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THE HISTORICAL AND PHYSICAL FOUNDATIONS OF QUANTUM
MECHANICS
The Historical and Physical Foundations
of Quantum Mechanics

Robert Golub
North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA

Steven K. Lamoreaux
Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
 Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
⃝
c Robert Golub and Steven K. Lamoreaux 2023
The moral rights of the authors have been asserted
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Library of Congress Control Number: 2022951663
ISBN 978–0–19–882218–9
ISBN 978–0–19–882219–6 (pbk.)
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198822189.001.0001
Printed and bound by
CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY
Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials
contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
We dedicate this book to the memories of Prof. J.M. Pendlebury,
Dr. V.K. Ignatovich, Prof. A. Steyerl, and Prof. H.G. Dehmelt.
Preface

There is an enormous number of books and other writings concerned with explaining
and interpreting quantum mechanics. Standard texts tend to concentrate on method-
ology and applications to specific problems, while discussions of interpretation and the
historical development tend to contain a minimum of mathematics. The idea behind
this book is that to gain a real understanding of the subject, some acquaintance with
the historical development is essential; after all, that history is the narrative of how
humanity learned quantum mechanics. The ideas were not found written on tablets
on a farm in e.g., New York State, but were slowly and painstakingly developed by
people just like us. We also provide accompanying discussions for the various interpre-
tations that have been suggested, providing sufficient mathematical illustrations that
highlight the respective features and differences.
Acknowledgements

We would like to thank our friends and family for their understanding and support as
our attention was drawn away to the writing of this book.
R. G. would like to thank his wife Ekaterina Korobkina, E. David Davis for con-
tributions to Chapter 21 and help with the book, and Roland Gähler. In addition, he
thanks Prof. Chueng Ji for discussions at the early stages of the book.
S. K. L. thanks his wife, Melissa, and daughter, Zoe, his Friday Owl Shop cigar
friends Carl J. Frano and James Surprenant, and Dr. Sidney B. Cahn for their un-
failing and unflappable moral support. He also thanks Mr. Edward S. McCatty (B.A.
(Amherst), M.Div. (Yale), M.A. Lit. (UCL)) for editorial comments on Chapter 1 and
for providing inspiration throughout the project.
We especially thank Dr. Yulia Gurevich, whose expert editing, together with her
vast knowledge of physics, clarified and strengthened many parts of this book. Her
artistic talent is evident in many of the figures.
Yale University provided support for the preparation and editing of the manuscript.
NCSU also provided support with a sabbatical for R. G.

♠♢♣♡
Contents

PART I BASIS OF THE THEORY

1 Introduction 3
1.1 Overview 3
1.2 The Prehistory of Quantum Mechanics: atomism 5
1.3 Religion and science 11
1.4 Birth of the modern atomic theory of matter 13
1.5 Atomism and physics 15
2 Properties of the quantum world: indeterminacy, interfer-
ence, superposition, entanglement 22
2.1 Indeterminacy—random behavior 22
2.2 The wave nature of light and matter and its connection
with random behavior 24
2.3 Superposition and projection 30
2.4 Entanglement—“spooky action at a distance” 35
2.5 The Aharonov-Bohm effect and the physical reality of electromagnetic
potentials 36
2.6 Quantum mechanics and precision measurements 39
2.7 Synopsis 43
3 The origin of quantum theory in the crisis of classical physics 45
3.1 Black body radiation 45
3.2 Einstein further develops the quantum idea 54
3.3 The Bohr atom 63
3.4 Conclusion 65
4 Further steps to quantum mechanics: the old quantum me-
chanics of Bohr and Sommerfeld 66
4.1 Quantization conditions 66
4.2 “Old” quantum theory 67
4.3 Toward quantum mechanics: classical mechanics as the limit of a
wave motion 75
4.4 Conclusion 77
5 Further steps to quantum mechanics: Louis de Broglie and
the world’s most important PhD thesis 78
5.1 Introduction 78
5.2 De Broglie’s contribution 79
5.3 Appendix to Chapter 5—Compton scattering 86
x Contents

6 The invention of quantum mechanics—matrix mechanics 87

6.1 Introduction 87
6.2 Heisenberg rediscovers matrices 88
6.3 The founding of matrix mechanics by Born, Jordan,
and Heisenberg 90
6.4 Further developments 101
6.5 Conclusion 101
7 Schrödinger and the development of wave mechanics 103
7.1 Ideas leading to wave mechanics 103
7.2 The development of wave mechanics as presented in Schrödinger’s
publications 111
7.3 First applications of the wave equation 118
7.4 The relation between matrix and wave mechanics 128
8 Further developments of wave mechanics by Schrödinger 138
8.1 Introduction 138
8.2 Perturbation theory 138
8.3 The time-dependent Schrödinger equation 140
8.4 Conclusion 147
9 Quantum statistics and the origin of wave mechanics 149
9.1 Bose-Einstein statistics 149
9.2 Fermi-Dirac statistics 173
9.3 Conclusion 193
10 Early attempts at interpretation of the theory 196
10.1 Introduction 196
10.2 Schrödinger and the spreading of wave packets 196
10.3 Born’s insight and the loss of determinacy in physics 200
10.4 Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle 206
10.5 Niels Bohr and complementarity: the Copenhagen interpretation
of quantum mechanics 214
10.6 Conflicting views on quantum jumps 216
10.7 Chronology of Bohr–Heisenberg–Schrödinger discussions 220
11 The final synthesis of quantum mechanics: the “transforma-
tion theory” and Dirac notation 221
11.1 Introduction 221
11.2 Sturm-Liouville theory, Hilbert space, and linear operators 224
11.3 Dirac’s bra-ket notation 234
11.4 General features of the theory and Dirac notation 242
12 Dirac and Jordan commit “sin squared”: second quantization
and the beginning of quantum field theory 245
12.1 Introduction 245
12.2 Dirac’s q-numbers, operators, and the quantum mechanics of Dirac,
Jordan, and von Neumann 246
 Contents xi

12.3 The beginning of quantum field theory 254

12.4 Ehrenfest’s theorem and the classical limit of quantum mechanics 290
12.5 Stability of matter—second quantization 291
13 The “completion of quantum mechanics”—the fifth Solvay
Conference on Physics, October 1927 293
13.1 Introduction 293
13.2 The collapse of the wave function and its meaning—the measure-
ment problem 296
13.3 Wave-particle duality 299
13.4 Einstein and Bohr: the battle of the century? 308
13.5 The question of 3N dimensions 319
13.6 Conclusion 320
14 Von Neumann’s mathematical foundations of quantum
mechanics: redux 321
14.1 Introduction 321
14.2 Von Neumann’s measurement theory 324
14.3 No hidden parameters proof 327
14.4 Von Neumann entropy 335
14.5 Conclusion 339
15 Einstein and Schrödinger renew the assault on quantum me-
chanics 343
15.1 Introduction 343
15.2 Einstein attacks quantum theory 346
15.3 Reactions to the Einstein Podolsky Rosen (EPR) argument 351
15.4 Summary of historical commentary 367
15.5 Bell inequalities 368
15.6 Entangled photons 369
15.7 Entanglement in the density matrix 378
15.8 Conclusion 388
16 Weimar culture and quantum mechanics 391
16.1 Introduction 391
16.2 The Weimar Republic, a brief history 392
16.3 Weimar culture1 405
16.4 Physics in the Weimar Republic 411
16.5 Conclusion 433
17 Further development of the interpretation of quantum theory 435
17.1 Introduction 435
17.2 Schrödinger 438
17.3 London and Bauer 440
17.4 David Bohm 447
17.5 Hugh Everett III and the world’s second most important PhD
thesis(?) 453
17.6 Decoherence 468
xii Contents

17.7 (Spontaneous) Direct wave function collapse 489

17.8 Second quantization and particle-wave duality 493
17.9 Conclusion 494

PART II APPLICATIONS OF QUANTUM MECHANICS

18 Operator techniques and the algebraic solutions of problems 501
18.1 Introduction 501
18.2 Uncertainty relationships via operator techniques 502
18.3 Pictures 504
18.4 Ladder operators 512
18.5 Harmonic oscillator 513
18.6 Coherent states 517
18.7 Two-dimensional harmonic oscillator 537
18.8 2D harmonic oscillator solution to the H atom 540
18.9 Sum rules and summation techniques 542
18.10 Benzene molecule 559
18.11 Angular momentum: an operator approach 561
18.12 Algebraic derivation of the hydrogen spectrum 583
18.13 The WKB approximation: boundary conditions by complex anal-
ysis 591
19 Spin-1/2 and two-level systems 597
19.1 Larmor’s theorem 597
19.2 Pauli matrices 605
19.3 Vector representation of spin and spinor rotation symmetry 606
19.4 The effects of near-resonant oscillating magnetic fields 610
19.5 Effects of time-dependent, nonresonant variations
of the potential 612
19.6 The density matrix 621
19.7 General application to two-level systems: fictitious spin-1/2 628
20 Path integrals and scattering 635
20.1 Introduction 635
20.2 Path integrals 635
20.3 An introduction to scattering of nonrelativistic particles
by a many-body system 643
20.4 Conclusion 657
21 Introduction to quantum computing (with the assistance of
Edward D. Davis) 659
21.1 Overview 659
21.2 The basic ideas 668
21.3 Unitary operations 672
21.4 A physical model of a quantum computer 676
21.5 Some additional algorithms 679
21.6 Factoring—the Holy Grail of quantum computing 683
21.7 Conclusion 693
 Contents xiii

APPENDICES
A Classical mechanics 696
A.1 Introduction 696
A.2 Lagrangian mechanics 696
A.3 Hamiltonian mechanics 703
A.4 Transformations of coordinates—canonical transformations and
the Hamilton-Jacobi equation 705
A.5 Action-angle variables 710
A.6 Conclusion 714
B Galilean invariance of the Schrödinger equation 715
B.1 Alternative test of Galilean invariance 718
B.2 Internal coordinates and momenta for a two- and multi-particle
system 718
C Universality of Planck’s constant 720
D Conservation laws 722
E Lagrangian and Hamiltonian formalism for classical fields 726
E.1 Lagrangian for a classical continuous field: example of a vibrating
string 726
E.2 Lagrange’s equations for a classical continuous field 727
E.3 Hamiltonian formulation for classical continuous fields 728
Index 731
Part I
Basis of the Theory

The first part of this book provides a historical background and brings us to the
modern theory.
1
Introduction

“You have nothing to do but mention the quantum theory and people will take your voice for
the voice of science and believe anything you say.” George Bernard Shaw, 19381

1.1 Overview
A search on Amazon.com for books on “quantum theory” returns over 10,000 hits
while searching for “quantum physics” returns over 20,000. This corresponds to one
book a day for 30 years. These books range from advanced mathematical treatises
to books without a single equation, from deep philosophical debates between authors
with different understandings of the subject to textbooks teaching the methodology
and various applications. In addition, there are vast numbers of papers in historical
and philosophical journals concerned with the development and philosophical impli-
cations of the theory. For those interested, there are also many volumes of collected
correspondence and many online archives of oral and written material.2
While there is little dispute over the mathematical apparatus of the theory and its
application to physical problems there is a wide spectrum of divergent opinions about
what the theory is trying to tell us concerning the nature of reality. For a long time
following WWII, there was little interest among physicists for such questions as atten-
tion was turned to the frenetic development of different technologies. However, recent
decades have seen, in addition to an amazing range of applications of the theory, an
ever-increasing attention to what is called the “interpretation” of quantum mechanics.
There is now a bewildering forest of these interpretations each of which has a group of
supporters as well as opponents. As, to this date, none of the interpretations has been
able to convince a majority of working physicists (who, it should be said, mostly ignore
these discussions, an attitude that has been summed up as “shut up and calculate”)
of its correctness or necessity. It is almost as if physics is splitting into a number of
cults uniting supporters and critics in a never-ending embrace.
It is striking that all of the proposed interpretations are concerned with the original
form of the theory, the Schrödinger theory supplemented by the Dirac transformation
theory, seemingly ignoring the most advanced form of the theory, i.e., that involving the

1 Quoted by Simon, D.R., On the Power of Quantum Computation, 35th Annual Symposium on
the Foundations of Computer Science, (1994) Santa Fe, NM and at www.greatest-quotations.com.
2 See e.g., American Philosophical Society Library: Sources for the History of Quantum Physics,
1898-1950, https://search.amphilsoc.org/collections/view?docId=ead/Mss.530.1.Ar2-ead.xml.

The Historical and Physical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics. Robert Golub and Steven K. Lamoreaux, Oxford University Press.
⃝c Robert Golub and Steven K. Lamoreaux (2023). DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198822189.003.0001
4 Introduction

quantization of the non-relativistic Schrödinger equation, introduced by Jordan, with

the support of Pauli and Wigner among others, that he called “second quantization.”
As we will see, this formulation solves several problems associated with the original
form of the theory and almost supplies its own interpretation, as does relativistic
quantum field theory where questions of interpretation, essentially whether particles
or waves are prior, are much less prominent.3 This concentration on a not fully
matured version of the theory might be considered by some as an indication that the
interpretation discussion is caught in a time-warp, devoting its attention to a theory
that could be viewed as already superseded.
The purpose of this book is to take a step back and attempt to retrace the devel-
opment of the theory by investigating original sources, the original published papers
and letters, of the participants. This is the path by which humanity learned quantum
mechanics and following it might hopefully lead to an improved understanding. Of
course, the attempt by physicists themselves to approach the history of their subject
is an exercise fraught with difficulties, as has been recognized by several practitioners.
For example, Silvan Schweber, a theoretical physicist turned historian of science, rec-
ognizes4 that “the history of science cannot escape some form of whiggism. The data
is so rich that some selection must be made.” A whig history of science is the view
of the scientific winners who write as if their triumph was an inevitable result of the
correctness of their ideas. Whig history of science displays the historical development
as proceeding from a past ruled by ignorance to a glorious present without taking
account of the actual state of knowledge in the past.
We can see the result of trying to overcome the limitation mentioned by Schwe-
ber and include all relevant publications along with biographical information on the
many actors and excerpts from correspondence, in the heroic work made by Mehra
and Rechenberg, who have completed a nine volume treatise, “The Historical Devel-
opment of Quantum Mechanics,” published between 1982 and 2001.5 This has been
an enormous help in writing the present volume
S.A. Goudsmit, the codiscoverer of electron spin,6 was skeptical as to the utility
of the history of science:7 “Many historians have written very pretty stories about
how a discovery should have been made, but it is unfortunately very improbable that
the development was as logical as these fabricated stories would indicate. Luck and
random events play a much larger role than people are ready to admit.” In addition
he complains that: “They (the historians of physics) present things as if the whole of
physics was created by a handful of geniuses. This is completely unfair to the many
physicists whose work enables the great discoveries of the geniuses.”

3 Weinberg, S. The Quantum Theory of Fields, Vol. 1, Foundations, CUP, (1995)

4 Schweber, S.S., QED and the Men Who Made It: Dyson, Feynman, Schwinger and Tomonaga,
Princeton, 1994
5 Mehra, J. and Rechenberg, H., The Historical Development of Quantum Mechanics Volumes
1–6, comprising nine volumes in total as some of the volumes are printed in two parts, Springer -
Verlag 1982–2001.
6 Uhlenbeck, G.F. and Goudsmit, S., Naturwissenschaften, 13, 953, (1925) and Spinning Electrons
and the structure of Spectra, Nature, 117, 264 (1926)
7 Goudsmit, S.A., The Discovery of the Electron Spin (in German), Phys.Blaetter, 10, 4345 (1965)
 The Prehistory of Quantum Mechanics: atomism 5

He then goes on to state “Historians are often unjust with respect to the experi-
mental physicists. Even though the evolution of ideas is very important for history, we
should not neglect the geniuses among the experimental physicists whose discoveries
and results are absolutely necessary for new ideas and their verification,” and further
makes the point that “Published articles are not very reliable as historical sources. In
a good article, the author tries to convince the reader so he often chooses a different
train of thought as that by which he came upon the idea.” This is something that can
be attested to by any experienced researcher.
Steven Weinberg (op. cit.) explicitly disdains the historical approach to teaching
physical theories, preferring a logical development of the theory as it is presently
understood. This, of course, vitiates the importance of direct observation of natural
phenomena, and the fact that current physical theories were at one time tenuous
hypotheses that required testing via the scientific method. As such, abandoning the
historical approach appears as a throwback toward Scholasticism with its basis in
dogmatism.
Albert Einstein was also skeptical of a historical approach:
Only those who have successfully wrestled with problematic situations of their own age can
have a deep insight into those situations, unlike later historians who find it difficult to make
abstractions from those concepts and views which appear to his generation as established or
even self evident.8

While there is certainly a large degree of truth in all of this the fact is that the
original published papers are closer to the original ideas than a third-generation text-
book and can be expected to reflect something of the then-contemporary zeitgeist as
the result of the author’s stated wish to persuade his readers. We also make use of
letters and contemporary accounts when appropriate.
Thus, in this book, while being aware of these issues, we will attempt to trace the
main lines of the development with the hope that this return to the roots will cast
some light on what are today considered the difficulties of the theory.

1.2 The Prehistory of Quantum Mechanics: atomism

Quantum mechanics has its fundamental basis in the atomic theory of matter, which
has its roots in atomism. Atomism was originally a philosophical theory that material
objects are discontinuous, being constructed of indivisible distinct types of atoms—
equivalently, quantized units of matter, that serve as building blocks. Atoms are now
understood to be of limited variability (chemical elements, isotopes, periodic table),
but each type of atom has unique and fixed properties, and all atoms of a given type
are now understood to be identical and indistinguishable.
The concept of atomism has a long checkered if not tortuous history, one that is
rarely expounded upon in physics books. We will present a very abbreviated overview
of the development of modern ideas, and these are from a very Western perspective.
There was likely widespread communication in the ancient world that allowed ideas to
be spread, and it is not impossible that Greek atomism had its origin with the Indian

8 Einstein, A., Reply to criticisms in Schilpp, P.A., ed., Albert Einstein Philosopher-Scientist,
Vol.II, Harper, 1949, 1951.
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 Peggy knelt down, so as to come nearer to the tub, and looked
down into it. Then she uttered a little wail. “O father, I think they’re all
looking sick somehow! Look at my flounders!”
One of the flounders, alas! was dead already, as well as the crab,
and the other looked rather sorry for himself. Colonel Roberts,
however, would not let Peggy cry.
“Look here, child,” he said; “they want to be put back into the sea
—that’s all. There are too many of them all crowded together in the
tub; we’ll take them back to a pool on the shore, and they will soon
be as frisky as ever again.”
“Not the dead ones,” said Peggy solemnly.
“No, not the poor dead ones, but the sick ones. Go and fetch me
a pail, and we’ll carry them down to the shore.”
“But then I won’t ever see them again,” Peggy objected.
“Now, don’t be a selfish little girl. You would rather they lived and
were happy, wouldn’t you?”
“Ye—s,” Peggy faltered.
“Well, go and fetch the pail.”
After all, it would be good fun to put them all back into the sea,
Peggy thought; so she ran away and fetched the garden pail from
the shed. Colonel Roberts pulled up his sleeves, and dived his arm
into the tub, and fished up the creatures one by one. They all looked
rather flabby and sick.
“Now, we must take them down to the shore,” he said.
They selected a nice large pool, and one by one placed the poor
sick creatures into it. Then Peggy sat down to watch. She had not
long to wait: the sick flounder revived in the most extraordinary
manner, the anemones began to wave their feelers about in the nice
clean water as if they too felt all right.
“See! they are all quite happy again, Peggy,” said her father.
 “Oh, I am sorry not to keep them,” said she. “Do you think I’ll ever
get anything to play with that I can love so much?”
“Well, that depends upon yourself, Peggy; but as we walk back to
the house you can guess what I’ve got for you at home.”
“Have you got something new for me—something I’ll love?”
“Yes, quite new. I fancy you’ll love it very much.”
“As much as my sea beasts?”
“Oh, a great deal more. What do you think would be the nicest
thing you could have?”
“A Shetland pony?”
“No, far nicer.”
“A big Persian pussy-cat?”
“No, nicer still.”
Peggy began to dance with impatience. “Oh, do tell me; what is
it?” she cried.
“Well, you will find a new sister at home, very small and pink, with
blue eyes and a lot of nice black hair.”
Peggy received this description dumbly; indeed, she walked on
for a few yards before she said bitterly,—
“O father, I’d have liked the Shetland pony ever so much better;
couldn’t you change it yet? Is the sister much cheaper? I’ll give you
my shilling!”
She was rather hurt by the way her father laughed at this
proposal.
“Why, Peggy, a sister will be ever so much nicer than a pony; she
will be able to play with you and speak to you soon.”
“Can’t she speak? She can’t be a very good one,” said Peggy
dolefully.
“No, she can only cry as yet—she cries a good deal.”
 “Well, I don’t want her then, father. Do please send her away, and
get me the pony instead, or even the cat.”
“I think we’ve got to keep her, Peggy. Suppose you wait till you
see her. Perhaps you won’t wish then to send her away.”
“Can she walk, if she is so stupid, and can’t talk?” Peggy asked
suspiciously.
“Oh no, she can’t walk; she is dressed in long robes, just like your
Belinda.”
“Who has been playing with her?” Peggy asked. “Has mother? It
doesn’t amuse her much to play with Belinda, and if this thing is just
like her, I wonder mother cares to play with it either.”
“Yes, mother has played with her most of the time.”
“Well, I think it’s very queer of her, for she doesn’t like Belinda a
bit,” said Peggy. Then, after a moment’s silence, she added,
“Perhaps I’ll like it too; I don’t feel as if I would. And please, father,
will you let me ride up to the house on your back?”
This ended the discussion about the new sister.
And now, if I were to tell you how precious the new sister was to
Peggy, it would take another volume as big as this to tell it. For when
Peggy’s sister grew a little older, they had such wonderful
adventures together that Peggy used to wonder how she had got on
all the tiresome years when she was alone.
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