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Starr
Evers
Starr
Biology
Concepts & Applications
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10e
Biology
Concepts & Applications 10e Cecie Starr
Christine A. Evers
Lisa Starr
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Biology
Concepts & Applications 10e
About the Cover Photo
Portuguese Man-of-War
Anyone unfamiliar with the biology of the
venomous Portuguese man-of-war would likely
mistake it for a jellyfish. Not only is it not a
jellyfish, it’s not even an “it,” but a “they.”
The Portuguese man-of-war is a siphonophore,
an animal made up of a colony of organisms
working together.
The man-of-war comprises four separate polyps.
It gets its name from the uppermost polyp, a
gas-filled bladder, or pneumatophore, which
sits above the water and somewhat resembles
an old warship at full sail. A man-of-war is also
known as a bluebottle for the purple-blue color
of its pneumatophores.
The tentacles are the man-of-war’s second
organism. These long, thin tendrils can extend
165 feet (50 meters) in length below the
surface, although 30 feet (10 meters) is more
the average. They are covered in venom-filled
nematocysts used to paralyze and kill fish and
other small creatures. For humans, a man-of-
war sting is excruciatingly painful, but rarely
deadly. But beware—even a dead man-of-war
washed up on shore can deliver a sting.
Muscles in the tentacles draw prey up to a
polyp containing the gastrozooids or digestive
organisms. A fourth polyp contains the
reproductive organisms.
A man-of-war is found, sometimes in groups
of 1,000 or more, floating in warm waters
throughout the world’s oceans. They have no
independent means of propulsion and either
drift on the currents or catch the wind with
their pneumatophores. To avoid threats on
the surface, they can deflate their air bags and
briefly submerge.
Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States
Biology
Concepts & Applications 10e
Cecie Starr
Christine A. Evers
Lisa Starr
Biology: Concepts & Applications, © 2018, 2015, 2011 Cengage Learning
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Printed in Canada
Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2016
Contents in Brief
INTRODUCTION
1 The Science of Biology 2
UNIT 1 PRINCIPLES OF CELLULAR LIFE
2 Life’s Chemical Basis 22

3 Molecules of Life 36
4 Cell Structure 50
5 Ground Rules of Metabolism 76
6 Where It Starts—Photosynthesis 98
7 Releasing Chemical Energy 112
UNIT 2 GENETICS UNIT 6 HOW ANIMALS WORK
8 DNA Structure and Function 130 28 Animal Tissues and Organ Systems 480
9 From DNA to Protein 146 29 Neural Control 498
10 Control of Gene Expression 162 30 Sensory Perception 520
11 How Cells Reproduce 176 31 Endocrine Control 536
12 Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction 190 32 Structural Support and Movement 554
13 Patterns in Inherited Traits 204 33 Circulation 570
14 Human Inheritance 220 34 Immunity 590
15 Biotechnology 236 35 Respiration 614
36 Digestion and Human Nutrition 630
UNIT 3 P R I N C I P L E S O F E VO L U T I O N
37 Maintaining the Internal Environment 650
16 Evidence of Evolution 252 38 Reproduction and Development 666
17 Processes of Evolution 272
UNIT 7 PRINCIPLES OF ECOLOGY
18 Life’s Origin and Early Evolution 300
39 Animal Behavior 696
UNIT 4 E VO L U T I O N A N D B I O D I V E R S I T Y 40 Population Ecology 712
19 Viruses, Bacteria, and Archaea 314 41 Community Ecology 730
20 The Protists 330 42 Ecosystems 748
21 Plant Evolution 346 43 The Biosphere 764
22 Fungi 364 44 Human Effects on the Biosphere 784
23 Animals I: Major Invertebrate Groups 376 Appendix I 800
24 Animals II: The Chordates 400 Appendix II 801
Appendix III 802
UNIT 5 HOW PLANTS WORK Appendix IV 805
Appendix V 806
25 Plant Tissues 422 Appendix VI 808
26 Plant Nutrition and Transport 440 Appendix VII 808
27 Reproduction and Development Glossary 812
of Flowering Plants 454 Index 832
Detailed Contents
INTRODUCTION
1 THE SCIENCE OF BIOLOGY

1.1 Life Is More Than the Sum of Its Parts 4
Emergent Properties 4
Life’s Organization 4
1.2 Life’s Unity 6
Energy and Nutrients 6
Homeostasis 7
DNA Is Hereditary Material 7
1.3 Life’s Diversity 8
● Engage: Kristofer Helgen, National Geographic Explorer 9
1.4 Organizing Information About Species 10

A Rose by Any Other Name . . . 10
Distinguishing Species 10
1.5 The Science of Nature 12
Thinking About Thinking 12
The Scientific Method 12
1.6 Examples of Experiments in Biology 14
Research in the Real World 14
Potato Chips and Stomachaches 14
Butterflies and Birds 14
1.7 Analyzing Experimental Results 16
Sampling Error 16
Bias 17
Objectivity 17
1.8 The Nature of Science 18
What Science Is 18
What Science Is Not 18
APPLICATION: The Secret Life of Earth 19
UNIT 1 PRINCIPLES OF CELLULAR LIFE
2 LIFE’S CHEMICAL BASIS

2.1 Building Blocks of Matter 24
Atoms and Elements 24
Isotopes and Radioisotopes 24
● Engage: Kenneth Sims, National Geographic Explorer 25
2.2 Why Electrons Matter 26

Electrons Have Energy 26
The Importance of Vacancies 27
2.3 From Atoms to Molecules 28
Chemical Bonds 28
Ionic Bonds 28
Covalent Bonds 29
2.4 Hydrogen Bonding and Water 30
Hydrogen Bonds 30
Enric Sala/National Geographic Creative
Water’s Special Properties 30 General Features of Eukaryotic Cells 60
Water Is an Excellent Solvent 30 The Nucleus 61
Water Has Cohesion 31
4.6 The Endomembrane System 62
Water Stabilizes Temperature 31
A Variety of Vesicles 62
2.5 Acids and Bases 32
Endoplasmic Reticulum 62
Hydrogen Atoms and pH 32
Golgi Bodies 63
APPLICATION: Mercury Rising 33 4.7 Mitochondria 64
4.8 Chloroplasts and Other Plastids 65
3 MOLECULES OF LIFE 4.9 The Cytoskeleton 66
3.1 The Chemistry of Biology 38

Cytoskeletal Elements 66
Microtubules 66
Carbon, the Stuff of Life 38 Microfilaments 66
Metabolic Reactions 39 Intermediate Filaments 66
3.2 Carbohydrates 40 Cellular Movement 66
Carbohydrates in Living Systems 40 4.10 Cell Surface Specializations 68
Simple Sugars 40 Extracellular Matrices 68
Short-Chain Carbohydrates 40
Polysaccharides 40 Cell Junctions 69
4.11 The Nature of Life 70
3.3 Lipids 42
Lipids in Living Systems 42 Life Is Squishy 70
Fats 42 ● Engage: Dr. Kevin Peter Hand,
Phospholipids 43 National Geographic Explorer 71
Waxes 43
Steroids 43 APPLICATION: Food for Thought 71
3.4 Proteins 44
Building Proteins 44
From Structure to Function 44
Primary and Secondary Structure 44
Tertiary and Quaternary Structure 44
Finishing Touches 45
3.5 The Importance of Protein Structure 46
3.6 Nucleic Acids 47
APPLICATION: Fear of Frying 47
4 CELL STRUCTURE
4.1 What, Exactly, Is a Cell? 52
Cell Theory 52
Components of All Cells 52
Constraints on Cell Size 53
4.2 How We See Cells 54
● Engage: Dr. Aydogan Ozcan,
National Geographic Explorer 55
4.3 Cell Membrane Structure 56
The Fluid Mosaic Model 56
Proteins Add Function 56
4.4 Introducing the Prokaryotes 58
Structural Features 58
Biofilms 59
4.5 Introducing the Eukaryotic Cell 60
vii
Detailed Contents (continued)
5 GROUND RULES OF METABOLISM

5.1 Life Runs on Energy 78
Energy Disperses 78
Energy’s One-Way Flow 78
5.2 Energy in the Molecules of Life 80
Chemical Bond Energy 80
Why Earth Does Not Go Up in Flames 80
Energy In, Energy Out 81
5.3 How Enzymes Work 82
The Need for Speed 82
Influences on Enzyme Activity 83
5.4 Metabolic Pathways 84
Controls Over Metabolism 84 6.2 Sunlight as an Energy Source 102
Electron Transfers 85 Visible Light Drives Photosynthesis 102
To Catch a Rainbow 102
5.5 Cofactors 86
ATP—A Special Coenzyme 87 6.3 Light-Dependent Reactions 104
The Noncyclic Pathway 104
5.6 Diffusion and Membranes 88
The Cyclic Pathway 105
Factors That Affect Diffusion 88
Concentration 88 6.4 Light-Independent Reactions 106
Temperature 88 The Calvin–Benson Cycle 106
Size 88 Photorespiration 107
Charge 88
Pressure 88 6.5 Carbon-Fixing Adaptations of Plants 108
Osmosis 88 C4 Plants 108
Turgor 89 CAM Plants 108
5.7 Membrane Transport Mechanisms 90 APPLICATION: A Burning Concern 109
Transport Protein Specificity 90 ● Engage: Sanga Moses, National Geographic Explorer 109
Passive Transport 90
Active Transport 91
7 RELEASING CHEMICAL ENERGY
5.8 Membrane Trafficking 92
Vesicle Movement 92 7.1 Introduction to Carbohydrate Breakdown
Membrane Recycling 93 Pathways 114
Reaction Pathways 115
APPLICATION: A Toast to Alcohol Dehydrogenase 94
7.2 Glycolysis—Sugar Breakdown Begins 116
Glycolysis Reactions 116
Comparing Other Pathways 116
7.3 Acetyl–CoA Formation and the Citric Acid Cycle 118
7.4 Aerobic Respiration’s Big Energy Payoff 120
Electron Transfer Phosphorylation 120
Summing Up 121
7.5 Fermentation Pathways 122
Alcoholic Fermentation 122
Lactate Fermentation 123
7.6 Food as a Source of Energy 124
6 WHERE IT STARTS—PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Energy From Dietary Molecules 124
6.1 Overview of Photosynthesis 100 Fats 124
Autotrophs and Heterotrophs 100 Complex Carbohydrates 124
Proteins 124
Two Stages of Reactions 100
Where Photosynthesis Occurs 101 APPLICATION: Mitochondrial Malfunction 126
viii
10.3 Details of Body Form 168
UNIT 2 GENETICS
10.4 Gene Expression in Metabolic Control 170
8 DNA STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION The lac Operon 170
Lactose Metabolism in Mammals 170
8.1 The Discovery of DNA’s Function 132
Circadian Rhythms in Plants 171
Early Clues 132
10.5 Epigenetics 172
A Surprising Result 132
Final Pieces of Evidence 133 APPLICATION: Between You and Eternity 173
8.2 Discovery of DNA’s Structure 134
Building Blocks of DNA 134
DNA Sequence 135
8.3 Eukaryotic Chromosomes 136
Chromosome Structure 136
Chromosome Number 136
● Engage: Mariana Fuentes,
8.4 How Does a Cell Copy Its DNA? 138 1 1 HOW CELLS REPRODUCE
Semiconservative Replication 138 11.1 Multiplication by Division 178
Directional Synthesis 139 The Cell Cycle 178
8.5 Mutations and Their Causes 140 Mitosis Maintains the Chromosome Number 178
● Engage: Dr. Rosalind Franklin 141 Control Over the Cell Cycle 179
8.6 Cloning Adult Animals 142 Why Cells Divide by Mitosis 179
11.2 A Closer Look at Mitosis 181
APPLICATION: A Hero Dog’s Golden Clones 143
11.3 Cytoplasmic Division 182
11.4 Marking Time With Telomeres 183
9 FROM DNA TO PROTEIN
11.5 Pathological Mitosis 184
9.1 Introducing Gene Expression 148 The Role of Mutations 184
● Engage: Dr. John “Jack” Horner, Cancer 185
National Geographic Explorer 149 APPLICATION: Henrietta’s Immortal Cells 186
9.2 Transcription: DNA to RNA 150 ● Engage: Dr. Iain Couzin, National Geographic Explorer 187
Post-Transcriptional Modifications 151
9.3 RNA and the Genetic Code 152 12 MEIOSIS AND SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
The Messenger: mRNA 152
12.1 Why Sex? 192
The Translators: rRNA and tRNA 153
Introducing Alleles 192
9.4 Translation: RNA to Protein 154
On the Advantages of Sex 192
9.5 Consequences of Mutations 156
● Engage: Maurine Neiman,
APPLICATION: The Aptly Acronymed RIPs 158 National Geographic Explorer 193
12.2 Meiosis in Sexual Reproduction 194
10 CONTROL OF GENE EXPRESSION Meiosis Halves the Chromosome Number 194
How Meiosis Works 194
10.1 How Cells Control Gene Expression 164 Fertilization Restores the Chromosome Number 195
Switching Genes On and Off 164
12.3 A Visual Tour of Meiosis 196
DNA–Histone Interactions 164
Transcription 164 12.4 How Meiosis Introduces Variations in Traits 198
RNA Processing 165 Crossing Over 198
RNA Transport 165 Chromosome Segregation 199
Translation 165
Post-Translational Modification 165 12.5 Mitosis and Meiosis—An Ancestral Connection? 200
Protein Degradation 165 APPLICATION: How to Survive for 80 Million Years
10.2 Orchestrating Early Development 166 Without Sex 201
ix
1 3 PATTERNS IN INHERITED TRAITS 1 5 BIOTECHNOLOGY

13.1 Mendel, Pea Plants, and Inheritance Patterns 206 15.1 Cutting and Pasting DNA 238
Mendel’s Experiments 206 DNA Cloning 238
Inheritance in Modern Terms 207 Why Clone DNA? 239
13.2 Mendel’s Law of Segregation 208 15.2 Isolating Genes 240
13.3 Mendel’s Law of Independent Assortment 210 DNA Libraries 240
The Contribution of Crossovers 211 PCR 240
13.4 Beyond Simple Dominance 212 15.3 DNA Sequencing 242
Incomplete Dominance 212 The Human Genome Project 243
Codominance 212 15.4 Genomics 244
Epistasis 213
DNA Profiling 245
Pleiotropy 213
15.5 Genetic Engineering 246
13.5 Nature and Nurture 214
Genetically Modified Organisms 246
● Engage: Dr. Gay Bradshaw 215 Microorganisms 246
13.6 Complex Variation in Traits 216 Plants 246
Animals 247
APPLICATION: Menacing Mucus 217
15.6 Editing Genomes 248
Gene Therapy 248
1 4 HUMAN INHERITANCE CRISPR 248
14.1 Human Chromosomes 222 APPLICATION: Personal Genetic Testing 249
● Engage: Dr. Nancy Wexler 223
14.2 Examples of Autosomal Inheritance Patterns 224 UNIT 3 P R I N C I P L E S O F E VO L U T I O N
Autosomal Dominance 224 1 6 EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION

Achondroplasia 224
Huntington’s Disease 224 16.1 Early Beliefs, Confusing Discoveries 254
Hutchinson–Gilford Progeria 225
The Autosomal Recessive Pattern 225 16.2 A Flurry of New Ideas 256
Tay–Sachs Disease 225 Evolution by Natural Selection 257
Albinism 225 16.3 Ancient Evidence 258
14.3 Examples of X-Linked Inheritance Patterns 226 Evidence in Rock Formations 258
The X-Linked Recessive Pattern 226 The Fossil Record 259
Red–Green Color Blindness 226
Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy 227 ● Engage: Dr. Paul Sereno,
Hemophilia 227 National Geographic Explorer 259
14.4 Changes in Chromosome Structure 228 16.4 Filling in Pieces of the Puzzle 260
Types of Change 228 Missing Links 261
Insertions 228
Duplications 228
Deletions 228
Inversions 228
Translocations 228
Chromosomes and Evolution 229
14.5 Changes in Chromosome Number 230
Down Syndrome 230
Sex Chromosome Changes 231
Turner Syndrome 231
XXX Syndrome 231
Klinefelter Syndrome 231
XYY Syndrome 231
14.6 Genetic Screening 232
APPLICATION: Shades of Skin 233
16.5 Drifting Continents, Changing Seas 262 17.11 Phylogeny 294
16.6 Putting Time Into Perspective 264 Cladistics 295
16.7 Evidence in Form 266 17.12 Applications of Phylogeny 296
Morphological Divergence 266 Conservation Biology 296
Morphological Convergence 267 Medical Research 296
16.8 Evidence in Function 268 APPLICATION: Directional Selection: Superbug
Patterns in Animal Development 268 Farms 297
APPLICATION: Reflections of a Distant Past 269
17 PROCESSES OF EVOLUTION
17.1 Alleles in Populations 274
Variation in Shared Traits 274
An Evolutionary View of Mutations 274
Allele Frequency 275
17.2 Genetic Equilibrium 276
Applying the Hardy–Weinberg Principle 276
Populations Evolve 277
17.3 Directional Selection 278
Selection for an Extreme Form 278
The Peppered Moth 278 18 LIFE’S ORIGIN AND EARLY EVOLUTION
Warfarin-Resistant Rats 279
18.1 Origin of Life’s Building Blocks 302
17.4 Stabilizing and Disruptive Selection 280
Selection for or Against an Intermediate Form 280 Conditions on Early Earth 302
Stabilizing Selection 280 Sources of Organic Subunits 302
Disruptive Selection 281 Lightning-Fueled Atmospheric Reactions 303
Reactions at Hydrothermal Vents 303
17.5 Natural Selection and Diversity 282 Delivery From Outer Space 303
Survival of the Sexiest 282
● Engage: Dr. Robert Ballard,
Maintaining Multiple Alleles 282 National Geographic Explorer 303
17.6 Genetic Drift and Gene Flow 284
18.2 Polymers to Protocells 304
Genetic Drift 284
Properties of Cells 304
Bottlenecks and the Founder Effect 284
Origin of Metabolism 304
Gene Flow 285
Origin of the Genome 304
17.7 Reproductive Isolation 286 Protocell Formation 305
17.8 Allopatric Speciation 288 18.3 Early Cellular Life 306
Speciation in Archipelagos 288 Traits of the First Cells 306
17.9 Other Speciation Models 290 Searching for Ancient Life 306
Sympatric Speciation 290 The Oldest Fossil Cells 306
Parapatric Speciation 291 Stromatolites and the Rise in Oxygen 306
● Engage: Dr. Julia J. Day, Early Eukaryotes 307
National Geographic Explorer 291 18.4 Origin of Eukaryotes 308
17.10 Macroevolution 292 Unique Eukaryotic Traits 308
Patterns of Macroevolution 292 A Mixed Heritage 308
Stasis 292 Evolution of Organelles 308
Exaptations 292 Nucleus and Endoplasmic Reticulum 308
Mass Extinctions 292 Mitochondria and Chloroplasts 309
Adaptive Radiation 292
18.5 Perspective on the Precambrian 310
Coevolution 292
Evolutionary Theory 293 APPLICATION: Looking for Life 311
xi
2 0 THE PROTISTS
20.1 Protist Classification and Characteristics 332
A Diverse Collection of Lineages 332
A Wide Array of Traits 332
Level of Organization 332
Metabolism 332
Habitats 333
Life Cycles 333
20.2 Protist Cell Anatomy 334
Standard Eukaryotic Features 334
Traits That Vary 334
Outer Coverings 334
Motility-Related Structures 334
Contractile Vacuoles 334
Chloroplasts 334
20.3 Excavates—Flagellated Cells 335
UNIT 4 E VO L U T I O N A N D B I O D I V E R S I T Y
Anaerobic Flagellates 335
1 9 VIRUSES, BACTERIA, AND ARCHAEA Trypanosomes and Euglenoids 335
20.4 The SAR Supergroup 336
19.1 The Viruses 316
Stramenopiles 336
Virus Structure 316
Alveolates 336
Viral Replication 316
Rhizarians 337
Bacteriophage Replication 316
HIV Replication 317 20.5 The Deadliest Protists 338
19.2 Viruses and Human Health 318 Life Cycle of Plasmodium 338
Common Viral Diseases 318 Health Effects of Malaria 339
Emerging Viral Diseases 318 Manipulating Its Hosts 339
New Flus—Viral Reassortment 319 ● Engage: Ken Banks, National Geographic Explorer 339
● Engage: Dr. Nathan Wolfe, 20.6 Archaeplastid Protists—Plant Relatives 340
National Geographic Explorer 319 Red Algae 340
19.3 Bacterial Structure and Function 320 Green Algae 341
Cell Size and Structure 320 20.7 Amoebozoans 342
Reproduction and Gene Exchange 320 Amoebas 342
Metabolic Diversity 321 Slime Molds 342
19.4 Bacterial Diversity and Ecology 322 20.8 Opisthokont Protists 343
Cyanobacteria 322
APPLICATION: Toxic Algal Blooms 343
Gram-Positive Bacteria 322
Proteobacteria 323
Spirochetes 323 2 1 PLANT EVOLUTION
19.5 Bacterial Effects on Human Health 324
21.1 Adapting to Life on Land 348
Normal Microbiota 324
Structural Adaptations 348
Toxins and Disease 324
Life-Cycle Changes 348
19.6 The Archaea 325
Pollen and Seeds 349
Comparisons With Bacteria 325
21.2 Nonvascular plants—Bryophytes 350
Archaeal Diversity 325
Mosses 350
19.7 Phylogeny of Prokaryotes 326
Liverworts and Hornworts 351
Identifying Species 326
21.3 Seedless Vascular Plants 352
Relationships Among Domains 326
Ferns and Close Relatives 352
APPLICATION: Sharing Viruses 327 Lycophytes 353
xii
21.4 History of the Vascular Plants 354 ● Engage: Dr. DeeAnn Reeder,
Tiny Branchers to Coal Forests 354 National Geographic Explorer 371
Rise of the Seed Plants 354 22.4 Human Uses of Fungi 372
● Engage: Jeff Benca, National Geographic Explorer 355
APPLICATION: Spread of Fungal Pathogens 373
21.5 What Are Gymnosperms? 356
Conifers 356 23 ANIMALS I: MAJOR INVERTEBRATE
Lesser-Known Lineages 357 GROUPS
21.6 Angiosperms—Flowering Plants 358
Flowers and Fruits 358 23.1 Animal Traits and Trends 378
Angiosperm Lineages 359 Shared Traits 378
Body Plan Variations 378
21.7 Keys to Angiosperm Success 360
Accelerated Life Cycle 360 23.2 Animal Origins and Diversification 380
Partnerships With Pollinators 360 Colonial Origins 380
Animal-Dispersed Fruits 360 Evidence of Early Animals 380
An Explosion of Diversity 380
APPLICATION: Saving Seeds 361
23.3 Sponges 381
23.4 Cnidarians 382
● Engage: Dr. David Gruber, National Geographic
Explorer 383
23.5 Flatworms 384
Free-Living Flatworms 384
Parasitic Flatworms 385
23.6 Annelids 386
Polychaetes 386
Leeches 386
Oligochaetes 387
Earthworm Body Plan 387
Earthworm Ecology 387
23.7 Mollusks 388
Gastropods 388
Bivalves 388
Cephalopods 389
23.8 Roundworms 390
23.9 Arthropod Characteristics 391
22 FUNGI
A Jointed Exoskeleton 391
22.1 Fungal Traits and Groups 366 Specialized Segments 391
Characteristics of Fungi 366 Metamorphosis 391
Organization and Structure 366 23.10 Arthropod Subgroups 392
Metabolism and Nutrition 366
Chelicerates 392
Spore Production 367
Millipedes and Centipedes 392
Major Groups 367
Crustaceans 393
22.2 Fungal Life Cycles 368
Insects 393
Zygote Fungi 368
23.11 Insect Diversity and Ecology 394
Sac Fungi 369
Characteristics of Insects 394
Club Fungi 369
Insect Ecology 394
22.3 Ecological Roles of Fungi 370
Health and Economic Effects 395
Nature’s Recyclers 370
23.12 Echinoderms 396
Beneficial Partners 370
Parasites and Pathogens 370 APPLICATION: Medicines From the Sea 397
xiii
UNIT 5 HOW PLANTS WORK
2 5 PLANT TISSUES
25.1 The Plant Body 424
● Engage: Dr. Mark Olson,
25.2 Plant Tissues 426
2 4 ANIMALS II: THE CHORDATES Simple Tissues 426

Parenchyma 426
24.1 Chordates—Vertebrates and Their Relatives 402 Collenchyma 426
Sclerenchyma 426
Chordate Characteristics 402
Complex Tissues 427
Invertebrate Chordates 402 Dermal Tissue 427
Overview of Chordate Evolution 403 Vascular Tissue 427
24.2 Fishes—Life in Water 404 25.3 Stems 428
Jawless Fishes 404 Internal Structure 428
Jawed Fishes 404 Variations on a Stem 429
Cartilaginous Fishes 404 Stolons 429
Bony Fishes 405 Rhizomes 429
24.3 Amphibians—The First Tetrapods 406 Bulbs 429
Corms 429
The Move to Land 406
Tubers 429
Modern Amphibians 406 Cladodes 429
Declining Diversity 407
25.4 Leaves 430
24.4 Amniotes 408 Internal Structure 430
24.5 Modern “Reptiles” 409 25.5 Roots 432
Lizards and Snakes 409 External Structure 432
Turtles 409 Internal Structure 432
Crocodilians 409
25.6 Primary Growth 434
24.6 Birds—Adapted to Flight 410 Primary Growth 434
24.7 Mammals 411 Secondary Growth 435
Furry or Hairy Milk Makers 411 25.7 Tree Rings and Old Secrets 436
Modern Subgroups 411
APPLICATION: Sequestering Carbon in Forests 437
24.8 Primates 412
Primate Characteristics 412
Modern Subgroups 413
2 6 PLANT NUTRITION AND TRANSPORT
24.9 A Human–Ape Comparison 414 26.1 Plant Nutrients and Availability in Soil 442
24.10 Early Hominins 415 Properties of Soil 442
24.11 The Genus Homo 416 How Soils Change 443
Early Homo Species 416 ● Engage: Dr. Jerry Glover,
Anatomically Modern Humans 416 National Geographic Explorer 443
Neanderthals and Denisovans 417 26.2 Root Adaptations for Nutrient Uptake 444
The Flores Hominins 417 The Function of Endodermis 444
● Engage: Drs. Louise Leakey and Meave Leakey, Mutualisms 445
National Geographic Explorers 417 26.3 Water Movement Inside Plants 446
24.12 Human Origin and Dispersal 418 Cohesion–Tension Theory 447
African Origins 418 26.4 Conserving Water 448
Across the Globe 418 26.5 Phloem Function 448
Mixing Genomes 418 Pressure Flow Theory 448
APPLICATION: Downsides to Walking Upright 419 APPLICATION: Leafy Cleanup 450
xiv
27 REPRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT ● Engage: Dr. Grace Gobbo,
OF FLOWERING PLANTS National Geographic Explorer 475
APPLICATION: Prescription: Chocolate 476
27.1 Flower Form and Function 456
● Engage: Dr. Dino Martins,
Floral Structure 456
Pollination 457
27.2 A New Generation Begins 458 UNIT 6 HOW ANIMALS WORK
Female Gamete Production 458
Male Gamete Production 458 28 ANIMAL TISSUES AND ORGAN SYSTEMS
Double Fertilization 458
28.1 Overview of Animal Body Plans 482
27.3 Seeds and Fruits 460 Levels of Organization 482
Seeds: Mature Ovules 460 Fluids of the Animal Body 482
Fruits: Mature Ovaries 460 Evolution of Animal Body Plans 483
27.4 Asexual Reproduction of Flowering Plants 462 28.2 Epithelial Tissues 484
Agricultural Applications 462 General Characteristics 484
27.5 Plant Hormones 463 Types of Epithelial Tissue 484
27.6 Auxin and Cytokinin 464 Epithelial Renewal and Cancer 485
27.7 Gibberellin 465 ● Engage: Dr. Brenda Larison,
27.8 Abscisic Acid and Ethylene 466
Abscisic Acid 466 28.3 Connective Tissues 486
Ethylene 467 General Characteristics 486
27.9 Early Development 468 Types of Connective Tissue 486
Breaking Dormancy 468 28.4 Muscle Tissues 488
After Germination 468 Skeletal Muscle 488
27.10 Movement 470 Cardiac Muscle 488
Environmental Triggers 470 Smooth Muscle 488
Gravity 470 28.5 Nervous Tissues 489
Light 470
28.6 Organ Systems 490
Contact 471
Organs and Organ Systems 490
27.11 Responses to Recurring Environmental Change 472
28.7 Integument 492
Daily Change 472
Components of Human Skin 492
Seasonal Change 472
Sun and the Skin 493
27.12 Responses to Stress 474
28.8 Negative Feedback in Homeostasis 494
Defending Against Disease 474
Plants Do Not Want to Be Eaten 474 APPLICATION: Growing Replacement Tissues 495
xv
29.7 Central Nervous System Tissues and Fluid 510
White Matter and Gray Matter 510
Cerebrospinal Fluid 510
29.8 The Spinal Cord 511
Structure and Function 511
Anesthesia and Injury 511
29.9 The Vertebrate Brain 512
● Engage: Dr. Diana Reiss,
29.10 The Cerebral Cortex 514
29.11 Emotion and Memory 515
The Limbic System 515
Making Memories 515
29.12 Studying Brain Function 516
Observing Electrical Activity 516
Monitoring Metabolism 516
Examining Brain Tissue 516
APPLICATION: Impacts of Concussions 517
3 0 SENSORY PERCEPTION
30.1 Detecting Sensory Stimuli 522
Diversity of Sensory Receptors 522
2 9 NEURAL CONTROL Assessing Sensory Input 522
Sensation Versus Perception 522
29.1 Organizations of Nervous Systems 500
30.2 General Senses 523
Invertebrate Nervous Systems 500
Somatic and Visceral Sensation 523
Nerve Nets 500
Bilateral Cephalized Systems 500 Pain and Pain Relief 523
The Vertebrate Nervous System 501 30.3 The Chemical Senses 524
29.2 Cells of the Nervous System 502 Sense of Smell 524

Three Types of Neurons 502 Sense of Taste 524
Neuroglia 502 30.4 Light and Vision 526
Diversity of Visual Systems 526
29.3 Membrane Potentials 503
Anatomy of the Human Eye 526
Resting Potential 503
Focusing Mechanisms 527
Action Potential 503
30.5 The Human Retina 528
29.4 A Closer Look at the Action Potential 504
Detecting Light 528
Reaching Threshold 504
Visual Processing 528
An All-or-Nothing Signal 504
30.6 Common Vision Disorders 529
Propagation Along an Axon 505
Color Blindness 529
29.5 The Synapse 506
Failure to Focus 529
Synapse Structure and Function 506
Loss of Vision 529
Signal and Receptor Variety 506
30.7 Hearing 530
Synaptic Integration 507
Properties of Sound 530
Drugs That Act at Synapses 507
Vertebrate Hearing 530
29.6 The Peripheral Nervous System 508
● Engage: Dr. Fernando Montealegre-Z,
Somatic Nervous System 508 National Geographic Explorer 531
Autonomic Nervous System 509 30.8 Balance and Equilibrium 532
Resting and Digesting 509
Fight or Flight 509 APPLICATION: Neuroprostheses 533
xvi
32.3 Bone Structure and Function 560
31 ENDOCRINE CONTROL
Bone Anatomy 560
31.1 Animal Hormones 538 Bone Formation and Turnover 560
Signals That Travel in Blood 538 Joints: Where Bones Meet 561
Types of Hormones 538 32.4 Skeletal Muscle Functions 562
Hormone Receptor Variation 539 32.5 Structure of Skeletal Muscle 563
31.2 The Human Endocrine System 540
32.6 The Sliding-Filament Model 564
31.3 The Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland 542
32.7 Control of Muscle Contraction 565
Posterior Pituitary Function 542 The Motor Signal Pathway 565
Anterior Pituitary Function 543 Motor Units 565
Hormonal Growth Disorders 543
32.8 Fueling Muscle Contraction 566
31.4 Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands 544
Energy-Releasing Pathways 566
Metabolic and Developmental Types of Muscle Fibers 566
Effects of Thyroid Hormone 544
Hormonal Regulation of Blood Calcium Level 545 APPLICATION: Exercise and Inactivity 567
31.5 The Pineal Gland 545
31.6 The Adrenal Glands 546 3 3 CIRCULATION
Hormones, Stress, and Health 546
33.1 Circulatory Systems 572
31.7 The Gonads 547 Open and Closed Systems 572
31.8 The Pancreas 548 Vertebrate Circulatory Systems 572
Regulation of Blood Sugar 548 33.2 Human Circulatory System 574
Diabetes 549 The Pulmonary Circuit 574
31.9 Invertebrate Hormones 549 The Systemic Circuit 575
APPLICATION: Endocrine Disruptors 550 33.3 The Human Heart 576
The Cardiac Cycle 576
● Engage: Dr. Tyrone Hayes,
National Geographic Explorer 551 Setting the Pace 577
33.4 Components of Blood 578
Plasma 578
32 STRUCTURAL SUPPORT
Cellular Components 578
AND MOVEMENT Red Blood Cells 578
White Blood Cells 579
32.1 Animal Locomotion 556
Platelets 579
● Engage: Dr. Kakani Katija Young,
33.5 From the Heart to the Tissues 580
Rapid Transport in Arteries 580
32.2 Types of Skeletons 558 Adjusting Flow at Arterioles 580
Invertebrate Skeletons 558
33.6 Blood Pressure 581
The Vertebrate Endoskeleton 558
33.7 Capillary Exchange 582
33.8 Returning Blood to the Heart 583
Venules and Veins 583
Impaired Venous Return 583
33.9 Cardiovascular Disorders 584
Arrhythmias 584
Atherosclerosis 584
Heart Disease and Stroke 585
33.10 The Lymphatic System 586
Lymph Vascular System 586
Lymphoid Tissues 586
APPLICATION: When the Heart Stops 587
xvii
3 4 IMMUNITY 3 5 RESPIRATION
34.1 Integrated Responses to Threats 592 35.1 Respiratory Gas Exchange 616
Three Lines of Defense 592 Sites of Gas Exchange 616
The Defenders 593 Factors Affecting Gas Exchange 616
34.2 The First Line of Defense—Surface Barriers 594 35.2 Invertebrate Respiratory Organs 617
Biological Barriers 594 35.3 Vertebrate Respiratory Systems 618
Physiological and Anatomical Barriers 595 Fish Gills 618
34.3 Mechanisms of Innate Immunity 596 Vertebrate Lungs 618
Complement Activation 596 35.4 Human Respiratory System 620
Phagocytosis 596 The Airways 620
Inflammation 597 The Lungs 621
Fever 597 Muscles of Respiration 621
34.4 Antigen Receptors 598 35.5 How We Breathe 622
Antigen Receptor Diversity 599 The Respiratory Cycle 622
34.5 Overview of Adaptive Immunity 600 Control of Breathing 623
Two Arms of Adaptive Immunity 600 Choking—A Blocked Airway 623
Antigen Processing 601 35.6 Gas Exchange and Transport 624
34.6 Adaptive Immunity I: The Respiratory Membrane 624
An Antibody-Mediated Response 602 Oxygen Transport 624
Antibodies in ABO Blood Typing 603 Carbon Dioxide Transport 624
34.7 Adaptive Immunity II: ● Engage: Dr. Cynthia Beall,
The Cell-Mediated Response 604 National Geographic Explorer 625
Cytotoxic T Cells: Activation and Action 604
35.7 Respiratory Diseases and Disorders 626
The Role of NK Cells 605
Interrupted Breathing 626
● Engage: Dr. Mark Merchant, Lung Diseases and Disorders 626
National Geographic Explorer 605 Bronchitis, Asthma, and Emphysema 626
34.8 Immunity Gone Wrong 606
APPLICATION: Effects of Smoking 627
Overly Vigorous Responses 606
Allergies 606
Acute Illnesses 606 36 DIGESTION AND HUMAN NUTRITION
Autoimmunity 607
Immune Evasion 607 36.1 Evolution of Digestive Systems 632
34.9 AIDS 608 Sites of Digestion 632
Intracellular Digestion 632
HIV Revisited 608
Extracellular Digestion 632
Transmission 608
Testing 608 Sac or Tube? 632
Treatments 609 Specialized Regions 633
Testing 609 36.2 Human Digestive Tract 634
Prevention 609
36.3 Taking in Food 635
APPLICATION: Community Immunity 610 Mammalian Mouths 635
Bird Beaks 635
36.4 The Stomach 636
Structure and Function 636
Stomach Disorders 636
36.5 The Small Intestine 637
36.6 From Digestion to Absorption 638
Carbohydrate Digestion 638
Protein Digestion 638
Fat Digestion 638
Water Uptake 639
xviii
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In one figure groups of three—a man and two girls—stood in a
series of rows. The active dancing men with drums came up and
stood in a row along one side facing the others, and sang a song to
the beats of the drums. After doing this three times, they ran round
one end of the stationary column, and repeated the song on the
other side, facing the others as before.
In another figure all the men and girls formed numerous short
rows; this was, I believe, a Motu dance. The men in some of the
figures formed a parallel row facing one another, with four others in
the middle facing towards one end; the girls were at one end of the
short avenue, and they swayed their petticoats laterally. The men
then grouped themselves into two rows facing one another at right
angles to the previous row. Then the first figure was repeated, only
the two rows of men faced outwards instead of inwards, and the
central pairs also reversed their previous position.
It is characteristic of some of the dances in the Hood peninsula for

the girls to be, as it were, appendages to the dance rather than
active participators in it. They make the minimum amount of
movement, usually standing their ground, or else slowly advancing
and retreating with the general movements of the men. They sway
their petticoats sideways, or backwards and forwards; the latter is
only a slight movement, but the former is more energetic, and (owing
to the petticoat being tied on the right side and the two ends scarcely
meeting) exhibits portions of the person which are ordinarily never
exhibited, but the tattooing, which is liberally distributed all over the
body, gives a half impression of clothing.
I noticed that one figure often merges into another, in which the
positions of the dancers are reversed. It is difficult to follow and
record all the various movements, but I received the impression that
if one could become familiar with the various figures one would find
that there is a regular and fairly logical sequence of figures in each of
the sets of dances.
PLATE XVII
THE DUBU AT KAMALI
DUBU DANCE AT GOMORIDOBO

There is a dance-leader, or master of ceremonies, and when he
gives the signal the drums are rapidly beaten many times in
succession to show that set is finished. The character of the dancing
was quite similar to that we saw at Babaka, but it is entirely different
from the dancing in Torres Straits and the neighbouring coast of
British New Guinea. In the west, according to my experience, men
and women never dance the same dance together; the single
exception known to me was in the case of a particular war dance,
kawaladi, at Mabuiag, after a successful foray. Only one or two
drums are beaten, and that, so far as I saw, never by those actually
engaged in dancing; indeed, the drum-men sit down to beat their
drums. Further, only certain people have the right to beat drums,
whereas in this part of New Guinea every male dancer may have a
drum, which he holds in his hand and often flourishes about when he
is dancing.
Although probably every religious ceremony has its appropriate
dance or dances, I do not believe that all dancing has a magical or
religious significance. I think it would be impossible to prove whether
all dances arose from magical or religious dancing; if it be so, this
must have been hundreds, or perhaps thousands of years ago; and
all record, or even all suspicion of their origin must in some cases
have long since disappeared. Here, as in Torres Straits, there are
certainly play or secular dances—dances for pure amusement and
without any ulterior design.
Some of the men looked very effective with their lithe figures and
supple limbs of a bright, warm brown, almost copper-coloured skin,
with shell and bead frontlets and a tall stick of scarlet and orange
feathers starting up from their dark, bushy hair. Some had shell
nose-skewers, most painted their faces in various devices with black
paint; round their necks were bead and shell necklaces, sometimes
with a pendant boar’s tusk, and armlets and leglets decorated the
limbs. The sole article of dress, in the usual acceptance of the term,
is a narrow, yellow waist-belt, which also passes between the legs;
streamers of a whitish leaf fluttered from various portions of the
body.
The girls in these ordinary dances were not specially decorated, at
all events in comparison with the men.
During our stay at Bulaa, Ray gave several phonograph
demonstrations and recorded some of the local songs. The natives
were never tired of listening to the machine, and fully appreciated
singing into it, and were very delighted at hearing their songs
repeated by it. Altogether we had a very pleasant and profitable trip
to this district.
We left Bulaa on June 15th about 9 a.m., and had a fine sail to
Kăpăkăpă, arriving there at 12.30. All of us went to call on Dr. and
Mrs. Lawes at Vatorata in the afternoon, and received, as before, a
kindly welcome. Had afternoon tea, and then on to a small
neighbouring Ikoro village of Tagama Keketo, but there was not
much to be done there. We saw here a tame white cockatoo,
fastened by the leg to a ring chipped out of a coconut which slid
along a horizontal pole; subsequently we found this was frequently
done in New Guinea. As I have previously stated, the natives are
very fond of decorating themselves with feathers, and they wear
great bunches of white cockatoo feathers in their hair when dancing.
These unfortunate tame cockatoos are periodically plucked to supply
feathers for these occasions. After dinner, Ray exhibited the
phonograph in the schoolhouse to the students, and continued his
philological studies.
We got up early next morning, and Seligmann, Wilkin, and I went
to breakfast with Mr. English. We saw his station, which is placed on
a hill, and all around are thriving plantations of economic plants that
he has introduced into the district, such as coffee, sisal agave, and
rubber; the makimaki rubber has been named Ficus rigo by Mr.
Bailey, the Queensland botanist.
Then we walked to Gomoridobo, where Wilkin took some
photographs, one of which was of a man carving a post for their new
dubu. We bought a few things, and I obtained two samples of hair;
even here the wavy hair occasionally occurs, and there is a yellowish
and brownish tinge in the hair at its tips, especially in young children.
The wavy hair proves that there has been racial mixture at least five
miles from the coast, or more probably a mingling with coast people,
who must have been of mixed origin when they arrived.
Got back to Vatorata at 11.15, and shortly afterwards Dr. Lawes
drove us down to Kăpăkăpă, and after a pleasant sail we reached
Port Moresby at sunset.
CHAPTER XVI
PORT MORESBY AND THE ASTROLABE RANGE
I have as yet said very little about Port Moresby. It is a

commodious bay with an inner portion (Fairfax Harbour), which is
land-locked. The double bay is surrounded by thinly wooded hills,
and when these are brightened in places by the rising sun the effect
is very beautiful. In full sunlight during the time we were there, there
was generally a haze which greatly diminished the interest of the
scene, but in the evening, especially a cloudy one, the hills again
stood out clearly.
The small township lies on the north side of the neck of the
promontory that forms the eastern limit of the bay; about a mile and
a half off is the solitary Government House, and about half a mile
beyond this again is the Mission Station. On the shore, below the hill
on which the Mission stands, is the large stilted village commonly
known as Hanuabada; off this is the rocky isle of Elevera, with its
village of similar amphibious pile-dwellings, for at high tide they are
completely surrounded by water.
The township or Granville, as it is officially termed (Ela is the
native name for the locality), consists of a few Government offices
and the houses of residents, most of whom are either Government
officials or else connected with Burns Philp’s Store. The jetty was
built by Burns Philp at considerable expense, and at the foot of it lies
their big store. This great trading company has ramifications all over
Queensland and British New Guinea, and Port Moresby is naturally
an important centre for their trade.
Apart from its remoteness from the world, the very bad postal
arrangements, and the absence of a telegraph, Port Moresby is to
my mind a much nicer place to live in than Thursday Island. The
residents proved themselves very friendly and obliging. Were it not
for home-ties and duties I should very well like to make it my
headquarters for a year or two. A certain amount of work could be
done on the spot, and a very great deal by taking longer and shorter
excursions from it. It appears to be a healthy locality, especially at
the time of the year when we were there, and, what is of great
importance in the tropics, we did not find the nights too hot.
Knowing that I was anxious to see a little of some inland people,
Messrs. Musgrave and Ballantine arranged a three-days trip to the
Astrolabe Range. Five horses were kindly loaned by the Government
and the Vaigana Company. We packed our swags on Friday
afternoon and fastened them on to the saddles before sunset. Each
took with him a blanket, a spare flannel shirt, a pyjama suit, a tin of
meat, some tobacco and handkerchiefs for trade wrapped up in a
yard of American cloth. We also tied to our saddles a pannikin and
hobbles for the horses, and carried bread and biscuits for the
journey. Cameras, spare boxes of plates, and two water bottles were
distributed among the party.
At three o’clock in the morning of Saturday, June 18th, Ballantine
came to the hotel to wake us, and we dressed with despatch and
went to Musgrave’s to saddle the horses. This took some time, as it
was quite dark, and there were several little details of girths and
straps that required arranging. Musgrave was about and very kindly
had cocoa made for us. We started about 4 a.m. in single file; the
intense darkness was relieved by the shining of the stars. The
positions of the constellations known to me presented a novel
appearance, as one was not accustomed to be up so early.
We wended our way past the gaol and along the coast to the east,
through occasional plantations and wooded country. After about an
hour’s walk we passed through a village, silent with the death of
sleep, the only sign of life being two fires on the ground, the embers
of which, fanned by the continuous breeze, were still glowing.
MAP OF CENTRAL DISTRICT
The calls of various birds were answered by the stridulation of

insects as the eastern heavens gradually grew lighter, and we began
to see something of the district in which we were travelling. The
noises of nature became more marked as the dawn advanced, but
there was little that can be described as singing made by the birds,
though many of the cries were decidedly musical. Soon after sunrise
we passed through Boumana, a plantation station owned by Peter
Lifu, and situated nine miles from Port Moresby. It was only after
passing this that we were able to trot or canter. Here the country
consisted of grassy plains with scattered gum trees and occasional
screw pines. In places the grass was as high as the horses,
individual stems being as high as the rider as well. As we went
inland cycads became more numerous; as a general rule these
appear to die off when they reach a height of eight or ten feet,
though I saw a few that exceeded that height.
In course of time we entered a more hilly country, and it was in
places very rough on the horses, as there were steep gullies down
which they cautiously picked their way, and up which they clambered
like cats. On the plains there was a single track, but a road had been
cut out of the side of the hills, or a broad avenue cleared through the
dense jungle. Most of the country was sparsely wooded with a
clothing of rank, coarse grass and had a very Australian aspect, as
the trees were mostly eucalyptus, bastard gums, and a tree that
looked like the Australian spotted gum, but with rather smaller
leaves. An occasional wallaby hopping in the grass and small flocks
of white cockatoos that screeched as they flew, gave a further
Australian colour to the scene.
The ranges of mountains and hills in this part of New Guinea run
as a rule in a north-west south-east direction—that is, roughly,
parallel with the coast-line; geographically speaking, they are well-
dissected, folded mountain chains. All are more or less wooded right
up to their summits. As we were going obliquely across the trend of
the hills we naturally had a lot of uphill and down-dale travelling,
though the track took advantage of all available lateral spurs.
After the coast hills had been passed we saw looming in front of
us the precipitous Astrolabe Range, rising abruptly from hilly ground
and forming a huge rampart stretching away to the south-east,
occasional peaks rising higher than the general level of the fairly
uniform edge. On the flanks of this range, and indeed all the way up
as far as the summit, were masses of volcanic breccia, which stood
out black and sinister from the grass, some of the blocks being of
enormous size. I was greatly exercised in my mind whether these
blocks had weathered out in situ like the Devonshire tors and the
granitic blocks one sees on the sides of the Dartmoor hills. This may
be the case in some instances, but I noticed many blocks with
distinct stratification, the plane of which was vertical or nearly so;
these must either have been ejected fragments or boulders that had
rolled down from some greater height, but the latter was by no
means obvious, and I could not satisfy myself from whence they
could have fallen. The breccia was remarkably coarse; the finest
planes were about as rubbly as the coarsest volcanic ash of the
Murray Islands. My impression was that there has been an
enormous amount of weathering, and that it requires a combination
of geological knowledge and imagination, which I do not possess, to
reconstruct the physical features of the district at the time of the
volcanic outburst. In any case a rapid horse-ride through a wooded
country is not favourable for geological observations.
On the whole there is great uniformity in the vegetation; it is only in
the occasional patches of dense scrub or in the gullies that there is
much variation from the pendant, sad, greyish-green leaves of the
eucalyptus. But in these exceptions it was a little relief to see nature
freeing herself, so to speak, from the trammels of the Australian
flora, and running riot on her own account. From the tangled
undergrowth rose the tall tree stems, up which ran creepers, more
particularly a climbing polypod, which had some resemblance to the
foliage of ratan; swaying from the branches were festoons of
creepers and aerial roots. One then felt that one was really in the
tropics, though the forest trees were small compared with the giants
of the Amazonian forests that Wallace, Bates, and other travellers
describe, and such as we were destined to see later on in Borneo.
Along the watercourses were clumps of bamboo. At home one
always associates palm trees with tropical scenery, here they are
conspicuously absent.
The last part of the ascent of Mount Warirata was very trying to
some of us, as we had to drag our tired horses up a very steep,
stony, zigzag road in the blazing vertical sun. The great rocks that
walled the road in many places faced the sun, and instead of giving
us the comfort of their shadows in the weary land they radiated
superfluous heat to our further discomfort. We were immensely
relieved when we reached the top of the north-easterly extremity of
the Astrolabe Range, and then at a height of 2,615 feet we were in a
better position to enjoy the magnificent panorama before us. Behind
us, hidden by clouds, lay the main range of mountains that forms the
backbone of the south-easterly portion of New Guinea. Below us
was a gorgonised sea of land, ridges of sharp-crested hills running
mainly in one direction, like the arrested rollers of a Titanic ocean.
Rising like islands to the north-west from the general level of the
lower hills were two conspicuous masses, “Fanny Peak” and
“Saddle-Back.” To the south-west lay the sea, and the coast-line was
contoured as if on a map, the complex Bootless Inlet was the
nearest portion of the coast, and the variable extent of the fringing
reef off the headlands showed pale green against the blue of the
sea. From this height Bootless Inlet and Port Moresby have the
appearance of “drowned” bays, that is, of depressions of the coast
which have permitted the sea to cover what would otherwise be
fertile valleys. Around us were the same eucalyptus and cycads we
had seen all day, but added to them were equally characteristic
bottle-brush trees (banksias) of more than one species and a pink-
flowered melastoma. A “cypress pine” gave the only mountainous
touch to the vegetation.
With antipodean earthly scenery we had the sky of a glorious
English summer, a clear deep blue, with massive fleecy cumulus
clouds, whose brightness was contrasted with dark shadows. At the
coast-level the sky is usually a greyer blue, often lavender coloured,
owing to the moisture in the air which acts as a screen and lowers
the blue tone of the sky. A haze pervaded the lower landscape,
owing to the vapour-laden south-east breeze and the widely drifting
smoke of numerous bush fires made by natives who were clearing
the scrub for their gardens. This haze gave a softness to the view,
and painted the shades with various shades of blue, but a little less
“atmosphere” would, on the whole, have been better from a
topographical point of view.
The purity of the air may be judged from the fact that Ballantine
produced from under the shelter of a big rock a tin of fresh butter,
which he had placed there six or seven weeks previously, and it was
as sweet as when he cached it. The butter was actually fresh butter
that he had put in a cocoa tin, and not an unopened tin of butter. This
was at a height of about one thousand seven hundred feet, and the
air was evidently practically free from putrefactive microbes, or at all
events such as affect butter.
The top of Mount Warirata is composed of the volcanic breccia in
situ, and it formed imposing tors. I noticed several volcanic bombs in
the blocks which weathered in concentric laminæ.
On passing the top we entered on a grassy plateau, or rather spur,
along which we proceeded for a few miles. The plateau vegetation
was very similar on the whole to that of the lower hills, with the
addition, as I have already remarked, of the banksias, cypress pines,
and melastoma. Among the smaller plants were a few ground
orchids, one with a green flower somewhat resembling a listera, but
with different leaves, and an umbrella fern. Remarkable streamers of
a sulphur-green lichen depended from the boughs of the gums.
We next made a steep descent across a river gully, and after one
or two clambers up and down wooded mountain valleys, we
dismounted in a bamboo thicket close to a tributary of the Laroki
River.
The horses were left here in charge of one of the party to be
afterwards fetched by natives by a long détour. The rest of us had a
steep climb up a detached hill, on the top of which was the small
village of Atsiamakara. To the east of this hill is another higher one
and with precipitous sides, but separated from it by a deep ravine; to
the north and west is open, wooded, hilly country.
It is characteristic of these bush tribes to build their villages on the
top of hills for the sake of safety from attack. Many of the villages
formerly had tree-houses, but there are now very few of these left, as
the country has been pacified. This village itself had some tree-
houses, but no trace of them now remains. These tree-houses were
used as places of refuge when the village was attacked. It might
strike the reader that it would be very easy to chop down the tree
and so destroy the refugees at one fell blow, but it must be
remembered that these were designed by men still in their Stone
Age, and it is by no means an easy or rapid matter to cut down a
large tree with stone axes, especially when overhead foes are
hurling down stones and spears. Savages are by no means fools,
and they would not continue to build structures that experience
proved to be useless; besides, it is against custom to fell these trees,
thus, insecure as they appear to us, these tree-houses were real
refuges.
PLATE XVIII
UDIA AND DAUBE, TABURI, KOIARI
ELEVARA, PORT MORESBY, WITH THE LONDON MISSIONARY

SOCIETY’S STATION IN THE BACKGROUND
At the time of our visit there were but eleven houses in the village.
Two had verandahs along their sides on to which the door opened, a
type of house that was new to me as Papuan, but it is a
characteristic type among the hill tribes. The four of us slept for two
nights, and sat and had our meals and rested for nearly two days on
the verandah of a house. Two natives slept inside.
This was a populous village before it was raided by the
mountaineers of the main range, although these depredations have
ceased in this particular district for ten years; two epidemics have
since then reduced the population very considerably. We saw but
five men, some half a dozen women, and a few children; this did not
represent the entire population, as it is the custom for these bush
tribes to reside but little in their own houses, the rest of the time
being spent in the bush, making gardens and doing a little hunting.
As a matter of fact, these people are good agriculturists; we saw
some native tobacco growing in the village.
It was interesting getting a glimpse, for it was nothing more, of a
real Papuan village, entirely unchristianised and scarcely at all
affected by European civilisation.
Daube, our host, behaved very nicely; indeed, he was quite
gentlemanly. He and a boy about the place looked after us in various
ways, got water, made fires, and cooked yams and sweet potatoes.
The ladies of the village were particularly shy, and consequently we
took very little notice of them. They wore a common sort of leaf
petticoat, not of so good a quality as is usually worn by the coast
women. The men had the narrowest string of bark I have as yet seen
worn—clothing it could not be called.
I measured the five men and made a few notes on them, and
Wilkin took a few photographs. These natives are somewhat darker
than the coast tribes, of more rugged countenance, and wear beards
and moustaches. Ray obtained some information as to the nature of
their language; like our Torres Straits friends they have names for
only the numerals “one” and “two.”
When strolling about we came across the old chief sitting on a log
whittling saplings into spears with a boar’s tusk for a knife. It was the
first time I had seen this primitive knife in actual use, and much to
the man’s astonishment I bought the tusk after we had photographed
him using it. Unfortunately for the picturesqueness of the
photograph, he was wearing a shirt; the wearing of a shirt by a chief
is the recognised symbol of loyalty in this district.
Our cooking was of a very primitive kind, and the results were not
of a palatable quality. Every scrap that we dropped through the
crevices of the verandah was immediately devoured by pigs. It was
also a new sensation to hear pigs grunting and scrunching
underneath one at night, and to feel the vibration of their rubbing
against the verandah posts. The nights were comparatively quite
cold; we all felt chilly, and my teeth chattered, but I doubt if the
thermometer sank much below 55°.
This is a village of the Taburi tribe, who with others are called
Koiari by the Motu, a name which simply means “bushmen,” but it
probably will be convenient to retain the latter as a general name for
the small tribes of the whole district round about.
We rested all Sunday, but Ballantine walked on Saturday
afternoon to Hogeri (Sogeri), a distance of seventeen miles. He
returned from Hogeri on Monday morning, bringing along with him a
crowd of inland natives amongst whom was Gewe, the chief of Agi, a
noted warrior who a year previously would have been shot if he
could have been caught, as he had more than once raided
unoffending tribes; now the chief came of his own free will to visit
Port Moresby. There were several men from Wamai and one or two
from Hogeri and Ubere. Two of the natives carried a live pig tied to a
pole, others had stone clubs, native food, and various articles.
We formed a long procession as we went back to Port Moresby in
single file. For a long time the natives kept up well with us, but
eventually they dropped behind. We had a very pleasant and by no
means tiring ride home. At sunset we arrived at Boumana to find a
liberal meal provided by Ballantine and prepared by Peter Lifu’s wife.
We had fresh wallaby-tail soup, stew, tinned raspberries, and coffee.
Then we walked our horses in the dark to Port Moresby, arriving
shortly before ten o’clock; we unsaddled at Ballantine’s, and he
invited us in to have a drink. We started with whisky and water and
finished off with bread and cheese and beer. In fact, we had a “small-
fellow Christmas.” I had a good night, and woke up next morning in
good form and not very stiff or sore.
PLATE XIX
GEWE, CHIEF OF AGI, WHEN DEPRIVED OF HIS HAT
GEWE, WITH HIS HAT RESTORED TO HIM
The following day Ballantine took his visitors to Burns Philp’s

store, and showed them dozens of axes and tomahawks and cases
of tobacco and other treasures, whereby they were duly impressed.
Mr. Gors gave Gewe, the Agi chief, some turkey-red twill for a loin
cloth, a belt, a cotton shirt, a second-hand guards-bandsman’s tunic,
and an ancient top hat, and the old fellow strutted about mightily
pleased with himself.
Ballantine brought the party round to the hotel, as I wanted to
measure and photograph them. I began with Gewe, and it was
ludicrous to see his expansive smile of self-content. First we took
him as he was, then by dint of gentle persuasion we divested him of
his regalia, and it was evident that parting from his hat was the
sorest trial. It appeared to be quite hopeless to get a side view of his
face, as he kept turning round to see what we were doing, till
Ballantine suggested that I should show him some pictures; so I
produced a coloured plate of Torres Straits dances which so
fascinated him that he became comparatively still immediately. But
even so we could not get a satisfactory side-face portrait of him. I
then measured his height, span, and head, and it was with great
relief and transparent joy that he resumed his hat. I did not take all
the measurements I should have liked, as he became restive and
suddenly stalked off. I then measured a few other natives, who were
duly photographed.
In the afternoon I went to where the natives were camped and
witnessed one of those extremes of culture that are rarely met with,
even in frontier colonies. My friend Gewe, clad in his medley of
nineteenth-century garments, was solemnly chipping a hole in a
stone club-head with a piece of flint! Close by was another
mountaineer clad in his native fringed belt and sporran, holding a
cheap mirror before his face, and shaving himself with a fragment of
a glass bottle.
The following morning the natives again came to be investigated. I
measured and Wilkin photographed some more, and Seligmann
tested the keenness of their eyesight. He found the coast people at
Bulaa, owing probably to their being sailors and fishermen, had even
keener eyesight than Torres Straits islanders. The eyesight of our
mountaineers, on the other hand, was much more like that of the
average European landsmen. In the afternoon Seligmann tested
their colour vision, but this did not show anything unusual. Altogether
we got very good value out of the men, and it was a unique
opportunity for us.
In the evening Ballantine gave his visitors a lantern show in the
boat-shed, interspersed with phonograph songs and tunes by Ray. I
think they did not understand the latter, but the pictures were
thoroughly appreciated by them. I sat on a box next to Gewe in order
to watch him, and I had a great treat. He had his hat on, but the
military tunic was absent. Most of the lantern-slides were local, and
the natives recognised them immediately. One slide was of especial
interest, as it was the photograph of a village that Gewe and others
had subsequently sacked and burnt. One wonders what was passing
in the mind of the warrior, as in front of him was the representation of
the “before,” and in his mind’s eye he must have seen the “after.” I
must say he did not look at all abashed, and why should he? He had
only been following immemorial custom! Like the Torres Straits
islanders and the coast Papuans, Gewe expressed wonder and
admiration by a broad grin, glistening eyes, and by making various
sucking and clicking noises with his lips. He also, like the others,
flicked his teeth with his thumbnail. Our glances often met, and we
nodded and smiled and clicked to each other; once or twice with
exuberant feeling, when a slide especially pleased him, he caught
hold of my hand. I got quite fond of the old chap. He had a fine
distinguished face. He held himself well, and behaved like a
gentleman. When the portrait of Queen Victoria was on the screen,
the phonograph played “Soldiers of the Queen,” and I made Gewe
take off his hat. He did so cheerfully, as if he understood the Queen
should be respected, and directly the picture was changed I let him
put it on again.
The evening was a great success, and must have considerably
impressed the mountaineers, most of whom had probably not seen a
white man before.
It was very interesting to come into personal contact with the
raiders and the raided, to see individuals who were fighting each
other a few months ago walking peacefully together, sharing the
same food, and looking at lantern-slides of one another and of their
villages. I would have given a great deal to know what they thought
of it all. One thing is fairly certain, those who visited Port Moresby
will remain pacific, as they must recognise what is to them the
marvellous power of the white man. Next morning they started off
home, and our friend Gewe had some hundred miles to walk.
Probably owing to their rich soil and fine climate, the mountaineers
of the main range have a splendid physique, and are fine hardy men.

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1 The Science of Biology 2

UNIT 1 PRINCIPLES OF CELLULAR LIFE

2 Life’s Chemical Basis 22

UNIT 2 GENETICS UNIT 6 HOW ANIMALS WORK

1 THE SCIENCE OF BIOLOGY

1.4 Organizing Information About Species 10

UNIT 1 PRINCIPLES OF CELLULAR LIFE

2 LIFE’S CHEMICAL BASIS

2.2 Why Electrons Matter 26

3.1 The Chemistry of Biology 38

APPLICATION: Fear of Frying 47

5 GROUND RULES OF METABOLISM

1 3 PATTERNS IN INHERITED TRAITS 1 5 BIOTECHNOLOGY

14.2 Examples of Autosomal Inheritance Patterns 224 UNIT 3 P R I N C I P L E S O F E VO L U T I O N

Autosomal Dominance 224 1 6 EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION

APPLICATION: Shades of Skin 233

APPLICATION: Reflections of a Distant Past 269

UNIT 5 HOW PLANTS WORK

2 4 ANIMALS II: THE CHORDATES Simple Tissues 426

29.2 Cells of the Nervous System 502 Sense of Smell 524

It is characteristic of some of the dances in the Hood peninsula for

THE DUBU AT KAMALI

DUBU DANCE AT GOMORIDOBO

I have as yet said very little about Port Moresby. It is a

The calls of various birds were answered by the stridulation of

UDIA AND DAUBE, TABURI, KOIARI

ELEVARA, PORT MORESBY, WITH THE LONDON MISSIONARY

GEWE, CHIEF OF AGI, WHEN DEPRIVED OF HIS HAT

GEWE, WITH HIS HAT RESTORED TO HIM

The following day Ballantine took his visitors to Burns Philp’s

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