting on the face Bc, then the shear stress on the face AD will be (𝜏 + 𝑑𝑦).
𝜕𝑦
If the width of the element and plates in the direction perpendicular to the plane of paper is unity then the
forces acting on the fluid element are:
1. The Pressure force, 𝒑 × (𝒅𝒚 × 𝟏) on face AB
𝝏𝒑
2. The pressure force (𝒑 + 𝒅𝒙) × (𝒅𝒚 × 𝟏) on face CD
𝝏𝒙
3. The shear force, 𝝉 × (𝒅𝒙 × 𝟏) on the face BC
𝝏𝝉
4. The shear force, (𝝉 + 𝒅𝒚) × (𝒅𝒙 × 𝟏) on the face AD
𝝏𝒚
Fig.6.6 – Viscous flow between two parallel plates
For equilibrium, the summation of the pressure and viscous forces in the 𝑥-direction must be equal to zero.
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝜏
∴ 𝑝 𝑑𝑦 − [𝑝 + 𝑑𝑥] 𝑑𝑦 − 𝜏 × 𝑑𝑥 + [𝜏 + 𝑑𝑦] 𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝜏
∴− 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝝏𝝉 𝝏𝒑
∴ = Eq. (6.14)
𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒙
Velocity Distribution
𝑑𝑢 Eq. (6.15)
𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦
Put the value of 𝜏 in Eq. (6.14), we get,
𝜕 𝑑𝑢 𝜕𝑝
(𝜇 ) =
𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕 2 𝑢 𝜕𝑝
∴𝜇 =
𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑥
𝜕 2 𝑢 1 𝜕𝑝
∴ =
𝜕𝑦 2 𝜇 𝜕𝑥
By integrating the above equation with respect to 𝑦, we get,
𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕𝑝
= 𝑦 + 𝐶1
𝜕𝑦 𝜇 𝜕𝑥
By integrating again, we get,
1 𝜕𝑝 𝑦 2
∴𝑢= + 𝐶1 𝑦 + 𝐶2
𝜇 𝜕𝑥 2
1 𝜕𝑝 2
∴𝑢= 𝑦 + 𝐶1 𝑦 + 𝐶2 Eq. (6.16)
2𝜇 𝜕𝑥
Here,
𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are constants of integration. Their values are obtained from boundary conditions i.e.
i. At 𝑦 = 0 → 𝑢 = 0
ii. At 𝑦 = 𝑡 → 𝑢 = 0
The substitution of 1st boundary condition in Eq. (6.16) gives,

0 = 0 + 0 + 𝐶2
∴ 𝑪𝟐 = 𝟎
The substitution of 2nd boundary condition and 𝐶2 = 0 in Eq. (6.16) gives,
1 𝜕𝑝 2
0= 𝑡 + 𝐶1 𝑡 + 0
2𝜇 𝜕𝑥
𝟏 𝝏𝒑
∴ 𝑪𝟏 = − 𝒕
𝟐𝝁 𝝏𝒙
Substituting the values of 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 in Eq. (6.16), we get,
1 𝜕𝑝 2 1 𝜕𝑝
𝑢= 𝑦 + 𝑦 [− 𝑡] + 0
2𝜇 𝜕𝑥 2𝜇 𝜕𝑥

1 𝜕𝑝 2 1 𝜕𝑝
𝑢= 𝑦 − 𝑡𝑦
2𝜇 𝜕𝑥 2𝜇 𝜕𝑥
𝟏 𝝏𝒑
∴𝒖=− (𝒕𝒚 − 𝒚𝟐 ) Eq. (6.17)
𝟐𝝁 𝝏𝒙
The Eq. (6.17) gives velocity at any distance 𝑦 from the bottom plate. Here 𝑢 varies with the square of 𝑦
and hence it is an equation of the parabola. Hence the velocity distribution across the section of the
parallel plates is parabolic and the velocity distribution is shown in Fig.6.7 (a).
Fig.6.7 – Velocity and shear stress distribution across a section in parallel plates
Shear Stress Distribution

𝑑𝑢
𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦
From Eq. (6.17),
𝑑 1 𝜕𝑝
𝜏=𝜇 [− (𝑡𝑦 − 𝑦 2 )]
𝑑𝑦 2𝜇 𝜕𝑥
1 𝜕𝑝
∴ 𝜏 = 𝜇 [− (𝑡 − 2𝑦)]
2𝜇 𝜕𝑥
1 𝜕𝑝
∴𝜏=− (𝑡 − 2𝑦) Eq. (6.18)
2 𝜕𝑥
The Eq. (6.18) gives the shear stress at any distance 𝑦 from the bottom plate. Here 𝜏 varies linearly with 𝑦.
Hence the shear stress distribution across a section is linear as shown in Fig.6.7.
Maximum Shear Stress

Shear stress will be maximum at the plates, i.e.
i. At 𝒚 = 𝟎 → 𝝉 = 𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 i.e. at the bottom plate
1 𝜕𝑝
∴ 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = − 𝑡
2 𝜕𝑥
ii. At 𝒚 = 𝒕 → 𝝉 = 𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 i.e. at the top plate
1 𝜕𝑝
∴ 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = − (𝑡 − 2𝑡)
2 𝜕𝑥
1 𝜕𝑝
∴ 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑡
2 𝜕𝑥
In general, the wall shear stress or maximum shear stress is given by,

𝟏 𝝏𝒑
∴ 𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = ± 𝒕 Eq. (6.19)
𝟐 𝝏𝒙
Maximum Velocity
𝒕
The velocity will be maximum at the centre, i.e. at 𝒚 = 𝟐 → 𝒖 = 𝒖𝒎𝒂𝒙
From Eq. (6.17),

1 𝜕𝑝 𝑡 2 𝑡 2
𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 =− ( − )
2𝜇 𝜕𝑥 2 4
1 𝜕𝑝 𝑡 2
∴ 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 = −
2𝜇 𝜕𝑥 4
𝟏 𝝏𝒑 𝟐
∴ 𝒖𝒎𝒂𝒙 = − 𝒕 Eq. (6.20)
𝟖𝝁 𝝏𝒙
Discharge through the Parallel Plates

The total discharge through the parallel plates is obtained by considering the rate of flow of fluid through
the strip of thickness 𝑑𝑦 and integrating it from 0 to 𝑡.
Discharge through the strip is,
𝑑𝑄 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑦 × 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝
∴ 𝑑𝑄 = 𝑢 × (𝑑𝑦 × 1)
1 𝜕𝑝
∴ 𝑑𝑄 = − (𝑡𝑦 − 𝑦 2 ) 𝑑𝑦
2𝜇 𝜕𝑥
Total discharge,
𝑡 𝑡
1 𝜕𝑝
𝑄 = ∫ 𝑑𝑄 = ∫ − (𝑡𝑦 − 𝑦 2 ) 𝑑𝑦
2𝜇 𝜕𝑥
0 0
𝑡
1 𝜕𝑝 𝑡𝑦 2 𝑦 3
∴𝑄=− [ − ]
2𝜇 𝜕𝑥 2 3 0
1 𝜕𝑝 𝑡 3 𝑡 3
∴𝑄=− [ − ]
2𝜇 𝜕𝑥 2 3
1 𝜕𝑝 𝑡 3
∴𝑄=− [ ]
2𝜇 𝜕𝑥 6
𝟏 𝝏𝒑 𝟑
∴𝑸=− 𝒕 Eq. (6.21)
𝟏𝟐𝝁 𝝏𝒙
Average Velocity
We know that,
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 = 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
∴ 𝑄 = 𝑢̅ × 𝐴𝑐
𝑄
∴ 𝑢̅ =
𝐴𝑐

1 𝜕𝑝 3
− 𝑡
12𝜇 𝜕𝑥
∴ 𝑢̅ =
(𝑡 × 1)
𝟏 𝝏𝒑 𝟐 Eq. (6.22)
̅=−
∴𝒖 𝒕
𝟏𝟐𝝁 𝝏𝒙
The ratio of Maximum to Average Velocity
From Eq. (6.20) and Eq. (6.22),
1 𝜕𝑝 2
𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑡
8𝜇 𝜕𝑥
=
𝑢̅ 1 𝜕𝑝 2
− 𝑡
12𝜇 𝜕𝑥
𝒖𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝟑 Eq. (6.23)
∴ =
̅
𝒖 𝟐
Loss of Pressure Head for a Given Length (𝑳)
The average velocity is given by,
1 𝜕𝑝 2
𝑢̅ = − 𝑡
12𝜇 𝜕𝑥
𝑑𝑝 12𝜇𝑢̅
∴ =− 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑡
By integrating the above equation with respect to 𝑥, we get,
𝑃1 𝑥1
12𝜇𝑢̅
∫ 𝑑𝑝 = ∫ − 𝑑𝑥
𝑡2
𝑝2 𝑥2 Fig.6.8 – Loss of pressure head
12𝜇𝑢̅
∴ [𝑝1 − 𝑝2 ] = − [𝑥1 − 𝑥2 ]
𝑡2
12𝜇𝑢̅
∴ [𝑝1 − 𝑝2 ] = [𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ]
𝑡2
12𝜇𝑢̅𝐿
∴ [𝑝1 − 𝑝2 ] = {∵ (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) = 𝐿}
𝑡2
12𝜇𝑢̅𝐿
∴ [𝑝1 − 𝑝2 ] =
𝑡2
Loss of pressure head,
̅𝑳
𝒑𝟏 − 𝒑𝟐 𝟏𝟐𝝁𝒖
𝒉𝒇 = = Eq. (6.24)
𝝆𝒈 𝝆𝒈𝒕𝟐
6.4 Power Absorbed in Viscous Flow

For the lubrication of the machine parts, oil is used. The flow of oil in bearings is an example of viscous
flow.
If the highly viscous oil is used for lubrication of bearings, it will offer greater resistance and thus a greater
power loss will take place. But if a light oil is used, a required film between the rotating part and rotating metal
surface will not be possible and hence, the wear of the two surfaces will take place. Hence an oil of correct
viscosity should be used for lubrication.

The power required to overcome the viscous resistance in the following cases will be determined:
1. Viscous Resistance of Journal Bearing
2. Viscous Resistance of Foot- Step Bearing
3. Viscous Resistance of Collar Bearing
6.4.1 Viscous Resistance of Journal Bearing

Consider a shaft of diameter 𝐷 rotating in a journal bearing as shown in Fig.6.9. The clearance between
shaft and journal bearing is filled with viscous oil. The oil film in contact with the shaft rotates at the same
speed as that of the shaft while the oil film in contact with the journal bearing is stationary. Thus the
viscous resistance will be offered by oil to the rotating shaft.
Fig.6.9 – Journal Bearing
Let,
𝑁 = Speed of shaft in RPM
𝑡 = Thickness of oil film
𝐿 = Length of oil film
 The angular speed of the shaft,
2𝜋𝑁
𝜔 =
60
 The tangential speed of the shaft,
𝑉 =𝜔×𝑅
2𝜋𝑁 𝐷 𝜋𝐷𝑁
∴ 𝑉= × =
60 2 60
 As the thickness of oil film is very small, the velocity distribution in the oil film can be assumed as
linear. Hence the velocity gradient is,
𝑑𝑢 𝑉 − 0 𝑉 𝜋𝐷𝑁
= = =
𝑑𝑦 𝑡 𝑡 60 × 𝑡
 The shear stress in the oil is given by,
𝑑𝑢
𝜏= 𝜇
𝑑𝑦
𝜋𝐷𝑁
∴𝜏=𝜇×
60 × 𝑡

 The shear force or viscous resistance,
𝐹𝑣 = 𝜏 × 𝐴𝑠
𝜋𝐷𝑁
∴ 𝐹𝑣 = 𝜇 × × 𝜋𝐷𝐿
60 × 𝑡
𝜇𝜋 2 𝐷2 𝑁𝐿
∴ 𝐹𝑣 =
60 𝑡
 The torque required to overcome the viscous resistance,
𝑇 = 𝐹𝑣 × 𝑅
𝜇𝜋 2 𝐷2 𝑁𝐿 𝐷
∴𝑇= ×
60 𝑡 2
𝜇𝜋 2 𝐷 3 𝑁𝐿
∴𝑇=
120 𝑡
 The power absorbed in overcoming the viscous resistance,
2𝜋𝑁𝑇
𝑃=
60
2𝜋𝑁 𝜇𝜋 2 𝐷3 𝑁𝐿
∴𝑃= ×
60 120 𝑡
𝝁𝝅𝟑 𝑫𝟑 𝑵𝟐 𝑳 Eq. (6.25)
∴𝑷=
𝟔𝟎 × 𝟔𝟎 × 𝒕
6.4.2 Viscous Resistance of Foot-Step Bearing

Fig.6.10 shows the foot-step bearing, in which a vertical shaft is rotating. An oil film between the bottom
surface of the shaft and bearing is provided, to reduce the tear and wear. The viscous resistance is offered
by the oil to the shaft.
In this case radius of the surface of the shaft in contact with the oil is not constant as in case of the journal
bearing. Hence the viscous resistance in the foot-step bearing is calculated by considering elementary
circular ring of radius 𝑟 and thickness 𝑑𝑟 as shown in Fig.6.10.
Let,
𝑅 = Radius of shaft
2𝜋𝑁
𝜔 =
60
 The tangential speed of the shaft at radius 𝑟,
𝑉 =𝜔×𝑟
2𝜋𝑁
∴ 𝑉= ×𝑟
60
 As the thickness of oil film is very small, the velocity
distribution in the oil film can be assumed as linear. Fig.6.10 – Foot-step Bearing
Hence the velocity gradient is,

𝑑𝑢 𝑉 − 0 𝑉 2𝜋𝑁 𝑟
= = = ×
𝑑𝑦 𝑡 𝑡 60 𝑡
𝑑𝑢
𝜏= 𝜇
𝑑𝑦
2𝜋𝑁 𝑟
∴𝜏=𝜇× ×
60 𝑡
 The shear force or viscous resistance on the ring,
𝑑𝐹𝑣 = 𝜏 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔

2𝜋𝑁 𝑟
∴ 𝑑𝐹𝑣 = 𝜇 × × × 2𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝑟
60 𝑡
𝜇𝜋 2 𝑁
∴ 𝑑𝐹𝑣 = × 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟
15 𝑡
𝑑𝑇 = 𝑑𝐹𝑣 × 𝑟
𝜇𝜋 2 𝑁
∴ 𝑑𝑇 = × 𝑟 3 𝑑𝑟
15 𝑡
 Total torque required to overcome the viscous resistance,
𝑅 𝑅
𝜇𝜋 2 𝑁
𝑇 = ∫ 𝑑𝑇 = ∫ × 𝑟 3 𝑑𝑟
15 𝑡
0 0
𝑅
𝜇𝜋 2 𝑁 𝑟4
∴𝑇= ×[ ]
15 𝑡 4 0
𝜇𝜋 2 𝑁 𝑅 4
∴𝑇= ×
15 𝑡 4
𝜇𝜋 2 𝑁
∴𝑇= × 𝑅4
60 𝑡
2𝜋𝑁𝑇
𝑃=
60
2𝜋𝑁 𝜇𝜋 2 𝑁
∴𝑃= × × 𝑅4
60 60 𝑡
𝝁𝝅𝟑 𝑵𝟐 𝑹𝟒 Eq. (6.26)
∴𝑷=
𝟔𝟎 × 𝟑𝟎 × 𝒕
6.4.3 Viscous Resistance of Collar Bearing

Fig.6.11 shows the collar bearing where the face of the collar bearing is separated from the bearing surface
by an oil film of uniform thickness.
Let,

𝑅1 = Internal radius of the collar
𝑅2 = External radius of the collar
Fig.6.11 – Collar Bearing

2𝜋𝑁
𝜔 =
60
 The tangential speed of the shaft at radius 𝑟,
𝑉 =𝜔×𝑟
2𝜋𝑁
∴ 𝑉= ×𝑟
60
 As the thickness of oil film is very small, the velocity distribution in the oil film can be assumed as
linear. Hence the velocity gradient is,
𝑑𝑢 𝑉 − 0 𝑉 2𝜋𝑁 𝑟
= = = ×
𝑑𝑦 𝑡 𝑡 60 𝑡
𝑑𝑢
𝜏= 𝜇
𝑑𝑦
2𝜋𝑁 𝑟
∴𝜏=𝜇× ×
60 𝑡
 The shear force or viscous resistance on the ring,
𝑑𝐹𝑣 = 𝜏 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔

2𝜋𝑁 𝑟
∴ 𝑑𝐹𝑣 = 𝜇 × × × 2𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝑟
60 𝑡
𝜇𝜋 2 𝑁
∴ 𝑑𝐹𝑣 = × 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟
15 𝑡
𝑑𝑇 = 𝑑𝐹𝑣 × 𝑟
𝜇𝜋 2 𝑁
∴ 𝑑𝑇 = × 𝑟 3 𝑑𝑟
15 𝑡
 Total torque required to overcome the viscous resistance on the collar is,

𝑅2 𝑅2
𝜇𝜋 2 𝑁
𝑇 = ∫ 𝑑𝑇 = ∫ × 𝑟 3 𝑑𝑟
15 𝑡
𝑅1 𝑅1
𝑅
𝜇𝜋 2 𝑁 𝑟4 2
∴𝑇= ×[ ]
15 𝑡 4 𝑅
1
𝜇𝜋 2 𝑁 [𝑅24 − 𝑅14 ]
∴𝑇= ×
15 𝑡 4
𝜇𝜋 2 𝑁
∴𝑇= × [𝑅24 − 𝑅14 ]
60 𝑡
2𝜋𝑁𝑇
𝑃=
60
2𝜋𝑁 𝜇𝜋 2 𝑁
∴𝑃= × × [𝑅24 − 𝑅14 ]
60 60 𝑡
𝝁𝝅𝟑 𝑵𝟐 [𝑹𝟒𝟐 − 𝑹𝟒𝟏 ] Eq. (6.27)
∴𝑷=
𝟔𝟎 × 𝟑𝟎 × 𝒕
6.5 Turbulent Flow

When the velocity of a fluid is high or fluid is less viscous, the fluid particles move in a random manner
resulting in mixing of the particles. This type of flow is called turbulent flow. In case of a flow-through a
circular pipe, if 𝑅𝑒 > 4000, the flow is said to be turbulent.
6.5.1 Frictional Loss in Pipe Flow

When the fluid flows through the piping system, some of the potential energy (head) is lost to overcome
the hydraulic resistance. The frictional pressure drop associated with fluid flow is called the major energy
loss; while the contributions of pipe fittings are referred to as minor energy loss.
6.5.2 Darcy-Weisbach Equation for Head Loss Due to Friction

Consider a uniform horizontal pipe, having steady flow as shown in Fig.6.12. Let 1-1 and 2-2 are two
sections of pipe.
Let,
𝑝1 = Intensity of pressure at section 1-1
𝑝2 = Intensity of pressure at section 2-2
𝑣1 = Velocity of flow at section 1-1
𝑣2 = Velocity of flow at section 2-2
Fig.6.12 – Uniform horizontal pipe
𝐿 = Length of pipe between section 1-1 and 2-2
𝑑 = Diameter of pipe
ℎ𝑓 = Head loss due to friction
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between section 1-1 and 2-2,

𝑝1 𝑣12 𝑝2 𝑣22
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 + ℎ𝑓
Here,
𝑧1 = 𝑧2 as the pipe is horizontal
𝑣1 = 𝑣2 as the diameter of the pipe is constant
𝑝1 𝑝2
∴ = + ℎ𝑓
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔
𝑝1 𝑝2
∴ ℎ𝑓 = −
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔
∴ 𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑓 Eq. (6.28)
The forces acting on the fluid between sections 1-1 and 2-2 are:
1. Pressure force at section 1-1 = 𝑝1 × 𝐴𝑐
2. Pressure force at section 2-2 = 𝑝2 × 𝐴𝑐
3. Frictional resistance 𝐹1 as shown in Fig.6.12
Experimentally it was found by Froude that the frictional resistance is given by,
𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
= 𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑤𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 2
∴ 𝐹1 = 𝑓 ′ × 𝜋𝑑𝐿 × 𝑣 2 (𝑎𝑠 𝑣1 = 𝑣2 = 𝑣)
Resolving all the forces in the horizontal direction, we have,
𝑝1 𝐴𝑐 − 𝑝2 𝐴𝑐 − 𝐹1 = 0
∴ (𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )𝐴𝑐 − 𝑓 ′ × 𝜋𝑑𝐿 × 𝑣 2 = 0
𝑓 ′ × 𝜋𝑑𝐿 × 𝑣 2
∴ 𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = 𝜋 2
𝑑
4
From Eq. (6.28),
4𝑓 ′ 𝐿𝑣 2
∴ 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑓 =
𝑑
𝑓 ′ 4𝐿𝑣 2
∴ ℎ𝑓 = ×
𝜌 𝑔𝑑
Putting,
𝑓′ 𝑓
=
𝜌 2
Where 𝑓 is the coefficient of friction.
𝟒𝒇𝑳𝒗𝟐 Eq. (6.29)
∴ 𝒉𝒇 =
𝟐𝒈𝒅
Eq. (6.29) is known as the Darcy-Weisbach equation, which is widely used for finding head loss due to
friction in pipes for laminar as well as turbulent flow.

6.5.3 Coefficient of Friction
Coefficient of friction for pipe flow can be calculated by using Reynolds number by the following
expressions:
16
1. 𝑓 = for laminar flow i.e. 𝑅𝑒 < 2000
𝑅𝑒
0.0791
2. 𝑓 = for turbulent flow (4000 < 𝑅𝑒 ≤ 105 )
𝑅𝑒 1/4
0.5525
3. 𝑓 = 0.0008 + 0.257×𝑅𝑒 for turbulent flow (105 < 𝑅𝑒 ≤ 4 × 107 )
6.5.4 Hydrodynamically Smooth and Rough Boundaries

Hydrodynamically Smooth Boundary: The smooth boundary has the average depth of the surface
irregularity 𝑘 lesser than the depth of laminar sublayer of the surface. The eddies which are formed in the
turbulent boundary layer outside of the laminar sublayer try to penetrate in the laminar sublayer but they
cannot reach to the surface irregularities due to greater depth of the laminar sublayer.
Fig.6.13 – Smooth & Rough Boundaries
Hydrodynamically Rough Boundary: The rough boundary has the average depth of surface irregularity 𝑘
greater than the depth of laminar sublayer. The eddies which are formed outside of laminar sublayer in
the turbulent boundary layer can penetrate into the laminar sublayer of the surface.
6.6 References

Contents
7.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 7.2

7.2 Loss of Energy in Pipes................................................................................................................. 7.2
7.3 Major Energy Losses ..................................................................................................................... 7.2
7.4 Minor Energy Losses ..................................................................................................................... 7.3
7.1 Introduction
 A fluid is conveyed through close passage when it is required to maintain a certain pressure with
respect to atmospheric pressure. Circular pipes, in most of the cases are widely used to carry fluids
over a certain distances. They are used to convey water distribution networks, oil transportation, gases
for commercial and domestic requirements, air for pneumatic systems and also to transmit power
when high pressure fluids are transmitted from one point to another. In hydropower plants large pipes
called penstocks are used to transfer high-energy water from reservoir to turbine house.
 Since the fluid in a pipe is in motion, it has to overcome the frictional resistance between the adjacent
fluid layers and that between the fluid layer and pipe walls. As fluid flows from one point to another,
there is a loss of head due to friction. Thus there is a drop in energy gradient line. In a fully developed
pipe flow, the pressure drops linearly along the length of the pipe. Therefore the pressure gradient
along the flow remains constant.
7.2 Loss of Energy in Pipes

 When a fluid is flowing through a pipe, the fluid experiences some resistance due to which some of
the energy of fluid is lost. This loss of energy is classified as:
Energy Losses
Major Energy Losses Minor Energy Losses
This is due to friction and This is due to

calculated by the following (a) Sudden expansion of pipe
formula:
(b) Sudden contraction of pipe
a) Darcy-Weisbach Formula
(c) Bend in pipe
b) Chezy's Formula
(d) Pipe fittings etc.
(e) An obstruction in pipe.
7.3 Major Energy Losses

 Major energy losses are loss of energy (head) due to friction.
Darcy-Weisbach Formula
 The loss of head (or energy) in pipes due to friction is calculated from Darcy-Weisbach equation which
has been derived in turbulant flow and is given by:
4𝑓𝐿𝑉 2
ℎ𝑓 = Eq. (7.1)
2𝑔𝑑
where
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑓 = 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑒𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟

7.2
FMHM (3141906) | Unit-7 Flow Through Pipes
16
= 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑒 < 2000 (𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤)
𝑅𝑒
0.079
= 1/4 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 4000 𝑡𝑜 106
𝑅𝑒
𝐿 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒
𝑉 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
𝑑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒
Chezy’s formula for loss of head due to friction in pipes

 Refer to chapter 6 article 6.5.2 in which expression for loss of head due to friction in pipes is derived.
In that section you had came across the following equation,
𝑓′ 𝑃
ℎ𝑓 = × × 𝐿 × 𝑉2 Eq. (7.2)
𝜌𝑔 𝐴
where
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒
𝑃 = 𝑤𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒
𝐿 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒
𝑉 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
 The ratio of (A/P) is called hydraulic mean depth or hydraulic radius and is denoted by m.
𝜋 2
𝐴 4𝑑 𝑑
∴ 𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ, 𝑚 = = =
𝑃 𝜋𝑑 4
𝐴 𝑃 1
 Substituting = 𝑚 or = in equation (11.2)
𝑝 𝐴 𝑚
𝑓′ 1
ℎ𝑓 = × × 𝐿 × 𝑉2
𝜌𝑔 𝑚
𝜌𝑔 ℎ𝑓
∴ 𝑉2 = ′ ×𝑚×
𝑓 𝐿
𝜌𝑔 ℎ𝑓
∴ 𝑉 = √ ′ × √𝑚 Eq. (7.3)
𝑓 𝐿
𝜌𝑔 ℎ𝑓
 Let √ = 𝐶, where C is a constant known as Chezy’s constant and = 𝑖, where i is loss of head per
𝑓′ 𝐿
unit length of pipe. Substituting these values in equation (11.3), we got

𝑉 = 𝐶√𝑚𝑖 Eq. (7.4)
 Equation (7.4) is known as Chezy’s formula. Thus the loss of head due to friction in pipe from Chezy’s
formula can be obtained if the velocity of flow through pipe and also the value of C is known. The value
of m for pipe is always equal to d/4.
7.4 Minor Energy Losses

 The loss of head or energy due to friction in a pipe is known as major loss while the loss of energy due
to change of velocity of the flowing fluid in magnitude or direction is called minor loss of energy. The
minor loss of energy (or head) includes the following cases :
1. Loss of head due to sudden enlargement

7.3
2. Loss of head due to sudden contraction
3. Loss of head at the entrance of a pipe
4. Loss of head at the exit of a pipe
5. Loss of head due to an obstruction in a pipe
6. Loss of head due to bend in the pipe
7. Loss of head in various pipe fittings
 In case of long pipe the above losses are small as compared with the loss of head due to friction and
hence they are called minor losses and even may be neglected without serious error. But in case of a
short pipe, these losses are comparable with the loss of head due to friction.
Loss of head due to Sudden Enlargement

 Consider a liquid flowing through a pipe
which has sudden enlargement as shown in
Fig.7.1. Consider two sections 1-1 and 2-2
before and after the enlargement.
Let
p1 = pressure intensity at section 1-1
V1 = celocity of flow at section 1-1
A1 = are of pipe at section 1-1
p2, V2 and A2 = corresponding values at
section 2-2.
 Due to sudden change of diameter of the pipe
from D1 to D2, the liquid flowing from the Fig.7.1 – Sudden Enlargement
smaller pipe is not able to follow the abrupt
change of the boundary.
 Thus the flow separates from the boundary and turbulent eddies are formed as shown in Fig.7.1. The
loss of head (or energy) takes place due to the formation of these eddies.
 Let
p’ = pressure intensity of the liquid eddies on the area (A2 – A1)
he = loss of head due to sudden enlargement
 Applying Bernoulli’s equation at sections 1-1 and 2-2
𝑝1 𝑉12 𝑝1 𝑉12
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 + 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑢𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
But 𝑧1 = 𝑧2 as the pipe is horizontal
𝑝1 𝑉12 𝑝2 𝑉22
∴ + = + + ℎ𝑒
𝑝1 𝑝2 𝑉12 𝑉22
∴ ℎ𝑒 = ( − ) + ( − ) Eq. (7.5)
Consider the control volume of liquid between sections 1-1 and 2-2. Then the force acting on the liquid in
the control volume in the direction of flow is given by
𝐹𝑥 = 𝑝1 𝐴1 + 𝑝 ′ (𝐴2 − 𝐴1 ) − 𝑝2 𝐴2
But experimentally it is found that 𝑝 ′ = 𝑝1
∴ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝑝1 𝐴1 + 𝑝1 (𝐴2 − 𝐴1 ) − 𝑝2 𝐴2
∴ 𝐹𝑥 = (𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )𝐴2 Eq. (7.6)
Momentum of liquid/sec at section 1-1 = mass x velocity

7.4
= 𝜌𝐴1 𝑉1 × 𝑉1 = 𝜌𝐴1 𝑉12
Momentum of liquid/sec at section 2-2 = mass x velocity
= 𝜌𝐴2 𝑉2 × 𝑉2 = 𝜌𝐴2 𝑉22
∴ Change of momentum/sec = 𝜌𝐴2 𝑉22 − 𝜌𝐴1 𝑉12
But from comtinuity equation, we have
𝐴2 𝑉2
𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 𝑜𝑟 𝐴1 =
𝑉1
𝐴2 𝑉2 2
∴ Change of momentum/sec = 𝜌𝐴2 𝑉22 − 𝜌 𝑉 = 𝜌𝐴2 𝑉22 − 𝜌𝐴2 𝑉1 𝑉2
𝑉1 1
∴ Change of momentum/sec = 𝜌𝐴2 (𝑉22 − 𝑉1 𝑉2 ) Eq. (7.7)
Now net force acting on the control volume in the direction of flow must be equal to the rate of change of
momentum or change of momentum per second. Hence equating Eq. (7.6) and Eq. (7.27).
∴ (𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )𝐴2 = 𝜌𝐴2 (𝑉22 − 𝑉1 𝑉2 )
(𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )
∴ = (𝑉22 − 𝑉1 𝑉2 )
𝜌
Dividing by g on both sides, we have
(𝑝1 − 𝑝2 ) (𝑉22 − 𝑉1 𝑉2 ) 𝑝1 𝑝2 (𝑉22 − 𝑉1 𝑉2 )
∴ = 𝑜𝑟 − =
𝜌𝑔 𝑔 𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔 𝑔
𝑝1 𝑝2
Substituting ( − ) in equation Eq. (7.5), we get
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔
(𝑉22 − 𝑉1 𝑉2 ) 𝑉12 𝑉22 2𝑉22 − 2𝑉1 𝑉2 + 𝑉12 − 𝑉22
∴ ℎ𝑒 = +( − )=
𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔
𝑉12 − 2𝑉1 𝑉2 + 𝑉22

∴ ℎ𝑒 =
2𝑔
(𝑉 1 − 𝑉 2 )2
∴ ℎ𝑒 = Eq. (7.8)
2𝑔
Loss of head due to sudden contraction

 Consider a liquid flowing in a pipe which has a sudden contraction in area as shown in Fig.7.2.
 Consider two sections 1-1 and 2-2 before

and after contraction. As the liquid flows
from large pipe to smaller pipe, the area of
flow goes on decreasing and becomes
minimum at a section C-C as shown in
Fig.7.2. This section C-C is called Vena-
contracta.
 After section C-C, a sudden enlargement of
the area takes place. The loss of head due
to sudden contraction is actually due to
sudden enlargement from Vena-contracta
to smaller pipe. Fig.7.2 – Sudden Contraction

7.5
 Let
Ac = Area of flow at section C-C
Vc = Velocity of flow at section C-C
A2 = Area of flow at section 2-2
V2 = Velocity of flow at section 2-2
hc = Loss of head due to sudden contraction
 Now hc = actual loss of head due to enlargement from section C-C to section 2-2 and is given Eq. (7.27)
as
2
( 𝑉 𝑐 − 𝑉 2 )2 𝑉22 𝑉𝑐
∴ ℎ𝑐 = = ( − 1) Eq. (7.9)
2𝑔 2𝑔 𝑉2
 From continuity equation, we have
𝑽 𝒄 𝐴2 1 1 𝐴𝑐
𝐴𝑐 𝑉𝑐 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 ⇒ = = = [∵ 𝐶𝑐 = ]
𝑽𝟐 𝐴𝑐 (𝐴𝑐 ⁄𝐴2 ) 𝐶𝑐 𝐴2
𝑉𝑐
Substituting the value of in Eq. (7.27), we get
𝑉2
2
𝑉22 1
ℎ𝑐 = ( − 1)
2𝑔 𝐶𝑐
2
𝑘𝑉22 1
= , where 𝑘 = ( − 1)
2𝑔 𝐶𝑐
 If the value of Cc is assumed to be equal to 0.62, then
2
1
𝑘=( − 1) = 0.375
0.62
𝑘𝑉22 𝑉22
Then hc becomes as, hc = = 0.375
2𝑔 2𝑔
 If the value of Cc is not given then the head loss due to contraction is taken as
𝑉22
ℎ𝑐 = 0.5 Eq. (7.10)
2𝑔
Loss of head at the entrance of a pipe

 This is the loss of energy which occurs when a liquid enters a pipe which is connected to a large tank
or reservoir. This loss is similar to the loss of head due to sudden contraction. This loss depends on
the form of entrance. For a sharp edge entrance, this loss is slightly more than a rounded or bell
mouthed entrance.
 In practice the value of loss of head at the entrance (or inlet) of a pipe with sharp cornered entrance is
taken as equal to loss of head due to sudden contraction.
 This loss is denoted by hi
𝑉2
ℎ𝑖 = 0.5 Eq. (7.11)
2𝑔
where V = Velocity of liquid in pipe

7.6
Loss of head at the exit of pipe
 This is the loss of head (or energy) due to the velocity of liquid at outlet of the pipe which is dissipated
either in the form of a free jet (if outlet of the pipe is free) or it is lost in the tank or reservoir (if the
𝑉2
outlet of the pipe is connected to the tank or reservoir). This loss is equal to , where V is the velocity
2𝑔
of liquid at the outlet of pipe. This loss is denoted by ho.
𝑉2
ℎ𝑜 = Eq. (7.12)
2𝑔
where V = Velocity of liquid in pipe
Loss of head due to an obstruction in a pipe

 Whenever there is an obstruction in a pipe, the loss of
energy takes place due to reduction of the area of the
cross-section of the pipe at the place where
obstruction is present. There is a sudden enlargement
of the area of flow beyond the obstruction due to
which loss of head takes place as shown in Fig.7.3.
 Consider a pipe of area of cross-section A having an
obstruction as shown in Fig.7.3.
 Let
a = Maximum area of obstruction Fig.7.3 – An obstruction in a pipe
A = Area of pipe
V = Velocity of liquid in pipe
(A - a) = Area of flow of liquid at section 1-1
 As the liquid flows and passes through section 1-1, a vena-contracta is formed beyond section 1-1,
after which the stream of liquid widens again and velocity of flow at section 2-2 becomes uniform and
equal to velocity, V in the pipe. This situation is similar to the flow of liquid through sudden
enlargement.
 Let, Vc = Velocity of liquid at vena-contracta.
Then loss of head due to obstruction = loss of head due to enlargement from vena-contracta to section
2-2.
(𝑽𝒄 − 𝑽)𝟐
= (i)
𝟐𝒈
From continuity equation,we have 𝑎𝑐 × 𝑉𝑐 = 𝐴 × 𝑉 (ii)
where ac = area of cross-section at vena-contracta
If Cc = co-efficient of contraction, then
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑎 − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎 𝑎𝑐
𝐶𝑐 = =
(𝐴 − 𝑎) (𝐴 − 𝑎)
∴ 𝑎𝑐 = 𝐶𝑐 × (𝐴 − 𝑎)
Substituting this value in equation (ii), we get
𝐴×𝑉
𝐶𝑐 × (𝐴 − 𝑎) × 𝑉𝑐 = 𝐴 × 𝑉 ⟹ 𝑉𝑐 =
𝐶𝑐 × (𝐴 − 𝑎)
Substituting this value of Vc in equation (i), we get
2
𝐴×𝑉
(𝑉𝑐 − 𝑉)2 ( − 𝑉) 𝑉2 𝐴 2
𝐶𝑐 (𝐴 − 𝑎) Eq. (7.13)
Head loss due to obstruction = = = ( − 1)
2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔 𝐶𝑐 (𝐴 − 𝑎)

7.7
Loss of head due to bend in a pipe
 When there is any bend in a pipe, the velocity of flow changes, due to which the seperation of flow from
the boundary and also formation of eddies takes place. Thus the energy is lost. Loss of head in pipe
due to bend is expressed as
𝑘𝑉 2
ℎ𝑏 = Eq. (7.14)
2𝑔
where hb = loss of head due to bend, V = velocity of flow, k = co-efficient of bend
 The vlsue of k depends on
a) Angle of bend,
b) Radius of curvature of bend,
c) Diameter of pipe.
Loss of head in various pipe fittings

 The loss of head in the various pipe fittings such as valves, couplings etc., is expressed as
𝑘𝑉 2
= Eq. (7.15)
2𝑔
where V = velocity of flow, k = co-efficient of pipe fitting.
7.5 Hydraulic Gradient and Total Energy Lines

 The energy gradiet line EGL and the hydraulic gradient line HGL are the graphical representation of the
longitudinal variation in total head and piezometric head at salient points of a pipeline.
 The total head with respect to any arbitrary datum is prescribed by the summation of pressure head
(𝑝/𝜌𝑔), velocity head (𝑉 2 /2𝑔), and datum head 𝑧.
 Because of friction effects associated with fluid flow and the local resistance arising from pipe
transisions and fittings, a part of energy is dissipated. Evidently there is loss of head, and energy drops
in the direction of flow by an amount equal to the head loss.
 Hydraulic Gradient Line (HGL): It is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure head (𝑝/𝜌𝑔)
and datum head (z) of a flowing fluid in a pipe with respect to some reference line or it is the line which
is obtained by joining the top of all vertical ordinates, showing the pressure head (𝑝/𝜌𝑔) of a flowing
fluid in a pipe from the centre of the pipe. It is briefly written as HGL. (Hydraulic Gradient Line).
 Total Energy Line (TEL) or Energy Gradient Line (EGL): It is defined as the line which gives the sum of
pressure head, datum head and kinetic head of a flowing fluid in a pipe with respect to some reference
line. It is also defined as the line which is obtained by joining the tops of all vertical ordinates showing
the sum of pressure head and kinetic head from the centre of the pipe. It is briefly written as TEL (Total
Energy Line) or Energy Gradient Line (EGL).
7.6 Flow Through Pipes in Series or Flow Through Compound Pipes

 Pipes in series or compound pipes are defined as the pipes of different lengths and different diameters
connected end to end (in series) to form a pipe line as shown in Fig.7.4.

7.8
Fig.7.4 – Pipes connected in series
 Let
L1, L2, L3 = lengths of pipes 1, 2 and 3 respectively

d1, d2, d3 = diameter of pipes 1, 2 and 3 respectively
V1, V2, V3 = velocity of flow through pipes 1, 2, 3
f1, f2, f3 = co-efficient of friction for pipes 1, 2, 3
 As the pipes are in series the discharge passing through each pipe is same.
∴ 𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 = 𝐴3 𝑉3
 The difference in liquid surface levels is equal to the sum of the total head loss in the pipes.
0.5𝑉12 4𝑓1 𝐿1 𝑉12 0.5𝑉22 4𝑓2 𝐿2 𝑉22 (𝑉2 − 𝑉3 )2 4𝑓3 𝐿3 𝑉32 𝑉32
H= + + + + + + Eq. (7.16)
2𝑔 2𝑔𝑑1 2𝑔 2𝑔𝑑2 2𝑔 2𝑔𝑑3 2𝑔
 If minor losses are neglected, then above equation becomes as
4𝑓1 𝐿1 𝑉12 4𝑓2 𝐿2 𝑉22 4𝑓3 𝐿3 𝑉32

H= + + Eq. (7.17)
2𝑔𝑑1 2𝑔𝑑2 2𝑔𝑑3
 If the co-efficient of friction is same for all pipes
i.e. f1 = f2 = f3 = f, then Eq. (7.27) becomes as
4𝑓𝐿1 𝑉12 4𝑓𝐿2 𝑉22 4𝑓𝐿3 𝑉32
H= + +
4𝑓 𝐿1 𝑉12 𝐿2 𝑉22 𝐿3 𝑉32
H= [ + + ] Eq. (7.18)
2𝑔 𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑3
7.7 Equivalent Pipe

 This is defined as the pipe of uniform diameter having loss of head and discharge equal to the loss of
head and discharge of a compound pipe consisting of several pipes of different lengths and diameters.
The uniform diameter of the equivalent pipe is called equivalent size of the pipe. The length of
equivalent pipe is equal to sum of lengths of the compound pipe consisting of different pipes.
 Let
L1 = length of pipe 1 and d1 = diameter of pipe 1

H = total head loss
7.9
L = length of equivalent pipe
d = diameter of the equivalent pipe
Then L = L1 + L2 + L3
 Total head loss in the compound pipe, neglecting minor losses {Eq. (7.27)}
4𝑓1 𝐿1 𝑉12 4𝑓2 𝐿2 𝑉22 4𝑓3 𝐿3 𝑉32
H= + +
 Assuming f1 = f2 = f3 = f
Discharge,
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 = 𝐴3 𝑉3 = 𝑑12 𝑉1 = 𝑑22 𝑉2 = 𝑑32 𝑉3
4 4 4
4𝑄 4𝑄 4𝑄
∴ 𝑉1 = 2 , 𝑉2 = 2 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉3 = ,
𝜋𝑑1 𝜋𝑑2 𝜋𝑑32
 Substituting these values in equation Eq. (7.27), we have
4𝑄 2 4𝑄 2 4𝑄 2
4𝑓𝐿1 ( 2 ) 4𝑓𝐿2 ( 2 ) 4𝑓𝐿3 ( 2 )
𝜋𝑑1 𝜋𝑑2 𝜋𝑑3
H= + +
4 × 16𝑓𝑄 2 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3
∴H= [ + + ] Eq. (7.19)
𝜋 2 × 2𝑔 𝑑15 𝑑25 𝑑35
 Head loss in the equivalent pipe,

4𝑓𝐿𝑉 2
∴H= [Taking same value of fas in compound pipe]
2𝑔𝑑
𝑄 𝑄 4𝑄
where V = =𝜋 = 2
𝐴 𝑑 2 𝜋𝑑
4
4𝑄 2
4𝑓𝐿 ( ) 2
∴H= 𝜋𝑑 2 = 4 × 16𝑓𝑄 [ 𝐿 ] Eq. (7.20)
2𝑔𝑑 𝜋 2 × 2𝑔 𝑑 5
 Head loss in compound pipe and in equivalent pipe is same hence equating Eq. (7.19) and Eq. (7.27),
we have
4 × 16𝑓𝑄 2 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3 4 × 16𝑓𝑄 2 𝐿
[ + + ] = [ ]
𝜋 2 × 2𝑔 𝑑15 𝑑25 𝑑35 𝜋 2 × 2𝑔 𝑑 5
𝐿 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3
∴[ ] = [ + + ] Eq. (7.21)
𝑑5 𝑑15 𝑑25 𝑑35
 Eq. (7.27) is known as Dupuit’s equation. In this equation L=L1 +L2 +L3 and d1 , d2 and d3 are known.
Hence the equivalent size of the pipe, i.e., value of d can be obtained.
7.8 Flow Through Parallel Pipes

 Consider a main pipe which divides into two or more branches as shown in Fig.7.5 and again join
together downstream to form a single pipe, then the branch pipes are said to be connected in parallel.
The discharge through the main is increased by connecting pipes in parallel.

7.10
Fig.7.5 – Flow through parallel pipes
 The rate of flow in the main pipe is equal to the sum of rate of flow through branch pipes. Hence from
Fig.7.5, we have
𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2
 In this arrangement loss of head in each branch pipe is same
∴ Loss of head for branch pipe 1 = Loss of head for branch pipe 2
4𝑓1𝐿1 𝑉12 4𝑓2 𝐿2 𝑉22
= Eq. (7.22)
2𝑔𝑑1 2𝑔𝑑2
 If 𝑓1 = 𝑓2 , then
𝐿1 𝑉12 𝐿2 𝑉22
= Eq. (7.23)
𝑑1 × 2𝑔 𝑑2 × 2𝑔
7.9 Water Hammer in Pipes

 Consider a long pipe AB as shown in Fig.7.6 connected at one end to a tank containing water at a height
of H from the centre of the pipe.
Fig.7.6 – Watter Hammer
 At the other end of the pipe, a valve to regulate the flow of water is provided. When the valve is
completely open, the water is flowing with a velocity, V in the pipe.
 If now the valve is suddenly closed, the momentum of the flowing water will be destroyed and
consequently a wave of high pressure will be set up. This wave of high pressure will be transmitted
along the pipe with a velocity equal to the velocity of sound wave and may create noise called knocking.
Also this wave of high pressure has the effect of hammering action on the walls of the pipe and hence
it is also known as water hammer.
 The pressure rise due to water hammer depends upon :
i) the velocity of flow of water in pipe,

7.11
ii) the length of pipe,
iii) time taken to close the valve,
iv) elastic properties of the material of the pipe.
 The following cases of water hammer in pipes will be considered:
1. Gradual closure of valve,
2. Sudden closure of valve and considering pipe rigid, and
3. Sudden closure of valve and considering pipe elastic.
Gradual Closure of Valve

 Let the water is flowing through the pipe AB shown in Fig.7.6, and the valve provided at the end of the
pipe is closed gradually.
 Let
A = area of cross-section of the pipe AB,
L = length of pipe,
V = velocity of flow of water through pipe,
T = time in second required to close the valve, and
p = intensity of pressure wave produced.
Mass of water in pipe AB = 𝜌 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝜌 × 𝐴 × 𝐿
 The valve is closed gradually in time ‘T ’ seconds and hence the water is brought from initial velocity V
to zero velocity in time T seconds.
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑉 − 0 𝑉
∴ 𝑅𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = = =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑇 𝑇
𝑉
∴ 𝑅𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝜌𝐴𝐿 ×
𝑇
 If p is the intensity of pressure wave produced due to closure of the valve, the force due to pressure
wave,
= 𝑝 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 = 𝑝 × 𝐴
 Equating the above mentioned two forces
𝑉
𝜌𝐴𝐿 × =𝑝×𝐴
𝑇
𝜌𝐿𝑉
𝑝= Eq. (7.24)
𝑇
 Head of Pressure
𝑝 𝜌𝐿𝑉 𝐿𝑉
𝐻= = = Eq. (7.25)
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔𝑇 𝑔𝑇
2𝐿
(i) The valve closure is said to be gradual if 𝑇 >
𝐶
2𝐿
(ii) The valve closure is said to be gradual if 𝑇 >
𝐶
where T = time in second, and C = velocity of pressure wave.
Sudden Closure of Valve and Pipe is Rigid

 Eq. (7.24) gives the relation between increase of pressure due to water hammer in pipe and the time
required to close the valve.
 If t = 0, the increase in pressure will be infinite. But from experiments, it is observed that the increase
in pressure due to water hammer is finite, even for a very rapid closure of valve. Thus Eq. (7.24) is valid
only for (i) incompressible fluids and (ii) when pipe is rigid.

7.12
 But when a wave of high pressure is created, the liquids get compressed to some extent and also pipe
material gets stretched. Here we consider a sudden closure of valve [the value of t is small and hence
a wave of high pressure is created] when pipe is rigid.
 Consider a pipe AB in which water is flowing as shown in Fig. 11.32. Let the pipe is rigid and valve
fitted at the end B is closed suddenly.
 Let
A = Area of cross-section of pipe AB,
L = Length of pipe,
V = Velocity of flow of water through pipe,
p = Intensity of pressure wave produced,
K = Bulk modulus of water.
 When the valve is closed suddenly, the kinetic energy of the flowing water is converted into strain
energy of water if the effect of friction is neglected and pipe wall is assumed perfectly rigid.
1
∴ 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = × 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 × 𝑉 2
2
1
= × 𝜌𝐴𝐿 × 𝑉 2
2
1 𝑝2 1 𝑝2
𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = × 𝐴𝐿
2𝐾 2𝐾
 Equating loss of kinetic energy to gain of strain energy
1 1 𝑝2
∴ × 𝜌𝐴𝐿 × 𝑉 2 = × 𝐴𝐿
2 2𝐾
𝐾
∴ 𝑝 2 = 𝜌𝐴𝐿𝑉 2 = 𝜌𝐾𝑉 2
𝐴𝐿
𝜌2𝐾
∴ 𝑝 = √𝜌𝐾𝑉 2 = 𝑉 √𝜌𝐾 = 𝑉√ Eq. (7.26)
𝜌
∴ 𝑝 = 𝜌𝑉 × 𝐶 ∵ √𝐾/𝜌 = 𝐶 Eq. (7.27)
where C = Velocity of sound wave

7.13
Contents
8.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 8.2

8.2 Force Exerted by the Jet on a Stationary Plate .......................................................................... 8.2
8.3 Force Exerted by the Jet on a Moving Plate ............................................................................... 8.7
8.4 Force exerted by a jet of water on the moving curved plate .................................................... 8.9
8.5 Force exerted by a jet of water on a series of flat vanes ........................................................ 8.12
8.6 Force Exerted by the Jet of Water on a Series of Radial Curved Vanes................................ 8.14
8.7 Hydraulic Turbines ...................................................................................................................... 8.16
8.8 Classification of Hydraulic Turbines ......................................................................................... 8.16
8.9 Efficiencies & Head of Hydraulic Turbines ............................................................................... 8.18
8.10 Pelton Wheel ................................................................................................................................ 8.20
8.11 Reaction Turbine .......................................................................................................................... 8.28
8.12 Inward and Outward Radial Flow Reaction Turbine ................................................................ 8.29
8.13 Francis turbine ............................................................................................................................. 8.30
8.14 Axial Flow Reaction Turbine ...................................................................................................... 8.35
8.15 Draft Tube Theory ........................................................................................................................ 8.36
8.16 Specific Speed 𝑵𝒔 ....................................................................................................................... 8.38
8.17 Unit Quantities and Model Relationship.................................................................................... 8.40
8.18 Performance (Characteristic) Curves of Hydraulic Turbines ................................................. 8.42
8.19 Governing of Hydraulic Turbines ............................................................................................... 8.45
8.1 Introduction
 Analysis and design of turbomachines are essentially based on the knowledge of forces exerted on or
by the moving fluids.
 The liquid comes out in the form of a jet from the outlet of a nozzle with high velocity, which is fitted
to a pipe through which the liquid is flowing under pressure. If some plate, which may be fixed or
moving, is placed in the path of the jet, a force is exerted by the jet on the plate.
 This force is obtained from Newton’s 2nd law of motion or from the Impulse – Momentum equation.
Impact of Jet:
 The impact of jet means the force exerted by the jet on a plate which may be stationary or moving.
Impulse – Momentum Principle:
 Newton’s 2nd law of motion states that “The rate of change of momentum is equal to the force applied
and takes place in the direction of the force.”
 If the mass of the fluid is m which flows with a velocity v, the momentum = mv
 Let the change in velocity in dt time interval is dv, then
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

= 𝑚 × 𝑑𝑣
and
𝑑𝑣
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = 𝑚 ×
𝑑𝑡
 According to Newton’s 2nd law of motion,
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
𝑑𝑣
∴𝐹 =𝑚×
𝑑𝑡
∴ 𝐹𝑑𝑡 = 𝑚𝑑𝑣 Eq. (8.1)
 Where F.dt is the impulse of the force and m.dv is the change in momentum. Eq. (8.1) is known as the
Impulse-Momentum principle.
8.2 Force Exerted by the Jet on a Stationary Plate

 Impact of jet on a stationary plate is discussed here for the following cases:
A) A plate is vertical to the jet
B) A plate is inclined to the jet
C) A plate is curved
i) Jet impacts at the center of the curved plate
ii) Jet strikes at one end of the curved plate when the plate is symmetrical
iii) Jet strikes at one end of the curved plate when the plate is unsymmetrical
Following assumptions are made in general for the discussion of all the cases:
 The plate is smooth and there is no loss of energy due to fluid friction with the plate
 No loss of energy due to impact of jet
 Velocity is uniform throughout

8.2
FMHM (3141906) | Unit-8 Impact of Jet and Hydarulic Machines
8.2.1 Force exerted by the jet on a stationary vertical flat plate
 Consider a jet of water coming out from the nozzle, strikes a flat vertical plate as shown in Fig.8.1.
Fig.8.1 – Jet striking a fixed vertical plate
 The plate is stationary and does not deflect even after the jet strikes on it.
 The plate deflects the jet by 90° and then jet leaves the plate tangentially. Hence the component of the
velocity of jet V, in the direction of the jet, after striking will be zero.
 Let,
V = velocity of the jet
d = diameter of the jet
𝜋 2
a = area of c/s of the jet = 𝑑
4
ρ = density of fluid
Q = volume flow rate of fluid
𝑚̇ = mass flow rate of fluid = 𝜌𝑄 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉
 The force exerted by the jet on the plate in the direction of jet,
𝐹𝑥 = 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 − 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
=
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
= × 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑒𝑡
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
= × [𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑒𝑡 −
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑒𝑡 ]
= 𝑚̇ × ∆𝑉
= 𝜌𝑎𝑉[𝑉 − 0]
𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉 2 Eq. (8.2)
[Note: If the force exerted on the jet is to be calculated then (Final – Initial) velocity should be taken]
8.2.2 Force exerted by the jet on a stationary inclined flat plate

 Consider a jet of water coming out from the nozzle, strikes an inclined flat plate as shown in Fig.8.2.

8.3
Fig.8.2 – Jet striking a fixed inclined plate
 Let,
V = velocity of the jet in the direction of x
θ = angle between the jet and plate
then,
Mass of water striking the plate per sec,
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑎𝑉
 The plate is very smooth and there is no loss of energy due to the impact of jet then, the jet will move
over the plate after striking, with a velocity equals to initial velocity, i.e. V.
 Force exerted by the jet on the plate in the direction normal to the plate,
𝐹𝑛 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑒𝑟 sec × [𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑛 −
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑛]
∴ 𝐹𝑛 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉[𝑉 sin 𝜃 − 0]
∴ 𝐹𝑛 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉 2 sin 𝜃 Eq. (8.3)
 This force can be resolved into two components,
I. In the direction of the jet (Fx) and,
II. Perpendicular to the direction of flow (Fy)
∴ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
∴ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑛 cos(90 − 𝜃)
∴ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑛 sin 𝜃
∴ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉 2 sin2 𝜃 Eq. (8.4)
and
𝐹𝑦 = 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
∴ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹𝑛 sin(90 − 𝜃)
∴ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹𝑛 cos 𝜃
∴ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 Eq. (8.5)

8.4
8.2.3 Force exerted by the jet on a stationary curved plate
8.2.3.1 Jet strikes the curved plate at the center

 Let a jet of water strikes a fixed curved plate at the center as shown in Fig.8.3.
 The jet after striking the plate comes out with the same velocity in the tangential direction of the curved
plate if the plate is smooth, and there is no loss of energy due to the impact of a jet.
Fig.8.3 – Jet striking a fixed curved plate at the center
 Now the velocity at the outlet of the plate can be resolved into two components:
i) In the direction of the jet and
ii) Perpendicular to the direction of the jet.
 The component of velocity in the direction of jet = − 𝑉 cos 𝜃
(−ve sign is taken as the velocity at the outlet is in the opposite direction of the jet of water coming
out at the nozzle)
 The component of velocity perpendicular to the direction of the jet = 𝑉 sin 𝜃
 The forces exerted by the jet on the plate in the direction of X and Y are,
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝐹𝑥 = × 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑋 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚̇ [𝑉 − (−𝑉 cos 𝜃)]
𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉[𝑉 + 𝑉 cos 𝜃]
𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉 2 [1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃] Eq. (8.6)
 Similarly,
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝐹𝑦 = × 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑌 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚̇[0 − 𝑉 sin 𝜃]
𝐹𝑦 = −𝜌𝑎𝑉 2 sin 𝜃 Eq. (8.7)
(−ve sign means 𝐹𝑦 is acting downwards)

8.5
8.2.3.2 Jet strikes the curved plate at one end tangentially when the plate is symmetrical
Let the jet strikes the curved fixed plate at one end tangentially as shown in Fig.8.4.
Fig.8.4 – Jet striking curved fixed plate at one end

 Let the curved plate is symmetrical about X-axis, then the angle made by the tangents at the two ends
of the plate will be the same.
 Let,
𝑉 =Velocity of the jet of water
𝜃 = Angle made by jet with X-axis at the inlet tip of the curved plate.
 If the plate is smooth and loss of energy due to the impact of a jet is zero, then the velocity of water at
the outlet tip of the curved plate will be equals to V.
 The forces exerted by the jet of water on the plate in the direction of X and Y are,
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚̇ [𝑉 cos 𝜃 − (−𝑉 cos 𝜃)]
𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉[𝑉 cos 𝜃 + 𝑉 cos 𝜃]
𝐹𝑥 = 2𝜌𝑎𝑉 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 Eq. (8.8)
 Similarly,
𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚̇[𝑉 sin 𝜃 − 𝑉 sin 𝜃]
𝐹𝑦 = 0 Eq. (8.9)
8.2.3.3 Jet strikes the curved plate at one end tangentially when the plate is unsymmetrical
 When the curved plate is unsymmetrical about X-axis, then the angles made by the tangents drawn at
the inlet and outlet tips of the plate with the X-axis will be different.
 Let,
𝜃 = Angle made by tangent at inlet tip with X-axis
𝜑 = Angle made by tangent at outlet tip with X-axis.

8.6
(Refer Fig.8.4 with different angles 𝜃 and 𝜑)
 The forces exerted by the jet of water on the plate in the direction of X and Y are,
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚̇[𝑉 cos 𝜃 − (−𝑉 cos 𝜑)]
𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉 2 [𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑] Eq. (8.10)
Similarly,
𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚̇[𝑉 sin 𝜃 − 𝑉 sin 𝜑]
𝐹𝑦 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉 2 [sin 𝜃 − sin 𝜑] Eq. (8.11)
8.3 Force Exerted by the Jet on a Moving Plate

 Impact of jet on a moving plate is discussed here for the following cases:
A. Moving plate is vertical to the jet
B. Moving plate is inclined to the jet
C. Moving plate is curved
I. Jet impacts at the center of the moving curved plate
II. Jet strikes at one end of the moving curved plate when the plate is unsymmetrical
8.3.1 Force exerted by a jet of water on a flat vertical plate moving in the direction of the jet
 Fig.8.5 shows a jet of water striking a flat vertical plate moving with a uniform velocity away from the
jet.
 Let,
𝑉 = Velocity of the jet (absolute)
𝑢 = Velocity of the flat plate
Fig.8.5 – Jet striking a flat vertical moving plate

 In this case, the jet does not strike the plate with velocity V, but it strikes with a relative velocity
(because the plate is not stationary).
The relative velocity of the jet to plate = (𝑉 − 𝑢)
 Mass of water striking the plate per sec,
𝑚̇ = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑒𝑡 × 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑘𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑎(𝑉 − 𝑢) Eq. (8.12)
 Force exerted by the jet on the moving plate in the direction of the jet,
8.7
𝐹𝑥 = ṁ× [𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑘𝑒𝑠 − 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦]
𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎(𝑉 − 𝑢) × [(𝑉 − 𝑢) − 0]
𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎(𝑉 − 𝑢)2 Eq. (8.13)
 In this case, the work will be done by the jet on the plate, as the plate is moving. (for the stationary
plate, the work done is zero)
Work done per second by the jet on the plate,
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × ( )
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
∴ 𝑊 = 𝐹𝑥 × 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑥 × 𝑢
𝑊 = 𝜌𝑎(𝑉 − 𝑢)2 × 𝑢
𝑊 = 𝜌𝑎𝑢(𝑉 − 𝑢)2 Eq. (8.14)
(Here SI unit of W is Watt because it is work done per sec, i.e. Power)
8.3.2 Force exerted by a jet of water on the inclined plate moving in the direction of the jet
 Let a jet of water strikes an inclined plate, which is moving with a uniform velocity in the direction of
the jet as shown in Fig.8.6.
 Let,
𝑉 = Absolute velocity of the jet of water
𝑢 = Velocity of the flat plate
𝑎 = Cross-section area of jet
𝜃 = Angle between jet and plate
The relative velocity of the jet of water = (𝑉 − 𝑢)
Fig.8.6 – Jet striking an inclined moving plate

 Mass of water striking the plate per second,
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑎(𝑉 − 𝑢)
If the plate is smooth and loss of energy due to the impact of the jet is assumed zero, the jet of water
will leave the inclined plate with a velocity equals to (V – u).
 Force exerted by the jet of water on the plate in the direction normal to the plate,

8.8
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝐹𝑛 = × [𝐼. 𝑉. 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑘𝑒𝑠 − 𝐹. 𝑉. ]
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝐹𝑛 = 𝜌𝑎(𝑉 − 𝑢) × [(𝑉 − 𝑢) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 − 0]
𝐹𝑛 = 𝜌𝑎(𝑉 − 𝑢)2 sin 𝜃 Eq. (8.15)
 This normal force 𝐹𝑛 can be resolved into two components namely 𝐹𝑥 and 𝐹𝑦 in the direction of the jet
and perpendicular to the direction of the jet respectively.
𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑛 sin 𝜃 = 𝜌𝑎(𝑉 − 𝑢)2 sin2 𝜃
𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹𝑛 cos 𝜃 = 𝜌𝑎(𝑉 − 𝑢)2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
 Work done per second by the jet on the plate,
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑥 × 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑋 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑊 = 𝜌𝑎(𝑉 − 𝑢)2 sin2 𝜃 × 𝑢
𝑊 = 𝜌𝑎𝑢(𝑉 − 𝑢)2 sin2 𝜃 Eq. (8.16)
8.4 Force exerted by a jet of water on the moving curved plate
8.4.1 Jet strikes the moving curved plate at the center

 Let a jet of water strikes a curved plate at the center of the plate which is moving with a uniform velocity
in the direction of the jet as shown in Fig.8.7.
Fig.8.7 – Jet striking a moving curved plate at the center

 Let,
𝑢 = Velocity of the flat plate in the direction of the jet
𝑎 = Cross-section area of jet
(𝑉 − 𝑢) =The relative velocity of the jet of water or the velocity with which jet strikes the curved
plate
 If the plate is smooth and loss of energy due to the impact of the jet is assumed zero, then the velocity
with which the jet will be leaving the curved vane equals to (V – u).
 Component of velocity in the direction of the jet at outlet = −(𝑉 − 𝑢) cos 𝜃.

8.9
(−ve sign is taken as the velocity at the outlet is in the opposite direction of the jet of water coming
out at the nozzle)
 Mass of water striking the plate per second,
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑎(𝑉 − 𝑢)
 Force exerted by the jet of water on the moving curved plate in the direction of the jet,
𝐹𝑥 = ṁ× [𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑘𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 − 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦]
𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎(𝑉 − 𝑢) × [(𝑉 − 𝑢) − (−(𝑉 − 𝑢) cos 𝜃)]
𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎(𝑉 − 𝑢) × [(𝑉 − 𝑢) + (𝑉 − 𝑢) cos 𝜃]
𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎(𝑉 − 𝑢)2 × [1 + cos 𝜃] Eq. (8.17)
 Work done per second by the jet on the plate,
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑥 × 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑋 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑊 = 𝜌𝑎(𝑉 − 𝑢)2 [1 + cos 𝜃] × 𝑢
𝑊 = 𝜌𝑎𝑢(𝑉 − 𝑢)2 [1 + cos 𝜃] Eq. (8.18)
8.4.2 Force exerted by a jet on an unsymmetrical moving curved plate when jet strikes
tangentially at one of the tips
 Fig.8.8 shows a jet striking a moving curved plate/vane/blade tangentially at one of its tips.
 As the jet strikes tangentially, the loss of energy due to the impact of the jet will be zero.
 In this case, as the plate is moving, the velocity with which jet of water strikes is equal to the relative
velocity of the jet to the plate.
 As the direction of jet velocity and vane velocity is not the same, the relative velocity at the inlet will be
vector difference of the jet velocity and plate velocity at inlet.
Fig.8.8 – Jet striking unsymmetrical moving curved plate at one end

8.10
 Let,
𝑉1 = Absolute velocity of the jet at the inlet
𝑉2 = Absolute velocity of the jet at the outlet
𝑉𝑟1 = Relative velocity of the jet and plate at inlet
𝑉𝑟2 = Relative velocity of the jet and plate at outlet
𝑢1 = Velocity of the vane at the inlet
𝑢2 = Velocity of the vane at the outlet
𝛼 = Angle between the direction of the jet and direction of motion of the plate at inlet
= Guide blade angle
𝜃 = Angle made by the relative velocity 𝑉𝑟1 , with the direction of motion of the vane at the inlet
= Vane/blade angle at inlet
𝑉𝑤1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑓1 = The components of the velocity of the jet 𝑉1 , in the direction of motion and
perpendicular to the direction of motion of the vane respectively.
𝑉𝑤1 = Velocity of whirl at the inlet
𝑉𝑓1 = Velocity of flow at the inlet
𝛽 = Angle made by the velocity 𝑉2 with the direction of motion of the vane at the outlet
𝜑 = Angle made by the relative velocity 𝑉𝑟2 , with the direction of motion of the vane at the outlet
= Vane/blade angle at the outlet
𝑉𝑤2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑓2 = The components of the velocity 𝑉2 , in the direction of motion of vane and
perpendicular to the direction of motion of the vane at outlet respectively.
𝑉𝑤2 = Velocity of whirl at the outlet
𝑉𝑓2 = Velocity of flow at the outlet
 The triangles ABD and B’C’D’ are called the velocity triangles at the inlet and outlet respectively.
 If the vane is smooth and having velocity in the direction of motion at inlet and outlet equal then we
have,
𝑢1 = 𝑢2 = 𝑢 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
and
𝑉𝑟1 = 𝑉𝑟2
 Mass of water striking the vane per second, 𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑎𝑉𝑟1
 Force exerted by the jet in the direction of motion,
Fx= mass of water striking per sec X [Initial velocity with which jet strikes in the direction of motion –
Final velocity of the jet in the direction of motion]
 The initial velocity with which jet strikes the vane = 𝑉𝑟1 and,
The component of this velocity in the direction of motion = 𝑉𝑟1 cos 𝜃 = (𝑉𝑤1 − 𝑢1 )
 Similarly,
The component of the relative velocity at the outlet in the direction of motion = −𝑉𝑟2 cos 𝜑
= −[𝑢2 + 𝑉𝑤2 ]
So,
∴ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚̇ × [𝑉𝑟1 cos 𝜃 − (−𝑉𝑟2 cos 𝜑)]
𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉𝑟1 × [(𝑉𝑤1 − 𝑢1 ) + (𝑢2 + 𝑉𝑤2 )]

8.11
As we know 𝑢1 = 𝑢2
𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉𝑟1 × [𝑉𝑤1 + 𝑉𝑤2 ] Eq. (8.19)
Eq. (8.19) is true only when angle 𝛽 shown in Fig.8.8 is acute angle (< 90°).
 If 𝛽 = 90° then 𝑉𝑤2 = 0 and equation Eq. (8.19) becomes,
𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉𝑟1 𝑉𝑤1
 If 𝛽 is an obtuse angle (> 90°), the expression for 𝐹𝑥 will become,
𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉𝑟1 × [𝑉𝑤1 − 𝑉𝑤2 ]
 In general,
𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉𝑟1 × [𝑉𝑤1 ± 𝑉𝑤2 ] Eq. (8.20)
 Work done per second on the vane by the jet,
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 sec 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑊 = 𝜌𝑎𝑢𝑉𝑟1 × [𝑉𝑤1 ± 𝑉𝑤2 ] Eq. (8.21)
 Work done per second per unit weight of fluid striking per second,
𝜌𝑎𝑢𝑉𝑟1 × [𝑉𝑤1 ± 𝑉𝑤2 ]
=
(𝜌𝑎𝑉𝑟1 ) × 𝑔
1 𝑁. 𝑚
= [𝑉𝑤1 ± 𝑉𝑤2 ] × 𝑢 Eq. (8.22)
𝑔 𝑁
 Work done per second per unit mass of fluid striking per second,
𝜌𝑎𝑢𝑉𝑟1 × [𝑉𝑤1 ± 𝑉𝑤2 ]
=
(𝜌𝑎𝑉𝑟1 )
𝑁. 𝑚
= 𝑢 × [𝑉𝑤1 ± 𝑉𝑤2 ] Eq. (8.23)
𝐾𝑔
8.5 Force exerted by a jet of water on a series of flat vanes

 The force exerted by a jet of water on
a single moving plate is not practically
feasible. It's only a theoretical one.
 In actual practice, a large number of
plates/blades are mounted on the
circumference of a wheel at a fixed
distance apart as shown in Fig.8.9.
 The jet strikes a plate and due to the
force exerted by the jet on the plate, the
wheel starts moving and the 2nd plate
mounted on the wheel appears before
the jet, which again exerts the force on
the 2nd plate.
 Thus each plate appears successively Fig.8.9 – Jet striking a series of flat vanes mounted on a wheel
before the jet and jet exerts a force on
each plate and the wheel starts moving at a constant speed.

8.12
 Let,
𝑉 = Velocity of jet
𝑑 = Diameter of jet
𝑢 = Velocity of vane
 In this case, the mass of water coming out from the nozzle per second is always in contact with the
plates, when all the plates are considered.
 Hence, the mass of water per sec striking the series of plates = 𝜌𝑎𝑉
also,
The jet strikes a plate with velocity = (𝑉 − 𝑢)
 After striking, the jet moves tangential to the plate and hence the velocity component in the direction
of motion of plate is equal to zero.
 Force exerted by the jet in the direction of motion of plate,
𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉[(𝑉 − 𝑢) − 0]
𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉(𝑉 − 𝑢)
 Work done by the jet on the series of plates per second,
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 sec 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
∴ 𝑊 = 𝐹𝑥 × 𝑢
∴ 𝑊 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉(𝑉 − 𝑢) × 𝑢
∴ 𝑊 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉𝑢(𝑉 − 𝑢) Eq. (8.24)
 The kinetic energy of the jet per second,
1
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚̇𝑉 2
2
1
∴ 𝐾𝐸 = (𝜌𝑎𝑉)𝑉 2
2
1
∴ 𝐾𝐸 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉 3 Eq. (8.25)
2
 The efficiency of the wheel,
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
𝜂=
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
𝜌𝑎𝑉𝑢(𝑉 − 𝑢)
𝜂=
1
𝜌𝑎𝑉 3
2
2𝑢(𝑉 − 𝑢)
𝜂= Eq. (8.26)
𝑉2
Condition for the maximum efficiency
 For a given jet velocity V, the efficiency will be maximum when,
𝑑𝜂
=0
𝑑𝑢
𝑑 2𝑢(𝑉 − 𝑢)
∴ [ ]=0
𝑑𝑢 𝑉2
𝑑 2𝑢𝑉 − 2𝑢2
∴ [ ]=0
𝑑𝑢 𝑉2

8.13
2𝑉 − 4𝑢
∴ =0
𝑉2
∴ 2𝑉 = 4𝑢
𝑽
∴𝒖= Eq. (8.27)
𝟐
 Maximum efficiency,
2𝑢(𝑉 − 𝑢)
𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑉2
2𝑢(2𝑢 − 𝑢)
𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
(2𝑢)2
1
𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 50% Eq. (8.28)
2
8.6 Force Exerted by the Jet of Water on a Series of Radial Curved Vanes
 For a radial curved vane, the radius of the vane at inlet and outlet is different and hence the tangential
velocities of the radial vane at inlet and outlet will not be equal.
 Consider a series of radial curved vanes mounted on a wheel as shown in Fig.8.10. The jet of water
strikes the vanes and the wheel starts rotating at constant angular speed.
Fig.8.10 – Series of radial curved vanes mounted on a wheel
 Let,
𝑅1 = Radius of the wheel at the inlet of the vane
𝑅2 = Radius of the wheel at the outlet of the vane
𝜔 = Angular speed of the wheel

8.14
Then,
𝑢1 = 𝜔𝑅1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢2 = 𝜔𝑅2
 The mass of water striking per second for a series of vanes = The mass of water coming out from
nozzle per sec = 𝜌𝑎𝑉1
Where,
𝑎 = Area of the jet, and
𝑉1 = Velocity of the jet
 Momentum of water striking the vanes in the tangential direction per sec at inlet = mass of water
striking per sec X component of V1 in the tangential direction
∴ 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 × 𝑉𝑤1 (∵ 𝑉𝑤1 = 𝑉1 cos 𝛼)
 Similarly,
Momentum of water at outlet per sec = 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 X component of V2 in the tangential direction
∴ 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 × (−𝑉2 cos 𝛽)
∴ 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐 = −𝜌𝑎𝑉1 × 𝑉𝑤2 (∵ 𝑉𝑤2 = 𝑉2 cos 𝛽)
 Now angular momentum,
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑝𝑒𝑟 sec 𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 = 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 × 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡
= 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 × 𝑉𝑤1 × 𝑅1
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑝𝑒𝑟 sec 𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 = 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 × 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡
= −𝜌𝑎𝑉1 × 𝑉𝑤2 × 𝑅2
 Torque exerted by the water on the wheel,
𝑇 = 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
𝑇 = [𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐 − 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐]
∴ 𝑇 = [𝜌𝑎𝑉1 × 𝑉𝑤1 𝑅1 − (−𝜌𝑎𝑉1 × 𝑉𝑤2 𝑅2 )]
∴ 𝑇 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 [𝑉𝑤1 𝑅1 + 𝑉𝑤2 𝑅2 ] Eq. (8.29)
 Work done per sec on the wheel,
𝑊𝐷/𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 × 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
∴ 𝑊𝐷/𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝑇 × 𝜔
∴ 𝑊𝐷/𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 [𝑉𝑤1 𝑅1 + 𝑉𝑤2 𝑅2 ] × 𝜔
∴ 𝑊𝐷/𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 [𝑉𝑤1 𝑅1 𝜔 + 𝑉𝑤2 𝑅2 𝜔]
∴ 𝑊𝐷/𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 [𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 + 𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 ] Eq. (8.30)
 Eq. (8.30) is valid only when, 𝛽 < 90. If the angle 𝛽 is an obtuse angle (𝛽 > 90) then,
𝑊𝐷/𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 [𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 − 𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 ]
 In general,
𝑊𝐷/𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 [𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 ± 𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 ] Eq. (8.31)
 If the discharge is radial at the outlet then, 𝛽 = 90° and hence 𝑉𝑤2 = 0,
∴ 𝑊𝐷/𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 [𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 ]
 Efficiency of the radial curved vanes,
𝜂=
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑

8.15
𝜌𝑎𝑉1 [𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 ± 𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 ]
∴𝜂=
1
(𝑚̇)𝑉12
2
𝜌𝑎𝑉1 [𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 ± 𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 ]
∴𝜂=
1
(𝜌𝑎𝑉1 )𝑉12
2
2[𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 ± 𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 ]
∴𝜂= Eq. (8.32)
𝑉12
8.7 Hydraulic Turbines

Hydraulic Machines
 “It is defined as those machines which convert either hydraulic energy into mechanical energy (i.e.
turbines) or mechanical energy into hydraulic energy (i.e. pumps).”
Turbines
 “It is defined as the hydraulic machines which convert hydraulic energy into mechanical energy.”
 This mechanical energy is used in running an electric generator which is directly coupled to the shaft
of the turbine. Thus the mechanical energy is converted into electric energy. The electric power, which
is obtained from the hydraulic energy is known as Hydro-electric power.
 At present, the generation of hydro-electric power is the cheapest as compared to the power
generation by other sources such as oil, coal, etc.
Contribution of Hydro-electric Power in World’s Energy Resources……………

 Hydropower is produced in 153 countries. India ranked 6th in the hydroelectric power
production among these 153 countries.
 The present installed capacity as on September, 2013 is approximately 39,788.40 MW which
is 17.39% of total electricity generation in India.
Upcoming Mega Project
 Upper Siang Hydroelectric Project (Construction Period: 2009-2024)

The main dam is being constructed across river Siang, a tributary of river Brahmaputra and
upon completion, the dam reservoir will hold 10 billion cubic meters of water. The hydro power
project at Siang will alone generate between 10,000 to 12,000 MW, making it the largest
hydroelectric dam in South Asia.
8.8 Classification of Hydraulic Turbines
8.8.1 According to the type of energy at the inlet or the action of the water on the blade
A. Impulse turbine
 In an Impulse turbine, all the available energy of the water is converted into kinetic energy or velocity
head by passing it through a convergent nozzle provided at the end of the penstock.

8.16
 So at the inlet of the turbine, only kinetic energy is available.
 Here the pressure of water flowing over the turbine blades remains constant. (i.e. atmospheric
pressure)
 Examples: Pelton wheel, Turgo-impulse turbine, Girard turbine, Banki turbine, Jonval turbine, etc.
B. Reaction turbine
 In a reaction turbine, at the entrance to the runner, only a part of the available energy of water is
converted into kinetic energy and a substantial part remains in the form of pressure energy.
 So at the inlet of the turbine, water possesses kinetic energy as well as pressure energy.
 As the water flows through the turbine blades, the change from pressure energy to kinetic energy
takes place gradually.
 For this gradual change of pressure, the runner must be completely enclosed in an air-tight casing
and the passage should be full of water.
 The difference of pressure between the inlet and outlet of the runner is called reaction pressure,
and hence these turbines are known as reaction turbines.
 Examples: Francis turbine, Kaplan turbine, Propeller turbine, Thomson turbine, Fourneyron turbine,
etc.
8.8.2 According to the direction of flow through runner

A. Tangential flow turbine
 In tangential flow, the water strikes the runner in the direction of the tangent to the path of rotation
of the runner. OR The water strikes the vane/bucket along the tangent of the runner.
 Example: Pelton wheel
B. Radial flow turbine
 In radial flow, water flows through the turbine along the direction normal to the axis of rotation (i.e.
radial direction).
 A radial flow turbine is further classified as inward or outward flow depending upon whether the
flow is inward from the periphery to the center or outward from the center to periphery.
 Example: Old Francis turbine
C. Axial flow turbine
 In an axial flow turbine, water flows along the direction parallel to the axis of rotation of the runner.
 Here the water flows parallel to the turbine shaft.
 Examples: Kaplan turbine, Propeller turbine
D. Mixed flow turbine
 In mixed flow, water enters the runner in the radial direction and leaves in the direction parallel to
the axis of rotation (i.e. axial direction).
 Example: Modern Francis turbine.
8.8.3 According to the head at the inlet of the turbine

A. High head turbine
 High head turbines which operate under high head (above 250m) and require relatively less quantity
of water.
 Example: Pelton wheel turbine
8.17
B. Medium head turbine
 Medium head turbines which operate under medium head (60m to 250m) and require medium flow
rate.
 Example: Modern Francis turbine
C. Low head turbine
 Low head turbines that operate under head up to 30m and require a very large quantity of water.
 Example: Kaplan and Propeller turbine
8.8.4 According to the specific speed of the turbine

 The specific speed of a turbine is the speed of a geometrically similar turbine that would develop 1KW
power when working under a head of 1m.
 All geometrically similar turbines (irrespective of the sizes) will have the same specific speeds when
operating under the same head.
𝑁√𝑃
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑, 𝑁𝑠 =
𝐻 5⁄4
where,
𝑁 = Normal working speed
𝑃 = Power output of the turbine, and
𝐻 = Net or effective head in meter
 Turbines with low specific speeds work under the high head and low discharge conditions, while high
specific speed turbines work under the low head and high discharge conditions.
A. Low specific speed turbine
 For Pelton wheel turbine with a single jet, 𝑁𝑠 = 8.5 𝑡𝑜 30
 For Pelton wheel turbine with the double jet, 𝑁𝑠 = 40
B. Medium specific speed turbine
 For Francis turbine, 𝑁𝑠 = 50 𝑡𝑜 340
C. High specific speed turbine
 Kaplan and other Propeller turbines, 𝑁𝑠 = 255 𝑡𝑜 860
8.9 Efficiencies & Head of Hydraulic Turbines
Fig.8.11 – Layout of a hydroelectric power plant using an impulse turbine

8.18
1. Gross Head (𝑯𝒈 )
 It is the difference between the headrace level and tail race level when no water is flowing.
 It is also known as the total head of the turbine.
2. Effective Head or Net Head (H)
 A net head or effective head is the actual head available at the inlet of the turbine.
 When water is flowing from the headrace to the turbine, a loss of head due to friction between
water and penstock occurs.
 Though there are other losses also such as loss due to bend, pipe fittings, loss at the entrance of
the penstock, etc. These all having small magnitude as compared to head loss due to friction.
 So,
𝐻 = 𝐻𝑔 − ℎ𝑓 Eq. (8.33)
where,
𝐻 = Net head or Effective head
𝐻𝑔 = Gross head
ℎ𝑓 = Head loss due to friction between penstock and water and is given by,
4𝑓𝐿𝑉 2
ℎ𝑓 = Eq. (8.34)
2𝑔𝐷
𝑓 = Coefficient of friction of penstock depending on the type of material of penstock
𝐿 = Total length of penstock
𝑉 = Mean velocity of water through the penstock
𝐷 = Diameter of penstock and
𝑔 = Acceleration due to gravity
3. Hydraulic Efficiency (𝜼𝒉 )
 It is the ratio of the power developed by the runner of a turbine to the power supplied by the water
at the inlet of a turbine.
 Since the power supplied is hydraulic, and the probable loss is between the striking jet and vane it
is rightly called hydraulic efficiency.
Runner Power
 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙, 𝑅. 𝑃. = 𝑚̇[𝑉𝑤1 ± 𝑉𝑤2 ] × 𝑢, Watt
 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒, 𝑅. 𝑃. = 𝑚̇[𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 ± 𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 ], Watt
Water Power
𝑊×𝐻
𝑊. 𝑃. = , 𝐾𝑊
1000
𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻
𝑊. 𝑃. = , 𝐾𝑊
1000
where,
𝑊 = Weight of water striking the vanes per second = 𝑚̇𝑔 = 𝜌𝑔𝑄
𝐻 = Net available head on the turbine

8.19
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟
𝜂ℎ =
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡
𝑅𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑅. 𝑃.
𝜂ℎ = = Eq. (8.35)
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑊. 𝑃.
4. Mechanical Efficiency (𝜼𝒎 )
 The power delivered by water to the runner of a turbine is transmitted to the shaft of the turbine.
 It is the ratio of the power available at the shaft of the turbine to the power developed by the runner
of a turbine.
 This depends on the slips and other mechanical problems that will create a loss of energy i.e.
friction.
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝜂𝑚 =
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑆. 𝑃.
𝜂𝑚 = = Eq. (8.36)
𝑅𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑅. 𝑃.
5. Overall Efficiency (𝜼𝒐 )
 It is the ratio of the power available at the shaft to the power supplied by the water at the inlet of a
turbine.
𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝜂𝑜 =
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑆. 𝑃. 𝑅. 𝑃.
𝜂𝑜 = ×
𝑊. 𝑃. 𝑅. 𝑃.
𝑆. 𝑃. 𝑅. 𝑃.
𝜂𝑜 = ×
𝑅. 𝑃. 𝑊. 𝑃.
𝜂𝑜 = 𝜂𝑚 × 𝜂ℎ Eq. (8.37)
6. Volumetric Efficiency (𝜼𝒗 )
 The volume of the water striking the runner of a turbine is slightly less than the volume of the water
supplied to the turbine.
 Some volume of the water is discharged to the tailrace without striking the runner of the turbine.
 Thus the ratio of the volume of the water actually striking the runner to the volume of water supplied
to the turbine is defined as volumetric efficiency.
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟
𝜂𝑣 = Eq. (8.38)
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒
8.10 Pelton Wheel

 A Pelton wheel turbine is:
i. Tangential Flow Turbine:
Water strikes the bucket/vane tangentially to the direction of the rotation.
ii. Impulse Turbine:
At the inlet of the turbine, only kinetic energy is available. (Pressure will remain constant at the
inlet and outlet, i.e. Atmospheric pressure)
 Pelton wheel is generally used at a very high head and low discharge.

8.20
 Pelton wheel is named after an American engineer L. A. Pelton.
8.10.1 Components and working of Pelton Wheel

 The main components of the Pelton wheel are:
1. Nozzle and Flow Regulating Arrangement (Spear)
2. Runner and Buckets
3. Casing and
4. Breaking Jet
Fig.8.12 – Components of a Pelton wheel
1. Nozzle and Flow Regulating Arrangement (Spear)

 Depending on load fluctuations, the speed of the
turbine is to be kept constant by controlling the
quantity of water flowing through the nozzle.
 The amount of water striking the buckets of the
runner is controlled by providing a spear in the
nozzle as shown in Fig.8.13.
 The spear is a conical needle which is operated
either by a hand wheel or automatically by the
governor in an axial direction depending upon the Fig.8.13 – Flow regulating Arrangement
size of the unit.
 Spear reciprocates in a nozzle and hence changes the annular area through which water can pass.
 When the spear is pushed forward into the nozzle, the amount of water striking the runner is
reduced. On the other hand, if the spear is pushed back, the amount of water striking the runner
increases.
2. Runner and Buckets
 It consists of a circular disc, on the periphery of which a number of buckets evenly spaced are
fixed.

8.21
 The shape of the buckets is of a double
hemispherical cup or bowl. Each bucket is
divided into two symmetrical parts by a dividing
wall which is known as a splitter.
 The jet of water strikes on the splitter. The
splitter divides the jet into two equal parts and
the jet comes out at the outer edge of the bucket.
 The buckets are shaped in such a way that the
jet gets deflected through 160 or 170°.
Maximum work is obtained if the jet is deflected Fig.8.14 – Bucket of Pelton Wheel
through 180° i.e. the bucket is semicircular.
 If a semicircular bucket is used, an outgoing jet may strike to the next incoming bucket and hence
opposes the motion of the rotor. Hence the angle of jet deflection is generally kept 160° to 170°.
 The material of buckets: Cast iron, Cast steel, Bronze or S.S., depending upon the head at the inlet.
 The inner surface of the bucket is highly polished to minimize the frictional losses.
 As the splitter has to bear the total impact of the jet, it must be made very strong. Therefore it is
not practical to have a sharp edge with a zero inlet angle at the center of the bucket.
 Usually, this angle is made 3 to 6 degrees even though, for practical purposes the inlet vane angle
is assumed to be zero.
3. Casing
 The function of the casing is to prevent the splashing of the water and to discharge water to the
tailrace.
 It also acts as a safeguard against accidents.
 Material: Cast iron or fabricated steel plates
 The casing of the Pelton wheel does not perform any hydraulic function.
4. Breaking Jet
 When the nozzle is completely closed by moving the spear in the forward direction, the amount of
water striking the runner reduces to zero.
 But the runner due to inertia goes on revolving for a long time.
 To stop the runner in a shorter time, a small nozzle is provided which directs the jet of water on the
back of the vanes as shown in Fig.8.12. This jet of water is called breaking jet.
Working of Pelton Wheel

 Pelton wheel works on the Impulse-Momentum principle. (i.e. F.dt=m.dV)
 The water from the reservoir (or head race) is conveyed to the turbine house through a penstock, at
the outlet of which a nozzle is fitted.
 When water flows through a penstock and comes out of the nozzle, all pressure energy, and potential
energy is converted into kinetic energy.
 Hence at the outlet of the nozzle, the water comes out in the form of the jet (at atmospheric pressure)
and strikes the buckets/vanes of the runner.
 The impact of water on the bucket rotates the runner.

8.22
 The runner is mounted on the shaft and hence mechanical energy is available at the shaft which is
coupled with a generator, which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy and produces
electricity.
 After performing work on the buckets water is discharged into the tailrace.
8.10.2 Velocity Triangles, Work done and Efficiency of Pelton Wheel

 The jet of water from the nozzle strikes the bucket at the splitter, which splits up the jet into two parts.
 These parts of the jet glide over the inner surfaces and come out at the outer edge of the bucket.
 The splitter is the inlet tip and the outer edge of the bucket is the outlet tip of the bucket.
 Refer Fig.8.15,
Let,
𝑉1 = Absolute velocity of water at the inlet, and is given by,
𝑉1 = 𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔𝐻
𝐻 = Net head acting on the Pelton wheel = 𝐻𝑔 − ℎ𝑓
𝐻𝑔 = Gross head
ℎ𝑓 = Head loss due to friction and is given by,
4𝑓𝐿𝑉 2
ℎ𝑓 =
2𝑔𝐷 ∗
𝐷 ∗ = Diameter of the penstock
𝑉 = Velocity of water in the penstock
𝑓 = Co-efficient of friction of penstock depending on the type of material of penstock
𝐿 = Total length of penstock
𝑉2 = Absolute velocity of water at the outlet
𝑉𝑟1 = Relative velocity of jet and vane at the inlet
𝑉𝑟2 = Relative velocity of jet and vane at the outlet
𝑢 = Peripheral velocity of a runner which has the same value at inlet and outlet of the runner at a
mean pitch (𝑢 = 𝑢1 = 𝑢2 )
𝜋𝐷𝑁
𝑢=
60
𝐷 = Diameter of runner
𝑁 = Speed of the runner in RPM
𝑉𝑤1 = Velocity of whirl at the inlet
𝑉𝑤2 = Velocity of whirl at the outlet
𝛼 = Guide blade angle (𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙, 𝛼 = 0)
𝜃 = Vane angle at the inlet (𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙, 𝜃 = 0)
𝜑 = Vane angle at the outlet
 From the inlet velocity triangle,
𝛼 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 = 0 (𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦)
So,
𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑤1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑟1 = 𝑉1 − 𝑢1

8.23
Fig.8.15 – Velocity diagram of Pelton wheel
 From the outlet velocity triangle,
𝑉𝑟1 = 𝑉𝑟2 (𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑡ℎ)
𝑉𝑤2 = 𝑉𝑟2 cos 𝜑 − 𝑢2
 Force exerted by the jet of water in the direction of motion is given by,
𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 [𝑉𝑤1 + 𝑉𝑤2 ]
(𝑉1 is taken instead of 𝑉𝑟1 because of series of vanes)
 Also for the Pelton wheel, 𝛽 is an acute angle i.e. 𝛽 < 90° ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 + 𝑣𝑒 sign should be taken.
 Work done by the jet on runner per sec,
= 𝐹𝑥 × 𝑢
𝑁∙𝑚
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 [𝑉𝑤1 + 𝑉𝑤2 ] × 𝑢, Eq. (8.39)
𝑠𝑒𝑐
 Hydraulic efficiency,
𝜂ℎ =
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
𝜌𝑎𝑉1 [𝑉𝑤1 + 𝑉𝑤2 ] × 𝑢
𝜂ℎ =
1
(𝜌𝑎𝑉1 )𝑉12
2
2𝑢[𝑉𝑤1 + 𝑉𝑤2 ]
𝜂ℎ =
𝑉12
 Now substituting values of 𝑉𝑤1 & 𝑉𝑤2 in the above equation, we get,
2𝑢[𝑉1 + {𝑉𝑟1 cos 𝜑 − 𝑢2 }]
𝜂ℎ =
𝑉12
but,
𝑉𝑟1 = 𝑉𝑟2 = 𝑉1 − 𝑢 (∵ 𝑢 = 𝑢1 = 𝑢2 )
 So,
2𝑢[𝑉1 + (𝑉1 − 𝑢) cos 𝜑 − 𝑢]
𝜂ℎ =
𝑉12
2𝑢 (𝑉1 − 𝑢)[1 + cos 𝜑]
𝜂ℎ =
𝑉12
8.24
 Condition for Maximum efficiency,
𝑑(𝜂ℎ )
=0
𝑑𝑢
𝑑 2𝑢 (𝑉1 − 𝑢)[1 + cos 𝜑]
[ ]=0
𝑑𝑢 𝑉12
[1 + cos 𝜑] 𝑑
[ (2𝑢𝑉1 − 2𝑢2 )] = 0
𝑉12 𝑑𝑢
2𝑉1 − 4𝑢 = 0
2𝑉1 = 4𝑢
𝑽𝟏
𝒖= Eq. (8.40)
𝟐
 The hydraulic efficiency of a Pelton wheel will be maximum when the velocity of the wheel is half the
velocity of the jet of water at the inlet.
 Maximum efficiency,
𝑉1 𝑉
2× × (𝑉1 − 1 ) [1 + cos 𝜑]
𝜂ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2 2
𝑉12
[1 + cos 𝜑]
𝜂ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 = Eq. (8.41)
2
8.10.3 Design Aspects of Pelton Wheel

 For design aspect following points should be considered:
1. The velocity of the jet (𝑽𝟏 ) at the inlet of the turbine,
𝑉1 = 𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔𝐻 Eq. (8.42)
Where, 𝐶𝑣 = 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ≅ 0.98 𝑡𝑜 0.99
2. The velocity of the wheel (𝒖),

𝑢 = 𝜑 √2𝑔𝐻 Eq. (8.43)
Where, 𝜑 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 ≅ 0.43 𝑡𝑜 0.48
3. The angle of deflection of the jet through bucket is taken at 165° (average of 160° to 170°) if no
angle of deflection is given.
4. The mean diameter or pitch diameter (𝑫) of the Pelton wheel is given by,
𝜋𝐷𝑁
𝑢=
60
60 × 𝑢
∴𝐷=
𝜋𝑁
5. Jet ratio (𝒎): It is the ratio of pitch diameter (D) to the diameter of the jet (d).
𝐷
𝑚= (≅ 12 in most of the cases) Eq. (8.44)
𝑑
6. No. of buckets (𝒁) on a runner is given by,
𝐷
𝑍 = 15 + Eq. (8.45)
2𝑑

8.25
7. No. of jets: It is obtained by dividing the total rate of flow through the turbine (𝑄) by the rate of
flow of water through a single jet (𝑞).
𝑄
No. of jets = Eq. (8.46)
𝑞
8. Working proportions for buckets:
i. Width of the bucket = 3𝑑 𝑡𝑜 5𝑑 ≅ 5𝑑
ii. Depth of the bucket = 0.8𝑑 𝑡𝑜 1.2𝑑 ≅ 1.2𝑑
The size of the bucket means the width and depth of the buckets.
Design of Pelton Wheel means……….

To determine,
a. Diameter of jet (𝑑)
b. Diameter of wheel (𝐷)
c. Size of the bucket (Width and Depth)
d. No. of buckets on the wheel (𝑍)
Fig.8.16 – A close-up view of a Pelton wheel showing the detailed design of the buckets; the electrical
generator is on the right

8.26
Fig.8.17 – A view from the bottom of an operating Pelton wheel illustrating the splitting and turning of
the water jet in the bucket.
Fig.8.18 – The runner of a Modern Francis turbine. There are 17 runner blades of outer diameter 20.3 ft.
The turbine rotates at 100 rpm and produces 194 MW of power at a volume flow rate of 375
m3/s from a net head of 54.9 m

8.27
8.11 Reaction Turbine
 In a reaction turbine, water at the inlet of the turbine possesses kinetic energy as well as pressure
energy.
 As water flows through the runner, a part of pressure energy goes on changing into kinetic energy.
 Thus the water through the runner is under pressure and the runner is completely enclosed in an air-
tight casing.
 Casing and the runner are always full of water.
 Different types of reaction turbine are:
A) Inward radial flow reaction turbine (Water flows from outward to inward)
B) Outward radial flow reaction turbine (Water flows from inward to outward)
C) Mixed flow or Francis turbine (Water enters radially but leaves axially)
D) Axial flow turbine (Water enters and leaves axially)
a. Kaplan turbine:- Runner blades are adjustable
b. Propeller turbine:- Runner blades are fixed
8.11.1 Main Components of a Radial Flow Reaction Turbine

 There are many components used in radial flow reaction turbine but the main components of the radial
flow reaction turbine are:
1. Casing
2. Guide Mechanism
3. Runner and
4. Draft tube
 Main parts of the radial flow reaction turbine are shown in Fig.8.19 and are discussed below:
1. Casing
 In the case of the reaction turbine,
casing and runner are always full of
water.
 The cross-section area of this casing
decreases uniformly along the
circumference to keep the fluid
velocity constant in magnitude along
its path towards the guide vane.
 This is so because the rate of flow
along the fluid path in the volute
decreases due to continuous entry of
the fluid to the runner through the
openings of the guide vanes.
 Material: Concrete, Cast steel or Fig.8.19 – Main components of radial flow reaction turbine
Plate steel
2. Guide Mechanism or Guide Blades
 It is a stationary circular wheel. Guide vanes are fixed on guide mechanism between two rings in
the form of a wheel.
 The guide vanes allow the water to strike the vanes fixed on the runner without shock at the inlet.

8.28
 Material: Cast iron
 The quantity of water passing through the guide blades depends on the position of the guide vanes.
3. Runner
 It is a circular wheel on which a series of radial curved vanes are fixed.
 The surface of the vanes is made very smooth.
 The radial curved vanes are so shaped that the water enters and leaves the runner without shock.
 Material: Cast steel, Cast iron or Stainless steel.
 The runner is keyed to the shaft.
4. Draft Tube
 The pressure at the exit of the runner of a reaction turbine is generally less than atmospheric
pressure.
 Hence water at the exit cannot be directly discharged to the tailrace.
 A tube or pipe of the gradually increasing area is used for discharging water from the exit of the
turbine to the tailrace. This tube of the increasing area is called a draft tube.
8.12 Inward and Outward Radial Flow Reaction Turbine
Inward Radial Flow Reaction Turbine Outward Radial Flow Reaction Turbine
Water enters at the outer periphery, flows inward Water enters at the inner periphery, flows outward
and towards the center of the turbine and and discharges at the outer periphery.
discharges at the inner periphery.
The outer diameter of the runner is inlet and the The inner diameter of the runner is inlet and the outer
inner diameter is the outlet. diameter is the outlet.
∴ 𝐷1 > 𝐷2 ∴ 𝐷1 < 𝐷2
Hence, Hence,
𝑢1 > 𝑢2 𝑢1 < 𝑢2

8.29
(Work done and hydraulic efficiency are same for both inward and outward flow reaction turbines)
Work done per sec,
𝑊𝐷 ⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 [𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 ± 𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 ] Eq. (8.47)
Work done per unit weight,

1
𝑊𝐷 ⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = [𝑉 𝑢 ± 𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 ] Eq. (8.48)
𝑔 𝑤1 1
Hydraulic efficiency,
𝑅𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝜂ℎ =
𝑚̇ (𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 ± 𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 ) 𝜌𝑄 (𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 ± 𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 )
𝜂ℎ = =
𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻 𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻
(𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 ± 𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 )
𝜂ℎ = Eq. (8.49)
𝑔𝐻
8.13 Francis turbine

 A Francis turbine is:
i. Mixed Flow Turbine:
Water enters radially and leaves axially to the direction of rotation of the shaft.
ii. Reaction Turbine:
At the inlet of the turbine, both kinetic, as well as pressure energy, are available.
8.30
 the medium head and medium flow rate.

8.13.1 Components and working of Francis Turbine

 Different components of Francis turbine are:
A. Penstock
B. Spiral Casing
C. Guide Blades
D. Governing Mechanism
E. Runner
F. Draft Tube
A. Penstock
 A penstock is a large diameter conduit, which
carries water from a dam or a reservoir to the
turbine house.
 Since Francis turbine requires a large volume of
water than the Pelton wheel, the size of the
penstock is bigger in the case of Francis
turbine.
 Material: Generally steel is used.
B. Spiral Casing
 Water from the penstock enters into the spiral
casing which completely surrounds the runner.
 This casing is also known as scroll casing or
volute.
 The cross-section area of this casing
decreases uniformly along the circumference
to keep the fluid velocity constant in magnitude
along its path towards the guide vane.
 This is so because the rate of flow along the
fluid path in the volute decreases due to
continuous entry of the fluid to the runner
through the openings of the guide vanes.
 Material:
i. For low head: Concrete casing with steel
plate lining Fig.8.20 – Components of Francis turbine
ii. For medium head: Welded rolled steel plate casing
iii. For high head: Cast steel
C. Guide Blades
 A series of airfoil-shaped vanes called the guide vanes or wicket gates, are mounted on the casing.
 Guide vanes are fixed between the two rings in the form of a wheel however, they can swing about
their own axis.

8.31
 The basic purpose of the guide vanes is to convert a part of pressure energy at its entrance into
the kinetic energy and to direct the water or fluid on to the runner blades at an angle appropriate to
the design.
 The quantity of water passing through the guide vanes depends on the position of the guide vanes,
which can be controlled either using a handwheel or automatically by a governor.
 Material: Cast steel
D. Governing Mechanism
 The turbine must rotate at constant speed irrespective of the load variation on a generator.
 The governing mechanism keeps the speed of the turbine constant by controlling the quantity of
water to the turbine.
 Guide blades can move on its pivot centers and hence can change the area of flow.
 Depending on load fluctuations, the governing mechanism changes the position of guide blades
and hence the area of flow so that the turbine rotates with constant speed.
E. Runner
 It is the most important component of the Francis turbine.

 The runner of a Francis turbine consists of a series of curved vanes evenly arranged around the
circumference in the annular space between two plates.
 The runner vanes are so shaped that water enters the runner radially at the outer periphery and
leaves it axially at the inner periphery.
 Most of the portion of pressure energy is converted into kinetic energy as water flows through the
runner.
 The driving force on the runner is both due to impulse (deviation in the direction of flow) and
reaction (change in kinetic and pressure energy) effects.
 The number of runner blades usually varies between 16 to 24.
 The runner is keyed to the shaft which is usually of forged steel.
 Material:
 Cast iron or cast steel
 Sometimes Stainless steel or Bronze is used to avoid corrosion.
F. Draft Tube
 It is a pipe or passage of gradually increasing cross-sectional area towards its outlet end. It
connects the runner exit to the tailrace.
 As the pressure of the reaction turbine decreases continuously as water passes through the guide
vanes and the runner, it does below atmospheric pressure at the outlet of the runner.
 The draft tube is used to discharge the water to the tailrace by increasing the pressure above
atmospheric.
 The draft tube must be submerged below the level of water in the tailrace.
 Material: Steel plate
Working of a Francis Turbine

 Water through the penstock under pressure enters the spiral casing which completely surrounds the
runner.

8.32
 From casing, water passes through a series of guide vanes, which directs the water to the runner at a
proper angle.
 The pressure energy of water reduces continuously as it passes over the guide vanes and moving
vanes.
 The difference in pressure at stationary guide vanes and moving runner is responsible for the motion
of the runner vanes.
 Finally, water is discharged to the tailrace through a draft tube.
8.13.2 Velocity Triangles, Work done and Efficiency of Francis Turbine

 The velocity triangles at the inlet and outlet of the Francis turbine are drawn as shown in Fig.8.21(a).
Fig.8.21 – Velocity Triangles for Francis turbine

 The general expression for work done by the runner can be derived in the same manner as in the case
of a series of radial curved vanes (Section 8.6)
𝑊𝐷 ⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝑚̇(𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 ± 𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 )
𝑊𝐷 ⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 (𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 ± 𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 ) Eq. (8.50)
𝑖𝑓 𝛽 < 90° → +𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
𝑖𝑓 𝛽 > 90° → −𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
 For maximum output, the runner of the Francis turbine is so designed that there occurs a radial
discharge at the outlet tip of the blades.
 For radial discharge at the outlet, 𝛽 = 90° and 𝑉𝑤2 = 0, as shown in Fig.8.21(b).
∴ 𝑾𝑫⁄𝒔𝒆𝒄 = 𝒎̇ (𝑽𝒘𝟏 𝒖𝟏 ) 𝑵𝒎/𝒔𝒆𝒄 Eq. (8.51)
 Hydraulic Efficiency

8.33
𝑅𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝜂ℎ =
𝑚̇ (𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 ) 𝜌𝑄 (𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 )
𝜂ℎ = =
𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻 𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻
(𝑽𝒘𝟏 𝒖𝟏 )
𝜼𝒉 = Eq. (8.52)
𝒈𝑯
8.13.3 Working Proportions for Francis Turbine

1. Flow Ratio (𝑲𝒇 )
 The ratio of flow velocity at the inlet (𝑉𝑓1 ) to theoretical velocity (√2𝑔𝐻) is called flow ratio. Its
value lies between 0.15 to 0.30.
𝑉𝑓1
𝐾𝑓 = Eq. (8.53)
√2𝑔𝐻
2. Speed Ratio (𝑲𝒖 )
 The ratio of the peripheral velocity at the inlet (𝑢1 ) to theoretical velocity (√2𝑔𝐻) is called speed
ratio. Its value lies between 0.6 to 0.9.
𝑢1
𝐾𝑢 = Eq. (8.54)
√2𝑔𝐻
3. Breadth Ratio (𝒏)
 The ratio of the width of the runner (𝐵) to the outside diameter of the runner (𝐷) is called the
breadth ratio. Its value ranges from 0.1 to 0.4.
𝐵
𝑛= Eq. (8.55)
𝐷
8.13.4 Total Discharge through Francis Turbine

 Let,
𝐷1 = Diameter of a runner at the inlet
𝐷2 = Diameter of a runner at the outlet
𝐵1 = Width of a runner at the inlet
𝐵2 = Width of a runner at the outlet
𝑉𝑓2 = Velocity of flow at the outlet
𝑛 = Number of vanes on the runner
𝑡 = Thickness of each vane
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛, total discharge through the Francis turbine is given by,
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 × 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡
= 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 × 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡
∴ 𝑄 = 𝜋𝐷1 𝐵1 × 𝑉𝑓1 = 𝜋𝐷2 𝐵2 × 𝑉𝑓2 Eq. (8.56)
 If the thickness of the vanes are taken into consideration, then the area through which flow takes place
is given by, (𝜋𝐷1 − 𝑛𝑡)𝐵1

8.34
 Hence,
𝑄 = (𝜋𝐷1 − 𝑛𝑡)𝐵1 × 𝑉𝑓1 = (𝜋𝐷2 − 𝑛𝑡)𝐵2 × 𝑉𝑓2 Eq. (8.57)
Key Point for Reaction Turbine
 Energy per unit weigth is known as Head.

 Head balance:
Head utilized = Head available at the inlet - Head at the outlet
𝟏 𝑽𝟐
[𝑽𝒘𝟏 𝒖𝟏 ± 𝑽𝒘𝟐 𝒖𝟐 ] = 𝑯 − 𝟐
𝒈 𝟐𝒈
8.14 Axial Flow Reaction Turbine

 In an axial flow reaction turbine, the water flows parallel to the axis of the rotation of the shaft.
 It is used under the low head and high discharge conditions.
 For the axial flow reaction turbine, the shaft of the turbine is vertical.
 The lower end of the shaft is made larger which is known as “Hub” or “Boss”.
 The vanes are fixed on the hub and hence hub acts as a runner for axial flow reaction turbine.
Types of Axial Flow Reaction Turbine
1. Kaplan Turbine and
2. Propeller Turbine
 When the vanes are fixed to the hub and they are not adjustable, the turbine is known as the Propeller
turbine.
 If the vanes on the hub are adjustable the
turbine is known as a Kaplan turbine.
 The runner blades are adjusted
automatically by servo-mechanism so that
at all loads the flow enters them without
shock. This gives better part-load
efficiency for Kaplan turbine.
 Components of the Kaplan turbine and
Propeller turbine are similar to that of the
Francis turbine, only the runner is different.
 Main parts of the Kaplan & Propeller turbine
are:
i. Scroll casing
ii. Guide vane mechanism
iii. Hub with vanes or runner and
iv. Draft tube
Fig.8.22 – Components of the Kaplan turbine

8.35
 The water from the penstock enters the casing and then moves to
the guide vanes. From the guide vanes, the water turns through 90°
and flows axially through the runner as shown in Fig.8.22.
8.14.1 Work done, Efficiency and Power Developed

 Expressions for work done, efficiency and power developed by
Kaplan & Propeller turbine are similar to that of the Francis turbine.
8.14.2 Discharge through Runner of Kaplan & Propeller Turbine

 The discharge through the runner is obtained by,
Fig.8.23 – Kaplan turbine runner
𝜋 2
𝑄= (𝐷 − 𝐷𝑏2 ) × 𝑉𝑓1 Eq. (8.58)
4 𝑜
where,
𝐷𝑜 = Outer diameter of the runner
𝐷𝑏 = Diameter of the hub
8.14.3 Working Proportions of Kaplan and Propeller Turbine

 The peripheral velocity at inlet and outlet are equal,
𝜋𝐷0 𝑁
∴ 𝑢1 = 𝑢2 = Eq. (8.59)
60
 The velocity of flow at inlet and outlet are equal,
∴ 𝑉𝑓1 = 𝑉𝑓2 = 𝐾𝑓 √2𝑔𝐻 Eq. (8.60)
 Area of flow at inlet and outlet are equal,
𝜋 2
∴ 𝐴1 = 𝐴2 = (𝐷 − 𝐷𝑏2 )
4 𝑜
8.15 Draft Tube Theory

 The draft tube is an integral part of the reaction turbine. It is an airtight diverging conduit with a cross-
sectional area increasing along its length. One end of this diverging tube is connected to runner exit
and the other is located below the level of the tailrace.
 The functions of the draft tube are:
 When water flows through the turbine it’s kinetic and pressure energy is utilized to generate
shaft power. Even though when the water leaves the turbine it possesses high kinetic energy
and negative pressure head. If water is discharged through a draft tube having gradually
increasing cross-sectional area, the velocity is largely reduced at the outlet of the draft tube,
and thus resulting in a gain in kinetic head and also increases the negative pressure head at
the turbine exit so that net working head on the turbine increases. So the output of the turbine
and efficiency also increases.
 By providing a draft tube, a turbine can be installed above the tailrace without the loss of any
head. This helps to make inspection and maintenance of a turbine easy.
 Different types of draft tubes used in reaction turbine are:
i. Straight divergent tube or Conical draft tube

8.36
ii. Simple elbow tube
iii. Moody spreading tube
iv. Elbow tube with circular cross-section at inlet and rectangular at the outlet
 Fig.8.24 shows different types of draft tubes.
Fig.8.24 – Types of draft tubes

 These different types of draft-tubes are shown in Fig.8.24. The conical draft-tubes and Moody
spreading draft-tubes are most efficient while simple elbow tubes and elbow draft-tubes with circular
inlet and rectangular outlet require less space as compared to other draft-tubes.
 Consider a capital draft-tube as shown in
Fig.8.25.
 Let,
𝐻𝑠 = Vertical height of draft tube above the
tailrace
𝑦 = distance of the bottom of draft tube from
the tailrace
 Applying Bernoulli’s equation to the inlet
(section 2-2) and outlet (section 3-3) of the draft
tube as shown in Fig.8.25.
 Assuming section 3-3 as a datum line, we get,
𝑃2 𝑉22 𝑃3 𝑉32 Fig.8.25 – Draft tube theory
+ + (𝐻𝑠 + 𝑦) = + + 0 + ℎ𝑓
where,
ℎ𝑓 = Loss of energy between sections 2-2 and 3-3.
but,
𝑃3
= 𝐴𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 + 𝑦
𝜌𝑔

8.37
𝑃3 𝑃𝑎
∴ = +𝑦
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔
 So,
𝑃2 𝑉22 𝑃𝑎 𝑉32
∴ + + (𝐻𝑠 + 𝑦) = +𝑦+ + ℎ𝑓
𝑃2 𝑉22 𝑃𝑎 𝑉32
∴ + + 𝐻𝑠 = + + ℎ𝑓
𝑷 𝟐 𝑷𝒂 𝑽𝟐𝟐 𝑽𝟐𝟑
∴ = − 𝑯𝒔 − ( − − 𝒉𝒇 ) Eq. (8.61)
𝝆𝒈 𝝆𝒈 𝟐𝒈 𝟐𝒈
𝑃2
In Eq. (8.61), is less than atmospheric pressure.
𝜌𝑔
8.15.1 The efficiency of Draft Tube (𝜼𝒅 )

 It is defined as the ratio of actual conversion of the kinetic head into pressure head in the draft tube to
the kinetic head at the inlet of the draft tube.
𝑉2 𝑉2
( 2 − 3 ) − ℎ𝑓
2𝑔 2𝑔
𝜂𝑑 = Eq. (8.62)
𝑉22
2𝑔
8.16 Specific Speed (𝑵𝒔 )

 It is defined as the speed of a turbine which is identical in shape, geometrical dimensions, blade angles,
gate openings, etc. with the actual turbine but of such a size that it will develop unit power when working
under a unit head.
 The specific speed is used in comparing the different types of turbines as every type of turbine has a
different specific speed.
In the MKS system, In the SI system,
Unit power → 1 Horsepower Unit power → 1 KW
Unit head → 1 meter Unit head → 1 meter
Derivation of Specific Speed for Hydraulic Turbine

 The overall efficiency of any turbine is given by,
𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃
𝜂𝑜 = =
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻
1000
𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻
∴ 𝑃 = 𝜂𝑜 ×
1000
∴ 𝑃 ∝ 𝑄𝐻 (𝑎𝑠 𝜌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜂𝑜 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡) Eq. (8.63)
 Let,
𝐷 = Diameter of the actual turbine runner
𝐵 = Width of the actual turbine blade
𝑁 = Speed of the actual turbine
𝑢 = Tangential velocity of the turbine wheel
8.38
𝑁𝑠 = Specific speed of the turbine
 The absolute velocity, tangential velocity and head on the turbine are related as
𝑢 ∝ 𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉 ∝ √𝐻
∴ 𝑢 ∝ √𝐻 Eq. (8.64)
but,
𝜋𝐷𝑁
𝑢=
60
∴ 𝑢 ∝ 𝐷𝑁 Eq. (8.65)
 From Eq. (8.64) and Eq. (8.65) we have,
√𝐻 ∝ 𝐷𝑁
√𝐻
∴𝐷∝ Eq. (8.66)
𝑁
 The discharge through the turbine is given by,
𝑄 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
but,
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 ∝ 𝐵𝐷 ∝ 𝐷 2 (∵ 𝐵 ∝ 𝐷)
and
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∝ √𝐻
∴ 𝑄 ∝ 𝐷 2 √𝐻
2
√𝐻
∴ 𝑄 ∝ ( ) × √𝐻 (𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐸𝑞. (8.66))
𝑁
𝐻
∴𝑄∝ × √𝐻
𝑁2
𝐻 3⁄ 2
∴𝑄∝ 2 Eq. (8.67)
𝑁
 Substituting the value of Q in Eq. (8.63) we get,
𝐻 3⁄2
𝑃∝ ×𝐻
𝑁2
𝐻 5⁄2
∴𝑃∝ 2
𝑁
𝐻 5⁄2
∴𝑃=𝐾× Eq. (8.68)
𝑁2
where, 𝐾 = Constant of proportionality
 If, 𝑃 = 1𝐾𝑊 and 𝐻 = 1𝑚, then, 𝑁 = 𝑁𝑠 , substituting these values in Eq. (8.63) we get,
15⁄2
1=𝐾×
𝑁𝑠2
∴ 𝐾 = 𝑁𝑠2
 So,

8.39
𝐻 5⁄2
𝑃 = 𝑁𝑠2 ×
𝑁2
𝑃𝑁 2
∴ 𝑁𝑠2 = 5⁄2
𝐻
𝑃𝑁 2
∴ 𝑁𝑠 = √ 5⁄2
𝐻
𝑵√𝑷
∴ 𝑵𝒔 = Eq. (8.69)
𝑯𝟓⁄𝟒
8.16.1 Significance of Specific Speed

 Specific speed plays an important role in selecting the type of turbine. Also, the performance of a
turbine can be predicted by knowing the specific speed of the turbine.
 The types of turbines for different specific speed are given in the following table:
Specific Speed, 𝑵𝒔
Sr. No. Type of Turbine
In the MKS unit In the SI unit
1 10 to 60 10 to 50 Pelton Wheel
2 60 to 300 51 to 225 Francis Turbine
3 300 to 1000 255 to 860 Kaplan turbine
8.17 Unit Quantities and Model Relationship

 A turbine operates most efficiently at its design point, i.e., at a particular combination of head,
discharge, speed and power output. But in actual practice hardly any turbine operates at its designed
parameters.
 To predict the behavior of the turbine operating at varying conditions of the head, discharge, speed
and power output, the results expressed in terms of quantities that may be obtained when the head on
the turbine is reduced to unity (1m).
 The conditions of the turbine under the unit head are such that the overall efficiency of the turbine
remains constant.
 A turbine can be compared with the help of the following common characteristics:
8.17.1 Unit Speed (𝑵𝒖 )

 It is defined as the speed of a turbine working under a unit head (1 m).
Let
N = Speed of a turbine under a head H,
H = Head under which a turbine is working,
u = Tangential velocity.
 The tangential velocity, the absolute velocity of water and head on the turbine are related as
𝑢 ∝ 𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉 ∝ √𝐻
∴ 𝑢 ∝ √𝐻
but,

8.40
𝜋𝐷𝑁
𝑢=
60
∴ 𝑢 ∝ 𝐷𝑁
 For a given turbine, the diameter (𝐷) is constant.
∴𝑁∝𝑢
∴ 𝑁 ∝ √𝐻
∴ 𝑁 = 𝐾1 √𝐻
 From the definition of unit speed, if 𝐻 = 1𝑚, 𝑁 = 𝑁𝑢
∴ 𝑁𝑢 = 𝐾1
 Hence,
𝑵
𝑵𝒖 = Eq. (8.70)
√𝑯
8.17.2 Unit Discharge (𝑸𝒖 )

 It is defined as a discharge passing through a turbine, which is working under a unit head (1m).
Let
H = Head of water on the turbine,
Q = Discharge passing through a turbine when the head is H on the turbine,
a = Area of the flow of water
 The discharge passing through a given turbine under the head ‘H’ is given by
Q = Area of flow x Velocity of flow
 But for a given turbine, the area of flow is constant and,
𝑄 ∝ 𝑉𝑓 ∝ √𝐻
∴ 𝑄 = 𝐾2 √𝐻
 From the definition of unit discharge, if 𝐻 = 1𝑚, 𝑄 = 𝑄𝑢
∴ 𝑄𝑢 = 𝐾2
 Hence,
𝑸
𝑸𝒖 = Eq. (8.71)
√𝑯
8.17.3 Unit Power (𝑷𝒖 )

 It is defined as the power developed by a turbine, which is working under a unit head (1m).
 The overall efficiency,
𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃
𝜂𝑜 = =
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻
1000
𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻
∴ 𝑃 = 𝜂𝑜 ×
1000
∴ 𝑃 ∝ 𝑄𝐻 (𝑎𝑠 𝜌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜂𝑜 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)
But,
𝑄 ∝ 𝑉𝑓 ∝ √𝐻
∴ 𝑃 ∝ √𝐻 × 𝐻
8.41
∴ 𝑃 ∝ 𝐻 3⁄2
∴ 𝑃 = 𝐾3 𝐻 3⁄2
 From the definition of unit power, if 𝐻 = 1𝑚, 𝑄 = 𝑄𝑢
∴ 𝑃𝑢 = 𝐾3
 Hence,
𝑷
𝑷𝒖 = Eq. (8.72)
𝑯𝟑⁄𝟐
8.17.4 Use of Unit Quantities (𝑵𝒖 , 𝑸𝒖 , 𝑷𝒖 )

 If a turbine is working under different heads, the behavior of the turbine can be easily known from the
values of the unit quantities.
 Let,
𝐻1 , 𝐻2 = Different heads under which a turbine works,
𝑁1 , 𝑁2 = Corresponding speeds,
𝑄1 , 𝑄2 = Corresponding discharge, and
𝑃1 , 𝑃2 = Corresponding power developed by the turbine
 From the definition of unit quantities, we get
𝑁1 𝑁2
𝑁𝑢 = =
√𝐻1 √𝐻2
𝑄1 𝑄2
𝑄𝑢 = =
√𝐻1 √𝐻2
𝑃1 𝑃2
𝑃𝑢 = 3⁄2
= 3⁄2
𝐻1 𝐻2
 Hence, if the speed, discharge, and power developed by a turbine under the head are known, then by
using above relations the speed, discharge and power developed by the same turbine under a different
head can be obtained easily.
8.18 Performance (Characteristic) Curves of Hydraulic Turbines

 The turbines are generally designed to work at particular designed conditions. But often the turbines
are required to work at different conditions. Therefore it is essential to determine the exact behavior
of the turbines under the varying conditions.
 “Characteristic curves of a hydraulic turbine are the curves, with the help of which the exact behavior and
performance of the turbine under different working conditions can be known.”
 These curves are plotted from the results of the test performed on the actual turbine or its model under
different working conditions.
 The important parameters which are varied during a test on a turbine are:
1. Speed (N),
2. Head (H),
3. Discharge (Q),
4. Power (P),
5. overall efficiency (ηo) and

8.42
6. Gate opening (i.e. the percentage of the inlet passages provided for water to enter the turbine)
 Out of these six parameters speed, head and discharge are independent parameters. Different
characteristic curves are obtained by keeping one independent parameter constant and variation of
any parameter with respect to the remaining two independent parameters.
 The following are the important characteristic curves for a hydraulic turbine:
1. Main Characteristic Curves or Constant Head Curves
2. Operating Characteristic Curves or Constant Speed Curves
3. Muschel Curves or Constant Efficiency Curves
8.18.1 Main Characteristic Curves or Constant Head Curves

 Main characteristic curves are obtained by maintaining a constant head and a constant gate opening
on the turbine.
 The speed of the turbine is varied by admitting different rates of flow by adjusting the percentage of
the gate opening. The power (P) developed is measured mechanically. From each test the unit power
Pu, the unit speed Nu, the unit discharge Qu and the overall efficiency ηo are determined. The
characteristic curves drawn are:
i. Unit discharge vs unit speed
ii. Unit power vs unit speed
iii. Overall efficiency vs unit speed
Fig.8.26 – Main Characteristic curves for a Pelton wheel

 For the Pelton wheel, since Qu depends only on the gate opening and independent of Nu, Qu vs Nu plots
are horizontal straight lines.
 However, for low specific speed Francis turbines, Qu vs Nu are drooping curves, thereby indicating that
as the speed increases the discharge through the turbine decreases. This is so because in these
turbines a centrifugal head is developed which retards the flow. On the other hand for high specific

8.43
speed Francis turbine as well as Kaplan turbine, since the flow is axial there is no such centrifugal head
developed which may cause the retardation of flow.
Fig.8.27 – Main Characteristic curves for a Reaction turbine
8.18.2 Operating Characteristic Curves or Constant Speed Curves

 Operating characteristic curves are plotted when the speed on the turbine is constant. In the case of
turbines, the head is generally constant. Hence the variation of power and efficiency w.r.t. discharge Q
is plotted.
 The power curve for turbines shall not pass through the origin because a certain amount of discharge
is needed to produce power to overcome initial friction. Fig.8.28 shows the variation of power and
efficiency with respect to discharge.
Fig.8.28 – Operating characteristic curves
8.18.3 Muschel Curves or Constant Efficiency Curves

 These curves are obtained from the speed vs. efficiency and speed vs. discharge curves (main
characteristic curves) for different gate openings.

8.44
 For a given efficiency there are two values of speeds and two values of discharge for a given gate
opening, these can be plotted as shown in Fig.8.29(b).
 The procedure is repeated for different gate openings and the curves Q vs. N are plotted. The curves
having the same efficiencies are joined. The curves having the same efficiency are called iso-efficiency
curves. These curves are helpful in determining the zone of constant efficiency and for predicting the
performance of the turbine at various efficiencies.
Fig.8.29 – Constant efficiency curve
8.19 Governing of Hydraulic Turbines

 “The governing of a turbine is defined as the operation by which the speed of the turbine is kept
constant under all working conditions (irrespective of the load variations).”
 The governing of a turbine is necessary as, a turbine is directly coupled to an electric generator, which
is required to run at a constant speed under all fluctuating loads conditions.
 It is done automatically by means of a governor, which regulates the rate of flow through the turbines
according to the changing load conditions on the turbine.
 The governor used in hydraulic turbines should be very strong as it has to deal with the water coming
at a very large force and huge quantity.
 All type of turbines use oil pressure governor, which consists of the following parts:
 Oil sump
 Oil pump (Gear pump), which is driven by the power obtained from the turbine. It supplies oil at
high pressure.
 The servo motor, also known as a relay cylinder, which consists of a cylinder in which piston
reciprocates under the action of oil pressure. It is connected at both ends with the distributor
valve through the pipelines.

8.45
 The distributor valve or control valve or relay valve, which slides whenever load changes and
thereby allows the oil to go to either side of the servomotor.
 The centrifugal governor or actuator, which is connected to the turbine main shaft through a
belt or gears.
8.19.1 Governing of Pelton Wheel

 In Pelton wheel turbine, the quantity of water supplied by the nozzle can be regulated by anyone of the
following methods:
i. Spear Regulation
ii. Deflector Regulation
iii. Double Regulation
 All these methods are operated by oil pressure governor.
a) Spear Regulation
 It consists of a nozzle in which spear moves to and fro by the action of the servomotor piston and
controls the quantity of water at changing demands.
 This movement is useful when the fluctuations in load are small. But when the load changes
suddenly, a sudden change in the nozzle area causes a water hammer in the penstock. Therefore
a simple regulation system is not used in modern turbines where fluctuations in the load are
sudden.
b) Deflector Regulation
 It is a plate, pivoted outside the nozzle and is connected to oil pressure governor through levers.
 When the load drops it deflects a part of the jet and thus controls the quantity of water striking the
buckets.
 In this system, a large amount of water goes into waste but there are no chances of water hammer
in the penstock.
 This system is also not widely used due to the wastage of a large amount of water.
c) Double Regulation
 This method is widely used by all modern Pelton wheels because it has the advantages of both the
spear as well as the deflector regulation system.
 If the load on the turbine drops suddenly, then deflector comes into action immediately and
obstructs a part of water reaching to the buckets. In the meantime, spear gradually comes forward
to its new position and thus the risk of water hammer is avoided.
 As this type of governing controls the speed of turbine and pressure (i.e. water hammer) in the
penstock by the combination of spear and jet deflector, this system is known as “Double
Regulation”.
Working:
 When the load on the generator decreases, the speed of the generator increases. Hence the speed of
the turbine also increases beyond the normal speed.
 The centrifugal governor which is connected to the turbine's main shaft will be rotating at an increased
speed and hence centrifugal force on the fly ball increases and it moves upward. The sleeve of the
governor will also move upward.
 As the sleeve moves upward, a horizontal lever turns about the fulcrum and the piston rod of the control
valve moves downward. This closes the valve V1 and opens the valve V2 as shown in Fig.8.30.
8.46
 The oil pumped from the oil pump to the control valve under pressure will flow through the valve V 2 to
the servomotor and will exert force on the face A of the piston of the relay cylinder.
Fig.8.30 – Governing of Pelton wheel (Spear regulation)

 Piston along with piston rod and spear will move towards the right. This will decrease the area of flow
of water at the outlet of the nozzle and it will reduce the rate of flow to the turbine which consequently
reduces the speed of the turbine.
 Meanwhile, the bell crank lever moves downward, the jet deflector will operate and divert whole or part
of the jet away from the buckets.
 As soon as speed becomes normal, the fly balls, sleeves, lever and piston rod come to its normal
position. (Refer to Fig. 4.45 in R.N. Patel for double regulation)
8.19.2 Governing of Francis Turbine
Fig.8.31 – Governing of Francis turbine

8.47
 The guide blades of the Francis turbine are pivoted and connected by levers and links to the regulating
ring. The regulating ring is attached with two regulating rods connected to the regulating lever. Thus
regulating lever, in turn, is connected with regulating shaft, which is operated by the piston of
servomotor.
 When the load on the turbine decreases, the speed tends to increase, which moves fly balls upwards
and thus raises sleeves. The main lever on the other side of the fulcrum pushes down the control valve
rod and opens port V1. Oil under pressure enters the servomotor from left and pushes the piston to
moves towards the right.
 When the piston of the servomotor moves towards the right, the regulating ring is rotated to decrease
the passage between the guide vanes by changing guide vane angles. Thus the quantity of water
reaching the runner blades reduces and speed decreases to the normal speed.
 Sudden reduction in a passage between the guide blades may cause a water hammer which can be
prevented by providing a relief valve near the turbine which diverts the water directly to the tailrace.
Thus it functions similarly to that of jet deflector as in the Pelton wheel. Thus double regulation is also
well performed in the Francis turbine.

8.48
Contents
9.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 9.2

9.2 Components and Working of Centrifugal Pump ............................................................................. 9.3
9.3 Velocity Diagram and Work Done of a Centrifugal Pump .............................................................. 9.5
9.4 Definitions of Heads and Efficiencies of a Centrifugal Pump ....................................................... 9.7
9.5 Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) .................................................................................................. 9.9
9.6 Priming of a Centrifugal Pump ....................................................................................................... 9.10
9.7 Characteristic Curves of Centrifugal Pump ................................................................................... 9.11
9.8 References ....................................................................................................................................... 9.12
9.1 Introduction
“The hydraulic machines which convert the mechanical energy into hydraulic energy are called pumps.”
It increases pressure energy or kinetic energy or both by using mechanical energy. The energy level of the
fluid can be increased by either rotodynamic action or by positive displacement of the fluid.
“If the mechanical energy is converted into pressure energy or kinetic energy by means of centrifugal force
acting on the fluid, the hydraulic machine is called Centrifugal pump.”
They work on the same principle of a reaction turbine. The basic difference between a pump and a turbine
is that in a turbine, flow takes place from the high-pressure side to the low-pressure side while in a pump
flow takes place from low-pressure side to high-pressure side.
9.1.1 Classification of Hydraulic Pumps

The classification of hydraulic pumps on the basis of the transfer of mechanical energy is as follows:
Centrifugal
Rotodynamic Propeller
Turbine
Piston
Pumps
Reciprocating Plunger
Diaphram
Positive
Displacement Gear
Vane
Rotory
Lobe
Screw
9.1.2 Selection Criterion of a Hydraulic Pumps

The selection of a suitable pump depends on:
 The pressure and the capacity of the liquid being handled
 Properties such as viscosity, temperature and the corrosiveness of the flowing fluid
 Initial and maintenance cost
 Pump duty
 Availability of space, size and position of locating the pump
 Speed of rotation and power required
 Standardisation with respect to the types and makes of pumps already available at the site
 Scale-up problems.

Unit-9 Centrifugal Pumps
9.1.3 Applications of Hydraulic Pumps
 Agriculture and irrigation works
 Municipal waterworks and drainage system
 Condensate, boiler feed, sump drain and such other services in a steam power plant
 Hydraulic control systems
 Oil pumping
 Transfer of raw materials and finished products in the industry.
9.2 Components and Working of Centrifugal Pump
9.2.1 Components of Centrifugal Pump

The main components of the centrifugal pump are:
1. Impeller
2. Casing
3. Suction Pipe with Strainer and Foot-Valve
4. Delivery Pipe and Delivery Valve
1. Impeller
It is a wheel or rotor which is provided with a series

of backward curved vanes or blades. It is mounted
on a shaft which is coupled to an external source
of energy (electric motor), which imparts required
energy to the impeller.
It gets mechanical energy and converts it to kinetic
and pressure energy of the fluid.
Liquid enters the impeller through an eye of the
impeller, high energy liquid than enters the pump
casing.
2. Casing
It is an airtight passage surrounding the impeller, Fig.9.1 –Main parts of a centrifugal pump
designed in such a way that kinetic energy of the water discharged at the outlet of the impeller is converted
into pressure energy before the water leaves the casing and enters the delivery pipe.
The material of the casing is generally cast iron or cast steel.
The efficiency of the pump depends on the type of casing used. The following three types of casings are
commonly used:
A. Volute Casing
B. Vortex Casing and
C. Casing with Guide Blades
A. Volute Casing
It is of spiral type in which area of flow increases gradually and hence pressure increases.
It is observed that in the case of a volute casing, a large amount of kinetic energy is lost due to eddy
formation and hence it lowers the overall efficiency and hence such type of pump gives comparatively low
head. The centrifugal pump with the volute casing is shown in Fig.9.1.
B. Vortex Casing
In this type of casing, a circular chamber is provided in between the casing and the impeller, which is
known as vortex or whirlpool chamber (refer Fig.9.2).
By introducing the circular chamber, the loss of energy due to the formation of eddies is reduced to a
considerable extent. Thus the efficiency of the pump is more than the efficiency when the only volute
casing is provided.
Fig.9.2 – Types of Casing
C. Casing with Guide Blades
Most efficient casing. In this, the impeller is surrounded by a series of guide blades mounted on a ring
which is known as a diffuser (refer Fig.9.2).
The guide vanes are designed in such a way that the water from the impeller enters the guide vanes without
shock which avoids hydraulic losses.
Also, the area of guide vanes increases, thus reducing the velocity of flow and consequently increases the
pressure of water.
Used for developing high heads and hence mostly used as vertical pumps and very suitable for
installations in deep wells, mines, etc.
The casing is in most of the cases concentric with the impeller.
3. Suction Pipe with Strainer and Foot-Valve
It carries liquid from the sump to the pump. Its lower end is dipped into the sump and upper end is
connected with the eye of the pump (i.e. inlet of the pump).
A strainer and foot-valve are connected with the lower end. Strainer keeps the debris away from entering
into the suction pipe and hence only clear water enters the impeller. Foot-valve is a kind of non-return valve
which does not allow the liquid to go back into the sump.
Cavitation may be caused due to negative pressure at the suction of the pump and hence losses in the
inlet pipe must be minimized. To keep low velocity in the suction pipe, normally the diameter of the suction
pipe is kept more than that of the delivery pipe.

4. Delivery Pipe and Delivery Valve
A pipe whose one end is connected to the outlet of the pump and the other end delivers the water at a
required height is known as a delivery pipe.
The velocity of liquid in the delivery pipe is kept slightly higher than that in the suction pipe. A valve is
provided just near the pump outlet to regulate the flow of liquid in the delivery pipe.
9.2.2 Working of a Centrifugal Pump

“A centrifugal pump works on a principle that when the liquid is rotated by an external prime mover, it is
thrown away from the axis of rotation and a centrifugal head is imparted which makes it possible to raise
to the higher elevation.”
Before starting a centrifugal pump, the liquid is filled in the suction pipe, impeller, casing and a delivery
pipe up to a delivery valve. This is known as priming. During the priming, the delivery valve is kept closed.
After priming, a prime mover (electric motor) is started. The energy given to the impeller by a prime mover
builds up the centrifugal force which throws the liquid towards the impeller periphery. This causes a
pressure gradient in the suction pipe, i.e. a partial vacuum exists at the impeller eye while the liquid in the
sump is at atmospheric pressure.
So, the liquid from the sump is sucked in towards the impeller eye. When the liquid passes through the
impeller, it receives energy and hence, both the pressure and velocity increase.
Liquid enters into the casing. Due to the incremental cross-sectional area of the casing towards the
delivery pipe, the velocity of liquid decreases and pressure energy increases.
With high-pressure energy and negligible kinetic energy, liquid enters into the delivery pipe and is lifted to
the required height. The process is continuous as long as motion is given to the impeller and there is a
supply of liquid.
9.3 Velocity Diagram and Work Done of a Centrifugal Pump
In the case of the centrifugal pump,

work is done by the impeller on the
water. The expression for the work
done by the impeller on the liquid is
obtained by drawing velocity triangles
at the inlet and outlet of the impeller in
the same way as for a turbine.
Fig.9.3 shows the vane of impeller and
velocity triangles at the inlet and outlet
of the impeller.
The water enters the impeller radially at
the inlet for the best efficiency of the
pump, which means the absolute
velocity of water at inlet makes an
angle of 90° with the direction of
motion of the impeller at the inlet.
Hence 𝛼 = 90° 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑤1 = 0. Fig.9.3 – Velocity diagram of a centrifugal pump

9.3.1 Equation of Work Done of a Centrifugal Pump
Assumptions:
 No energy losses due to friction and eddy formation
 No loss due to shock at entry
 Liquid enters the impeller eye in a radial direction
 Uniform velocity distribution in the passage between two adjacent vanes.
Let,
𝑁 = Speed of the impeller in rpm.
𝐷1 = Diameter of the impeller at the inlet
𝐷2 = Diameter of the impeller at the outlet
𝜋𝐷1 𝑁
𝑢1 = Tangential velocity of the impeller at the inlet =
60
𝜋𝐷2 𝑁
𝑢2 = Tangential velocity of the impeller at the outlet =
60
𝑉1 = Absolute velocity of water at the inlet

𝑉𝑟1 = Relative velocity of water at the inlet
𝛼 = Angle made by the absolute velocity at the inlet with the direction of motion of vane
𝜃 = Angle made by the relative velocity at the inlet with the direction of motion of vane and
𝑉2 , 𝑉𝑟2 , 𝛽 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜑 are corresponding values at the outlet.
 A centrifugal pump is the reverse of a radially inward flow reaction turbine. But in case of a radially
inward flow reaction turbine, the work done by the water on the runner per sec per unit weight is
given by (Refer Unit-8),
1
𝑊𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 = (𝑉 𝑢 − 𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 )
𝑔 𝑤1 1
 Therefore, the work done by the impeller on the water per sec per unit weight,
𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = −[𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒]

1
∴ 𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = − (𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 − 𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 )
𝑔
1
∴ 𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = (𝑉 𝑢 − 𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 )
𝑔 𝑤2 2
Now, as the water enters the impeller radially, hence 𝑉𝑤1 = 0 and we get,
𝟏 Eq. (9.1)
∴ 𝑾𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑 = (𝑽 𝒖 )
𝒈 𝒘𝟐 𝟐
Eq. (9.1) gives the head imparted to the water by the impeller or energy given by impeller to water
per sec per unit weight.
 Power or the work done by the impeller on water per sec,
𝑃𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = 𝑚̇(𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 )
∴ 𝑃𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = 𝜌𝑄(𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 ) Eq. (9.2)

Where, the discharge through the impeller is given by,
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 × 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
∴ 𝑄 = 𝜋𝐷1 𝐵1 × 𝑉𝑓1 = 𝜋𝐷2 𝐵2 × 𝑉𝑓2 Eq. (9.3)
Where,
𝐵1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵2 are the width of the impeller at the inlet and outlet respectively.
9.4 Definitions of Heads and Efficiencies of a Centrifugal Pump
9.4.1 Heads
1. Suction Head or Suction Lift (𝒉𝒔 ):
It is the vertical distance between the top surface of the liquid in the sump and the center of the
pump impeller. (Refer to Fig.9.1)
2. Discharge Head or Discharge Lift (𝒉𝒅 ):
The vertical distance between the center of the pump impeller and the top surface of liquid in the
discharge tank.
3. Total Static Head (𝑯𝒔 ):
The total static head or veritcal lift is the vertical distance between the top surface of liquid in the
sump and discharge tank. It is the sum of suction and delivery lift.
Thus, the static head may be expressed as,
𝐻𝑠 = ℎ𝑠 + ℎ𝑑
The static head is the net total vertical height through which the liquid is lifted by the pump. In
addition to the static lift, the pump has to work against all the losses in suction and delivery pipes
and provide the necessary kinetic energy to liquid on the discharge side.
4. Manometric Head (𝑯𝒎 ):
“It is defined as the head against which a centrifugal pump has to work.”
Or
“It is the total head that must be produced by the pump to satisfy the external requirements.”
It is given by the following expressions:
 The net head developed by the impeller or the energy given to the liquid by the impeller is given by,
1
𝐻= (𝑉 𝑢 )
𝑔 𝑤2 2
Hence, Manometric head will be less than the head developed by the impeller due to losses in the
impeller and casing of the pump,
1 Eq. (9.4)
∴ 𝐻𝑚 = (𝑉 𝑢 ) − 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 & 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑔 𝑤2 2

1
∴ 𝐻𝑚 = (𝑉 𝑢 ) − 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 & 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑔 𝑤2 2
1
∴ 𝐻𝑚 = (𝑉 𝑢 ) (𝑖𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑)
𝑔 𝑤2 2
 Manometric head is the difference of total head at the outlet and total head at the inlet of the pump.
𝑃𝑜 𝑉𝑜2 𝑃𝑖 𝑉𝑖2
∴ 𝐻𝑚 = ( + + 𝑍𝑜 ) − ( + + 𝑍𝑖 ) − − − − − − − −(4.6)
 Whole of the manometric head is not used to lift the liquid against the static lift; a part of it is used
to overcome the losses in the pipes and fittings and to provide the kinetic energy at delivery outlet.
∴ Manometric head = static head + head losses in suction and delivery pipes + velocity head in
delivery pipe
𝑉𝑑2
∴ 𝐻𝑚 = (ℎ𝑠 + ℎ𝑑 ) + (ℎ𝑓𝑠 + ℎ𝑓𝑑 ) + − − − − − − − −(4.7)
2𝑔
9.4.2 Efficiencies
In case of a centrifugal pump, the power is transmitted from the shaft of the electric motor to the shaft of
the pump and then to the impeller. From the impeller, the power is given to the water.
The followings are the important efficiencies of a centrifugal pump:
1) Manometric Efficiency
2) Mechanical Efficiency and
3) Overall Efficiency
1) Manometric Efficiency
It is defined as the ratio of the manometric head developed by the pump to the head imparted by the
impeller to the liquid.
Manometric head
∴ ηman =
Head imparted by the impeller to the liquid
𝑯𝒎 𝒈𝑯𝒎
∴ 𝜼𝒎𝒂𝒏 = =
𝑽 𝒖𝟐 𝑽𝒘𝟐 𝒖𝟐 Eq. (9.5)
( 𝒘𝟐
𝒈 )
The power at the impeller of the pump is more than that of the power delivered by the liquid at the outlet
of the pump due to loss of head in impeller and casing.
𝑾𝑯𝒎 𝝆𝒈𝑸𝑯𝒎
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒚 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒕 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑 = = 𝒌𝑾
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑾𝑫 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝝆𝑸(𝑽𝒘𝟐 𝒖𝟐 )

𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒓 = = 𝒌𝑾
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎

2) Mechanical Efficiency
It is defined as the ratio of the power actually delivered by the impeller to the power at the shaft of the
centrifugal pump.
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟
∴ 𝜂𝑚 =
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡
𝒎̇(𝑽𝒘𝟐 𝒖𝟐 )⁄𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
∴ 𝜼𝒎 = Eq. (9.6)
𝑺. 𝑷. 𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝑾
3) Overall Efficiency
It is defined as the ratio of power output of the pump to the power input to the pump.
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑑 ×𝐻𝑚 𝑊𝐻𝑚 𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻𝑚
 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = = = 𝑘𝑊
1000 1000 1000
 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = 𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = 𝑆. 𝑃. 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑊

𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻𝑚
( )
∴ 𝜂𝑜 = 1000
Eq. (9.7)
𝑆. 𝑃. 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑊
Also,
∴ 𝜂𝑜 = 𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑛 × 𝜂𝑚
9.5 Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH)

“It is defined as the total head developed at the pump inlet above the vapor pressure of the liquid.”
It is also defined as the absolute pressure head at the inlet to the pump minus the vapor pressure head
plus the velocity head. Thus,
𝑃1 𝑃𝑣 𝑉𝑠2
∴ 𝑁𝑃𝑆𝐻 = − + Eq. (9.8)
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
Now, applying Bernoulli’s equation at the free surface of liquid in the sump and at the eye of impeller i.e.
in the suction pipe just at the inlet of the pump (Refer Fig.9.1).
Take free surface of liquid as datum line, we get,
𝑃𝑎 𝑉𝑎2 𝑃1 𝑉12
+ + 𝑍𝑎 = + + 𝑍1 + ℎ𝐿
Where,
𝑃𝑎 = Atmospheric pressure on the free surface of liquid
𝑉𝑎 = Velocity of liquid at the free surface ≅ 0
𝑍𝑎 = Height of free surface from datum line = 0
𝑃1 = Absolute pressure at the inlet of the pump
𝑉1 = Velocity of liquid through suction pipe = 𝑉𝑠
𝑍1 = Height of inlet of pump from datum line = ℎ𝑠
ℎ𝐿 = Loss of head in foot valve, strainer and suction pipe = ℎ𝑓𝑠

𝑃𝑎 𝑃1 𝑉𝑠2
∴ +0+0= + + ℎ𝑠 + ℎ𝑓𝑠
𝑃1 𝑃𝑎 𝑉2𝑠
∴ = − ( + ℎ𝑠 + ℎ𝑓𝑠 ) Eq. (9.9)
𝑃1
Introducing the value of from Eq. (9.9) in the Eq. (9.8), we get,
𝜌𝑔
𝑃𝑎 𝑉𝑠2 𝑃𝑣 𝑉𝑠2
𝑁𝑃𝑆𝐻 = − ( + ℎ𝑠 + ℎ𝑓𝑠 ) − +
𝑃𝑎 𝑃𝑣
∴ 𝑁𝑃𝑆𝐻 = − − ℎ𝑠 − ℎ𝑓𝑠
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔
∴ 𝑁𝑃𝑆𝐻 = (𝐻𝑎 − ℎ𝑠 − ℎ𝑓𝑠 ) − 𝐻𝑣 Eq. (9.10)
In other words, NPSH may also be defined as the total head required to make the liquid to flow through
the suction pipe to the impeller.
For any pump installation a distinction is made between the required NPSH and the available NPSH.
Required NPSH
 The value of required NPSH is given by the pump manufacturer.
 The value of required NPSH varies with the pump design, the speed of the pump, and the capacity
of the pump.
 The value of required NPSH can be calculated experimentally. For determining its value, the pump
is tested with different suction lifts and minimum value of ℎ𝑠 is obtained at which the pump gives
maximum efficiency without any objectional noise (i.e. Cavitation free).
Available NPSH
 When the pump is installed the available NPSH can be determined from the equation 4.21.
 In order to have Cavitation free operation of centrifugal pump, the available NPSH should be greater
than the required NPSH.
[Note: NPSH is a measure of how much spare pull you have before the bubbles form]
9.6 Priming of a Centrifugal Pump

 Before starting a centrifugal pump, the suction pipe, casing and portion of the delivery pipe up to
delivery valve is completely filled with water by external source of water to remove the air from the
suction pipe and casing. This is known as priming of a pump.
 The work done by the impeller per unit weight of liquid per sec is known as the head developed by
an impeller.
𝑢2 𝑉𝑤2
 Head developed by the impeller is given by meter. Since this equation is independent of the
𝑔
density of the liquid, the head developed will be in terms of meters of air when pump is running in
the air.

 If the pump is primed with water, the head generated is same meter of water. But as the density of
air is very low, the generated head of air is negligible compared to meter of water head. Hence the
water may not be sucked from the pump. To avoid this difficulty, priming is necessary.
9.7 Characteristic Curves of Centrifugal Pump

Characteristic curves of centrifugal pumps are plotted from the results of several tests on the centrifugal
pump. These curves are necessary to predict the behaviour and performance of the pump when the pump
is working under different flow rate, head and speed. The followings are the important characteristic
curves for pumps:
1) Main Characteristic Curves,
2) Operating Characteristic Curves and
3) Constant Efficiency or Muschel Curves.
1) Main Characteristic Curves

The main characteristic curves of a centrifugal pump consisting of a variation of head (𝐻𝑚 ), power and
discharge to the speed.
For plotting curves of manometric head versus speed, discharge is kept constant. For plotting curves of
discharge versus speed, the manometric head is kept constant and for plotting curves of power versus
speed, the manometric head and discharge are kept constant.
Fig.9.4 shows main characteristic curves of a pump.
Fig.9.4 – Main characteristic curves of a centrifugal pump
2) Operating Characteristic Curves

If the speed is kept constant, the variation of the manometric head, power and efficiency to the discharge
gives the operating characteristic curves of the pump. Fig. 4.8 shows the operating characteristic curves
of a pump.
The input power curve for pumps shall not pass through the origin. It will be slightly away from the origin
on the y-axis, as even at zero discharge some power is needed to overcome mechanical losses.
The head curve will have a maximum value of head when discharge is zero.

The output power curve will start from the origin as at 𝑄 = 0, output power (𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻) will be zero.
The efficiency curve will start from the origin as at 𝑄 = 0, 𝜂 = 0.
Fig.9.5 – Operating characteristic curves of a centrifugal pump
3) Constant Efficiency or Muschel Curves

For obtaining constant efficiency curves (iso-efficiency
curves) for a pump, the head versus discharge curves and
efficiency versus discharge curves for different speeds are
used.
Fig.9.6(a) shows the head versus discharge curves for
different speeds. The efficiency versus discharge curves for
the different speeds is shown in Fig.9.6(b).
By combining these curves (𝐻~𝑄 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜂~𝑄 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑠) ,
constant efficiency curves are obtained as shown in
Fig.9.6(a).
For obtaining constant efficiency curves, horizontal lines

representing constant efficiencies are drawn on the 𝜂~𝑄
curves.
The points at which these lines cut the efficiency curves at
various speeds are transferred to the corresponding 𝐻~𝑄
curves. Fig.9.6 – Constant efficiency curves
The points having the same efficiency are then joined by

smooth curves. These smooth curves represent iso-efficiency or constant efficiency curves.
9.8 References

Contents
10.1 Introduction to Hydraulic Systems ................................................................................................ 10.2

10.2 Hydraulic Press ............................................................................................................................... 10.2
10.3 Hydraulic Accumulator ................................................................................................................... 10.3
10.4 Hydraulic Intensifier ........................................................................................................................ 10.4
10.5 Hydraulic Crane ............................................................................................................................... 10.5
10.6 Hydraulic Lift ................................................................................................................................... 10.5
10.7 Hydraulic Ram ................................................................................................................................. 10.6
10.8 The Fluid or Hydraulic Coupling ..................................................................................................... 10.7
10.9 Hydraulic Torque Converter............................................................................................................ 10.8
10.10 Air Lift Pump .................................................................................................................................... 10.9
10.11 References ..................................................................................................................................... 10.10
10.1 Introduction to Hydraulic Systems
A hydraulic system is a circuit in which the forces and power are transmitted through a liquid. The hydraulic
system may be divided into two groups: 1) Hydrostatic System and 2) Hydrodynamic System.
In the hydrostatic system, the force and power will be transmitted by the hydrostatic pressure of the fluid.
In the hydrodynamic system, the force and power will be transmitted by changing the velocity and direction
of the fluid.
10.2 Hydraulic Press
Function:
“The hydraulic press is a device used for lifting
heavy weights by the application of a much smaller
force.”
Principle:
The hydraulic press is based on Pascal's law,
which states that the intensity of pressure in a
static fluid is transmitted equally in all the
directions.
Construction & Working: Fig.10.1 – Hydraulic Press
It consists of two cylinders of different diameters.

The cylinder with a larger diameter has a sliding ram, the load to be
raised or lowered is placed on it.
The cylinder with a smaller diameter has a plunger that moves
upwards or downwards when a force is applied to it as shown in
Fig.10.1. Sometimes a lever arrangement is used to increase the
mechanical advantage as shown in Fig.10.2.
The two cylinders are interconnected at the bottom and are filled with
a liquid (i.e oil) through which pressure is transmitted.
Let,
Fig.10.2 – Lever arrangement
𝑊 = Weight to be lifted
𝐹 = Force applied on a plunger
𝐴 = Cross-sectional area of the ram
𝑎 = Cross-sectional area of the plunger
𝑃 = Intensity of pressure produced inside the cylinder
When a small force (𝐹) is applied on the plunger in the downward direction, a pressure (𝑃) is produced on
the liquid in contact with the plunger, this pressure is transmitted equally in all directions and acts on the
ram in the upward direction and the heavier weight placed on the ram is lifted. Thus,
𝐹 𝑊
𝑃= =
𝑎 𝐴

Unit-10 Hydraulic Machines
𝑎
∴𝐹=𝑊
𝐴
Since 𝐴 is greater than 𝑎, the load raised (𝑊) is always greater than the force (𝐹).
Applications:
Hydraulic presses may be employed in metal presswork, bending and straightening any metal piece, cotton
press, forging press, plate press, packing press, etc.
10.3 Hydraulic Accumulator
Function:
“The hydraulic accumulator is a device which stores or
accumulates the energy of the fluid in the form of
pressure energy when it is not needed and supplies the
energy for any sudden or intermittent requirement.”
The hydraulic accumulator works like the flywheel of
an engine or electric storage batteries.
Construction & Working:

 The hydraulic accumulator consists of a sliding
ram, which slides in a fixed vertical cylinder. A
heavy weight is placed on the ram as shown in
Fig.10.3.
 The inlet of the cylinder is connected to the

pump, which continuously supplies fluid under Fig.10.3 – Simple Hydraulic Accumulator
pressure to the cylinder and the outlet of the
cylinder is connected to the machine (which may be lift, crane, etc.).
 When the machine connected with the accumulator is idle and the pump is running, the high-
pressure liquid enters the fixed cylinder from the bottom and it raises the ram.
 This flow of liquid continues until the ram reaches its extreme upper position. As the load is applied
on the ram, pressure of the liquid is maintained. Thus the maximum amount of pressure energy is
accumulated.
 When the need arises the accumulated energy is discharged to the machine by lowering the ram.
When the machine needs the maximum amount of energy it receives pressurised fluid from the
pump and accumulator both as discussed above.
The capacity of Accumulator:

“It is defined as the maximum amount of hydraulic energy stored in the accumulator.”
Let,
𝐴 = Area of the sliding ram
𝐿 = Stroke or lift of the ram
𝑃 = Intensity of water pressure supplied by the pump, and
𝑊 = Total weight of ram and load

 An upward force acting on the ram,
𝑊 =𝑃×𝐴
 The energy stored in the accumulator or the maximum work done in lifting the ram or capacity of
accumulator is given by,
= 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
=𝑊×𝐿
=𝑃×𝐴×𝐿
Applications:
Generally, the stored energy is used to run hydraulic machines like the hydraulic crane, hydraulic lift, etc.
where a high-pressure liquid is needed to supply the energy for lifting the load in upward directions.
10.4 Hydraulic Intensifier
Function:
“It is the device, which is used to increase the intensity of
pressure using the hydraulic energy available from a large
quantity of fluid at low pressure.”
The intensifier is located between the pump and the machine
(press, crane, lift, etc.) that needs high-pressure liquid for its
operation.

 A hydraulic intensifier consists of a fixed cylinder and the
other moving cylinder. It also consists of a fixed ram. The
sliding cylinder slides between a fixed ram and the fixed
cylinder as shown in Fig.10.4.
 Fixed ram has a central passage through which the fluid
under high pressure flows to the machine.
 A hollow inverted sliding cylinder, containing fluid under
high pressure is mounted over the fixed ram; which is
surrounded by another fixed inverted cylinder which
contains fluid from the main supply at low pressure.
 A large quantity of fluid at low pressure from supply
enters the inverted fixed cylinder. The weight of this fluid
moves the sliding cylinder in the downward direction.
 The fluid in the sliding cylinder gets compressed due to
the downward movement of the sliding cylinder and its Fig.10.4 –Hydraulic Intensifier
pressure is thus increased. The high-pressure fluid is
forced out of the sliding cylinder through the fixed ram, to the machine.
Applications:
It is used to run the hydraulic machines such as hydraulic press, lift and crane; which requires fluid at very
high pressure; which cannot be obtained from the main supply directly.

10.5 Hydraulic Crane
Function:
“Hydraulic crane is a device, used for
raising or transferring heavy loads.”

 A hydraulic crane comprises two
elements: Craning arrangement
and the hydraulic jigger.
 Craning arrangement consists of
a mast, tie, jib and guide pulley as
shown in Fig.10.5.
 The jib and tie are attached to the
mast; the jib can be raised or Fig.10.5 –Hydraulic Crane
lowered to decrease or increase the radius of action of the crane.
 The mast along with the jib can revolve about a vertical axis and thus the load attached to the rope
can be transferred to any place within the area of the crane's action.
 The hydraulic jigger, which consists of a movable ram sliding in a fixed cylinder, is used for lifting
or lowering the heavy loads.
 One end of the ram is in contact with the fluid (water or oil) and the other end is connected to set
of movable pulley block and another pulley block, called the fixed pulley block is attached to the
fixed cylinder.
 The pulley block, attached to the ram, moves up and down while the pulley block, attached to the
fixed cylinder is not having any movement.
 A wire rope, one end of which is fixed to a movable pulley is taken round all the pulleys of the two
sets of the pulleys and finally passes over the guide pulley, attached to the jib as shown in Fig.10.5.
 The other end of the rope is provided with a hook, for suspending the load.
 For lifting the load by the crane, the fluid under high pressure is admitted into the cylinder of the
jigger.
 This fluid forces the sliding ram to move vertically up and due to the movement of the ram in the
upwards direction, the movable pulley block attached to the ram also moves upward.
 This increases the distance between two pulley blocks and hence the wire passing over the guide
pulley is pulled by the jigger and thus raises the load attached to the hook.
Applications:
• It is used in warehouses, workshops, docks, etc. to lift heavy weights.
10.6 Hydraulic Lift

Function:
“The hydraulic lift is a device used for carrying passenger or goods from one floor to another in the multi-
storeyed building.”

 A hydraulic lift comprises two
elements: Cage and the hydraulic
jigger.
 Cage is suspended from a wire
rope using guide pulleys as shown
in Fig.10.6.
 The hydraulic jigger, which
consists of a movable ram sliding
in a fixed cylinder.
 One end of the ram is in contact
with the fluid and the other end is
connected to set of movable pulley
block and another pulley block,
Fig.10.6 –Hydraulic Lift
called the fixed pulley block is
attached to the fixed cylinder.
 A wire rope, one end of which is fixed at ‘A’ and the other end is taken round the movable and fixed
pulley blocks and finally passes over the guide pulleys.
 The other end of the rope is provided with a hook, for suspending the cage.
 For lifting the cage by the lift, the fluid under high pressure is admitted into the cylinder of the jigger.
This fluid forces the sliding ram to move towards left and due to the movement of the ram, the
movable pulley block attached to the ram also moves towards left. This increases the distance
between two pulley blocks and hence the wire passing over the guide pulleys is pulled by the jigger
and thus the cage is to be lifted.
 For lowering the cage, water from the fixed cylinder is taken out; thus the sliding ram moves
towards the right and hence movable pulley blocks and the cage is lowered due to increased length
of the rope.
10.7 Hydraulic Ram
Function:
"The hydraulic ram is a device which is
used to lift a small quantity of water to a
greater height using the energy of a large
quantity of water available at low heads.”
It works on the principle of the water
hammer effect.

 Fig.10.7 shows the construction
of a hydraulic ram. It consists of
a supply pipe, closed chamber,
waste valve (B), delivery valve Fig.10.7 –Hydraulic Ram
(C), air vessel and a delivery pipe.

 When the inlet valve fitted to the supply pipe opens, water starts flowing from the supply tank to
the chamber, and the level of water rises in the chamber and waste valve ‘B’ starts moving upward
and the stage comes, when the waste valve ‘B’ suddenly closes.
 This sudden closure of waste valve ‘B’ creates high pressure inside the chamber and this high-
pressure force opens the delivery valve ‘C’; thus the water from chamber enters the air vessel and
compresses the air inside the air vessel.
 This compressed-air exerts a force on the water in the air vessel and a small quantity of water is
raised to a greater height.
 When the water in the chamber loses its momentum, the waste valve ‘B’ opens in the downward
direction and the flow of water from supply tank starts flowing to the chamber and the cycle will
be repeated.
Advantages:
• No moving parts
• No power requirement
• Inexpensive & less maintenance cost
• Pumping continuously over a longer period of time.
10.8 The Fluid or Hydraulic Coupling
Function:
“The fluid or hydraulic coupling is a device used for
transmitting power from driving shaft to driven shaft
with the help of fluid; without any mechanical
connection between the two shafts.”
Principle:
It works on the principle of change in the velocity of the
working fluid.

 It consists of a radial-pump impeller mounted
on a driving shaft ‘A’ and a radial flow reaction
turbine mounted on the driven shaft ‘B’ as
shown in Fig.10.8.
Fig.10.8 –Hydraulic Coupling
 Both the impeller and runner are identical in
shape and they together form a casing which is completely enclosed and filled with oil. There is no
mechanical connection between driving and driven shaft.
 In the beginning, both the shafts ‘A’ and ‘B’ are at rest; when the driving shaft ‘A’ is rotated, the oil
will pass through the impeller blades and will flow radially outwards with high energy.
 The fluid will then strike the turbine runners and, while flowing radially inwards, transfer power to
the turbine blades.
 With the increase in the speed of shaft ‘A’, sufficient head is developed in the fluid at the outlet of
pump impeller so that the power transferred to the turbine rotor becomes high enough to set the
driven shaft ‘B’ in motion.

 The oil from the runner then flows back into the pump impeller, thus having a continuous
circulation.
 Due to slip, the two shafts rotate at different speeds. If both shafts rotate at the same speed, the
circulation of oil stops, oil circulates in the system due to the difference of centrifugal force set up
in the driver and the driven.
 The slip of the fluid coupling is given by,
𝑁1 − 𝑁2
𝑆=
𝑁1
 The efficiency of fluid coupling is given by,
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑇2 𝜔2
𝜂= =
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑇1 𝜔1
Where,
𝑁1 , 𝜔1 & 𝑇1 = Speed, angular velocity and torque of the pump impeller
𝑁2 , 𝜔2 & 𝑇2 = Speed, angular velocity and torque of the turbine runner
 The efficiency of fluid coupling is about 98%.
Applications:
• It is used when the driven shaft is required to run at a speed close to that of the driving shaft.
• The large initial loads are involved and smooth free operations are required.
• It is used in automobiles, marine engine and ropeway cable drive units.
10.9 Hydraulic Torque Converter
Function:
“The hydraulic torque converter is a device used
for transmitting increased or decreased power
from driving shaft to driven shaft with the help of
fluid.”
Principle:
The main difference in the principle of operation
between a fluid coupling and fluid torque
converter is that while the coupling transmits
power with the same torque on driving and a
driven shaft, the converter provides for torque
multiplication with the same power (neglecting
the losses) on driving and driven shaft.
Construction & Working: Fig.10.9 –Hydraulic Torque Converter

 In a torque converter, a stationary guide
vane (stator) is incorporated between the pump impeller and the turbine rotor as shown in Fig.10.9.
 The function of the stator is to increase the torque produced by the driving shaft and then to
transmit the increased torque to driven shaft.
 The stator consists of a series of guide vanes through which the fluid flows.

 For a greater torque on the driven shaft, the change in angular momentum in the turbine runner
should be greater than that in the pump.
 The stationary blades are so shaped that they increase the angular momentum of fluid and thus it
multiply the torque.
 The efficiency of the torque converter is 85 – 87%. The operation of the torque converter is
analogous to that of a gearbox in an automobile.
 The increase of torque depends on the design of stationary blades and the speed ratio.
Applications:
It is used in diesel locomotives, earthmoving machinery and automobile power transmitting units.
10.10 Air Lift Pump
Function:
“It is used to lift water from a deep well or
sump by using compressed air.”
Principle:
The compressed air is mixed with water and
hence the density of the air-water mixture is
reduced. The density of this air-water
mixture is very much less than that of pure
water. Hence a very small column of pure
water can balance a very long column of the
mixture. This is the principle on which the air
lift pump works.
Fig.10.10 –Air Lift Pump
 It consists of 1) an air compressor to supply the compressed air, 2) an air pipe fitted with one or
more air nozzles and 3) the delivery pipe as shown in Fig.10.10.
 The lower portion of the delivery pipe dips into well and water gets discharged from the upper end
of the delivery pipe.
 The compressed air from the compressor is introduced at the bottom end of the delivery pipe
through one or more nozzles.
 In the delivery pipe, a mixture of air and water is formed. The density of this air-water mixture
becomes very less compared to the density of pure water. Hence a small column of pure water will
balance a very long column of the air-water mixture.
 This air-water mixture will be discharged out of the delivery pipe. The flow will continue as long as
there is a supply of compressed air.
Let,
ℎ = Height of the static water level above the tip of the nozzle
𝐻 = Height to which water is lifted above the tip of the nozzle
 The (𝐻 − ℎ) is known as a useful lift. For best results, the useful lift (𝐻 − ℎ) should be less than
the height of static water (ℎ).
Advantages:
• It has no moving parts below water level and hence there are no chances of suspended solid
particles damaging the pump.
• It can raise more water through a borehole of given diameter than any other pump.
• Compare to centrifugal pump it is:
✓ Robust, versatile and flexible
✓ Substantially cost-effective (≈50-70% in energy savings)
✓ Lower capital, operation and maintenance costs
✓ Lower operating noise and vibration
Disadvantages:
• It has very low efficiency, only 20 to 40% energy available in the form of useful water horse-power.
• It cannot lift water when the level of water in deep well goes down below the limit.
• Quantity of air to compress is high compared to the liquid flow required.
• Suitable only if the head is relatively low. To obtain a high head, one has to choose a conventional
pumping system.
Applications:
• Mostly used in agriculture.
10.11 References
2) V. L. Patel & Dr. R. N. Patel “Fluid Power Engineering”, 4th Edition, 2010-11, Mahajan Publishing House.
3) S. K. Som & G. Biswas, “Introduction to Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines”, 2nd Revised Edition, 2008,


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Contents

1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 1.2

1.2 Application Areas of Fluid Mechanics

Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

1.3 Definition of a Fluid

1.4 Hypothesis of continuum

1.5 Properties of Fluids

Density or Mass Density

Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

Specific Weight or Weight Density

Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

1.5.5.2 Newton’s Law of Viscosity

Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

1.7 Cohesion and Adhesion

Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

Fig.1.4 – Wetting and non-wetting liquid

1.8 Surface tension

A liquid is not able to expand freely so it will form an interface/free

Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

Surface Tension on Liquid Droplet

Surface Tension on a Hollow Bubble

Surface Tension on a Liquid Jet

Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

1.9 Capillarity or Meniscus Effect

Expression for Capillary Rise

For equilibrium, equating Eq. (1.8) and Eq. (1.9), we get

Expression for Capillarity Fall

Value of  for mercury and glass tube is 128.

1.10 Vapour pressure and Cavitaion

Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

1.11 Compressibility and bulk modulus

Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

Fig.1.11 – Normal force exerted by a fluid to the boundary of surface

∴ Force or force due to pressure is

1.13 Pascal’s Law

The forces on the faces are:

Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

Similarly, resolving the forces in y-direction, we get

From Eq. (1.12) and Eq. (1.13)Eq. (1.26), we have

1.14 Pressure variation in a fluid at rest (Hydrostatic Law)

Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

For equilibrium of fluid element, we have

∴ 𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔𝑧 Eq. (1.16)

Here Z is called pressure head.

1.15 Absolute, Gauge, Atmospheric and Vacuum Pressures

Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

Vacuum pressure = Atmospheric pressure - Absolute pressure.

1.16 Measurement of Pressure

1.17 Simple Manometers

Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

Fig.1.16 – U-tube Manometer

Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

B) For Vacuum Pressure

Single Column Manometer

1.17.3.1 Vertical Single Column Manometer

Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

1.17.3.2 Inclined Single Column Manometer

Fig.1.18 – Inclined single column manometer