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 The Oxford Handbook of

COMPARATIVE
ENVIRONMENTAL
POLITICS
The Oxford Handbook of

COMPARATIVE
ENVIRONMENTAL
POLITICS
Edited by
J E A N N I E S OW E R S
STAC Y D. VA N D EV E E R
and
E R I KA W E I N T HA L
 Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers
the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education
by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University
Press in the UK and certain other countries.
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America.
© Oxford University Press 2023
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction
rights organization. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above.
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.
Library of Congress Control Number: 2022049850
ISBN 978–​0–​19–​751503–​7
DOI: 10.1093/​oxfordhb/​9780197515037.001.0001
Printed by Integrated Books International, United States of America
 Contents

About the Contributors  xi

Introduction: The Scope and Diversity of Comparative

Environmental Politics  1
Jeannie Sowers, Stacy D. VanDeveer, and
Erika Weinthal

PA RT I STAT E S A N D E N V I RON M E N TA L
P OL IC I E S I N C OM PA R AT I V E P E R SP E C T I V E

1. The Environmental State and Its Limits  23

James Meadowcroft
2. California’s Environmental Policy Leadership  43
David Vogel
3. Assessing 30 Years of Neoliberal Environmental Management in
Chile: Effective, Democratic or Neither?  57
Javiera Barandiarán
4. Environment and Development: Crossing the Divide Between
Global South and Global North  81
Kathryn Hochstetler
5. National Climate Mitigation Policy in Europe  93
Paul Tobin and Louise Wylie
6. Governing Flood and Climate Risks in the Netherlands and
Hungary: A Comparative Analysis  109
Elizabeth A. Albright
7. The Politics of Climate Disasters, Social Inequality, and
Perceptions of Government Assistance  127
Isabella Alcañiz and Ana Ivelisse Sanchez-​Rivera
vi   Contents

8. Implementation of International Environmental Law: A

Comparative Perspective  141
Maria Ivanova, Natalia Escobar-​Pemberthy,
Anna Dubrova, and Candace Famiglietti
9. Comparative International Fisheries Management  166
Elizabeth R. DeSombre

PA RT I I M E T HOD S A N D C ON C E P T UA L
C ON SI DE R AT ION S

10. Interpretive Methodologies, Quantitative Methods, and

Comparative Environmental Politics  187
J. Samuel Barkin, V. Miranda Chase, and Saskia van Wees
11. Ethnography in Comparative Environmental Politics: Insights
from the Water and Waste Fields  200
Raul Pacheco-​Vega
12. An Intersectional Exploration of Climate Institutions  223
Annica Kronsell, Gunnhildur Lily Magnusdottir,
Nanna Rask, and Benedict E. Singleton
13. Gender and Comparative Environmental Politics: Examining
Population Debates Through Gender Lenses  240
Nicole Detraz

PA RT I I I M OV E M E N T S A N D AC T I V I SM

14. Environmental Justice, Climate Justice, and Animal Liberation

Movements: Confronting the Problems of Social Difference  263
David N. Pellow
15. Civil Society, Networks, and Contention Around
Environmental Issues  281
Jen Iris Allan and Jennifer Hadden
16. Time and Place in Climate Activism: Three Urgency-​Induced
Debates  299
Joost de Moor
 Contents   vii

17. The Comparative Politics of Environmental Activism in Russia:

Strategic Adaptation to Authoritarianism  317
Laura A. Henry
18. Anglo Fears: Rejection of Climate Change and Anglo Anxiety  335
Peter J. Jacques
19. Civil Disobedience, Sabotage, and Violence in US
Environmental Activism  356
Joseph M. Brown

PA RT I V M A R K E T S A N D F I R M S I N
C OM PA R AT I V E E N V I RON M E N TA L
P OL I T IC S

20. Territory, Private Authority, and Rights: The Place of Land

Rights in Sustainable Agriculture and Forest Certification  377
Tim Bartley
21. Comparing Voluntary Sustainability Standards: Blindspots,
Biases, and Pathways Forward  398
Hamish van der Ven
22. Continuity and Change in Carbon Market Politics  417
Carley Chavara, Christian Elliott,
Matthew Hoffmann, and Matthew Paterson

PA RT V E N V I RON M E N TA L J U S T IC E
A N D R IG H T S

23. The Comparative Politics of Environmental Justice  437

Kemi Fuentes-George
24. Critical Perspectives on Representation, Equity, and Rights:
Developing a Comparative Politics of Environmental Justice  456
Kimberly R. Marion Suiseeya
25. Globalization of Environmental Justice: A Framework for
Comparative Research  475
Prakash Kashwan
viii   Contents

26. Rights of Nature: Institutions, Law, and Policy for Sustainable

Development  499
Craig M. Kauffman
27. Implementing Environmental Rights: Reviewing the Evidence
from Research and Practice  518
Joshua C. Gellers and Chris Jeffords
28. Gendering the Human Right to Water in the Context of
Sustainable Development  538
Farhana Sultana

PA RT V I NAT U R A L R E S OU RC E S
A N D P OL I T IC A L E C ON OM Y

29. Green Industrial Policy in Comparative Perspective: Supporting

Renewable Energy Industry Development in Emerging
Economies  559
Joanna I. Lewis
30. Natural Resources and the Politics of Distribution  577
Mohannad Al-​Suwaidan and Nimah Mazaheri
31. Temporality, Limited Statehood, and Africa’s Abandoned Mines  592
W. R. Nadège Compaoré and Nathan Andrews
32. Illegal Wildlife Trade in the Mekong: The Interplay of Actors,
Legal Governance, and Political Economy  609
Songkhun Nillasithanukroh, Ekta Patel,
Edmund Malesky, and Erika Weinthal

PA RT V I I T H E P OL I T IC S OF
E N E RG Y T R A N SI T ION S

33. Fracked Taxpayers and Communities: Shale Economics in

the US and Argentina  633
Shanti Gamper-​Rabindran
34. Renewable Energy, Energy Poverty, and Climate Change:
Opportunities and (Many) Challenges  658
Michaël Aklin
 Contents   ix

35. Renewable Energy Supply Chains and the Just Transition  679
Dustin Mulvaney
36. The Rise and Fall of Fossil Fuels: Two Moments in the Energy
History of the Middle East and Their Global Consequences  696
Dan Rabinowitz

PA RT V I I I C I T I E S A N D SU STA I NA B I L I T Y

37. Cities and the Environment in Africa: An Agency-​Centered

Research Agenda  711
Christopher Gore
38. Reclaiming the Circular Economy: Informal Work and
Grassroots Power  730
Manisha Anantharaman
39. Urban Climate Adaptation: Discontents and Alternative Politics  751
Eric Chu and Linda Shi

PA RT I X E N V I RON M E N T S , R E S OU RC E S ,
A N D V IOL E N C E

40. War and Environmental Politics: A Comparative Perspective  775

Jeannie Sowers and Erika Weinthal
41. Climate and Conflict: Lessons from the Syria Case  797
Marwa Daoudy
42. The Integration of Conservation and Security: Political Ecologies
of Violence and the Illegal Wildlife Trade  814
Rosaleen Duffy and Francis Massé

Index  831
 About the Contributors

Michaël Aklin, Department of Political Science, University of Pittsburgh

Elizabeth A. Albright, Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University
Isabella Alcañiz, Department of Government and Politics, University of Maryland
Jen Iris Allan, School of Law and Politics, Cardiff University
Mohannad Al-​Suwaidan, The Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy, Tufts University
Manisha Anantharaman, Justice, Community, and Leadership, Saint Mary’s College of
California
Nathan Andrews, Department of Political Science, McMaster University
Javiera Barandiarán, Department of Global Studies, University of California, Santa
Barbara
J. Samuel Barkin, Department of Conflict Resolution, Human Security, and Global
Governance, University of Massachusetts Boston
Tim Bartley, Department of Sociology, Washington University in St. Louis
Joseph M. Brown, Department of Political Science, University of Massachusetts Boston
V. Miranda Chase, Department of Political Science, San Diego State University
Carley Chavara, Department of Political Science, University of Toronto
Eric Chu, Department of Human Ecology, University of California Davis
Marwa Daoudy, Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service, Georgetown University
Joost de Moor, Department of Political Science, Stockholm University
Elizabeth R. DeSombre, Department of Environmental Studies, Wellesley College
Nicole Detraz, Department of Political Science, University of Memphis
Anna Dubrova, Department of Conflict Resolution, Human Security, and Global
Governance, University of Massachusetts Boston
Rosaleen Duffy, Department of Politics and International Relations, University of
Sheffield
Christian Elliott, Department of Political Science, University of Toronto
Natalia Escobar-​Pemberthy, Department of International Business, Universidad EAFIT
xii   About the Contributors

Candace Famiglietti, Department of Conflict Resolution, Human Security, and Global

Governance, University of Massachusetts Boston
Kemi ​Fuentes-George, Department of Political Science & Environmental Studies,
Middlebury College
Shanti Gamper-​Rabindran, Graduate School of Public and International Affairs,
University of Pittsburgh
Joshua C. Gellers, Department of Political Science and Public Administration, University
of North Florida
Christopher Gore, Department of Politics and Public Administration, Toronto
Metropolitan University
Jennifer Hadden, Department of Government and Politics, University of Maryland
Laura A. Henry, Department of Government and Legal Studies, Bowdoin College
Kathryn Hochstetler, Department of International Development and Political Science,
London School of Economics
Matthew Hoffmann, Department of Political Science, University of Toronto
Maria Ivanova, School of Public Policy and Urban Affairs, Northeastern University
Peter J. Jacques, School of Politics, Security, and International Affairs, University of
Central Florida
Chris Jeffords, Department of Economics, Indiana University of Pennsylvania
Prakash Kashwan, Environmental Studies Program, Brandeis University
Craig M. Kauffman, Department of Political Science, University of Oregon
Annica Kronsell, School of Global Studies, Gothenburg University
Joanna I. Lewis, Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service, Georgetown University
Gunnhildur Lily Magnusdottir, Department of Political Science, Malmö University
Edmund Malesky, Department of Political Science, Duke University
Francis Massé, Department of Geography and Environmental Sciences, Northumbria
University
Nimah Mazaheri, Department of Political Science, Tufts University
James Meadowcroft, Department of Political Science, Carleton University, Canada
Dustin Mulvaney, Environmental Studies Department, San José State University
W. R. Nadège Compaoré, Department of Political Science, University of Toronto
Mississauga
Songkhun Nillasithanukroh, Department of Political Science, Duke University
 About the Contributors    xiii

Raul Pacheco-​Vega, Methods Lab, Facultad Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales

(FLACSO) Sede México
Ekta Patel, Nicholas School of the Environment/​Sanford School of Public Policy, Duke
University
Matthew Paterson, Department of Politics, University of Manchester
David N. Pellow, Department of Environmental Studies, University of California, Santa
Barbara
Dan Rabinowitz, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Tel-​Aviv University
Nanna Rask, School of Global Studies, University of Gothenburg
Ana Ivelisse Sanchez-​Rivera, Department of Government and Politics, University of
Maryland
Linda Shi, Department of City and Regional Planning, Cornell University
Benedict E. Singleton, School of Global Studies, University of Gothenburg
Jeannie Sowers, Department of Political Science, University of New Hampshire
Kimberly R. Marion Suiseeya, Department of Political Science, Northwestern University
Farhana Sultana, Department of Geography, Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public
Affairs, Syracuse University
Paul Tobin, Department of Politics, University of Manchester
Hamish van der Ven, Department of Wood Science, University of British Columbia
Stacy D. VanDeveer, Department of Conflict Resolution, Human Security, and Global
Governance, University of Massachusetts Boston
Saskia van Wees, Department of Political Science, University of Florida
David Vogel, Department of Political Science, Haas School of Business, UC Berkeley,
California
Erika Weinthal, Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University
Louise Wylie, Department of Politics, University of Manchester
 Introdu c t i on
The Scope and Diversity of Comparative
Environmental Politics

Jeannie Sowers, Stacy D. VanDeveer,

and Erika Weinthal

Comparative environmental politics (CEP) is a vibrant field of scholarship and practice

that addresses a range of environmental issues facing communities, non-​state actors, and
nation-​states. It draws not only on the disciplinary study of politics and policy but, as this
volume shows, also is enriched by interdisciplinary insights from anthropology, geography,
sociology, law, and development studies. In contrast to global environmental politics, com-
parative environmental politics has a broader geographic and thematic reach, drawing
upon experiences of most of the world’s population with diverse environmental issues. The
intensifying climate crisis and the deepening burden of pollution and ecological destruc-
tion has accentuated structural inequalities associated with poverty, gender, caste, race, and
region. This volume thus reflects increased scholarly interest in environmental rights, en-
vironmental mobilization and movements, and non-​state forms of political engagement.
Moreover, contestation and regulation of environmental issues can no longer be relegated
to the margins of formal politics anywhere. As James Meadowcroft’s contribution to this
volume notes, some version of the “environmental state” is here to stay, and the governance
of environmental issues is increasingly recognized as central to political economy, political
theory, political behavior, and political institutions.
In the decade since Steinberg and VanDeveer (2012) published Comparative Environmental
Politics (MIT Press), CEP scholarship has embraced new questions and methods even as
it seeks to address enduring questions in the broader field of comparative politics. This
volume brings together cutting-​edge research that tackles important environmental issues
around the world using a range of theoretical and methodological approaches. We include
leading scholars in particular areas of research and include new voices to offer innovative
perspectives from multiple disciplines on emerging challenges and debates in the field of
CEP. The chapter authors seek to capture current controversies and debates in their areas
of interest and to make an original argument about how their work fits more broadly into
the study of CEP. The aims of this volume are two-​fold: to illustrate some of the main the-
oretical debates and critical thematic issues that have emerged in the field and to include a
2    Jeannie Sowers, Stacy D. VanDeveer, and Erika Weinthal

broad cross-​section of scholars. All the chapters, regardless of their country focus or com-
parative research design, take on the challenging task of synthesizing what they see as the
state of art in their respective thematic areas and indicating where additional research could
yield fruitful inquiry.

Scope and Method in Comparative

Environmental Politics

Comparative politics is characterized by the enduring importance of domestic institutions,

actors, and political processes, and situates these in broader transnational and regional
developments. In contrast to some of the dominant framings in international relations,
which emphasize the homogenizing impacts of the global economy and global govern-
ance, comparative politics is concerned with examining variation and diversity as well as
commonalities. Methods and approaches employed in the field are equally diverse, in on-
going conversation with ​a variety of social science traditions and developments.
The contributors to this volume illustrate the diverse strands that characterize the field
of comparative politics. Some authors focus on an in-​depth case study of a single country
or subnational jurisdiction (such as a US state), drawing on significant fieldwork and in-​
depth knowledge of domestic political dynamics and state–​society relations. This method
has long generated some of the most insightful research in comparative politics and is well
represented in this volume in the chapters by David Vogel on California’s environmental
leadership, Javiera Barandiarán on the effects of Chile’s neoliberalism on environmental gov-
ernance, Laura Henry on the effects of Russia’s turn to authoritarianism on environmental
activism, Marwa Daoudy on drought and conflict in Syria, Joseph Brown on strategies of
civil disobedience in US environmentalism, and Isabella Alcañiz and Ana Ivelisse Sanchez-​
Rivera exploring whom voters blame in the wake of Hurricane Maria’s devastating impacts
on Puerto Rico.
Other chapters employ an explicitly comparative framework across two or more political
contexts to explain causes of variation in environmental policy formation, organizational
capacity, public opinion, and social movement advocacy. These include Christopher Gore’s
chapter on urban environmental politics in several African cities, Shanti Gamper-​Rabindran’s
chapter on fracking in the United States and Argentina, Songkhun Nilliasithanukroh et al.
on illegal wildlife trade in the Mekong Basin countries, Elizabeth Albright’s contribution
comparing flood risk management in the Netherlands and Hungary, Prakash Kashwan’s
comparison of advocacy for environmental justice in India and the United States, and the
intersectional analysis of four Swedish governmental agencies that include mandates to
address climate change by Annica Kronsell et al.
Other authors examine comparative environmental performance across a much broader
number of cases. These range from looking at the implementation of climate mitigation
policies across European countries, as in the chapter by Paul Tobin and Louise Wylie, to
comparing the effectiveness of the approximately 20 interstate regional fisheries man-
agement organizations established for various fish stocks and marine regions in Beth
 Introduction   3

DeSombre’s chapter. Maria Ivanova et al. use a dataset of 13 countries that includes cases
from the Global North and the Global South to analyze variation in implementing mul-
tilateral environmental treaties and, in doing so, undermine notions that environmental
performance is confined to high-​income countries. In addition, Peter Jacques’s contribution
explores why and how climate science denialism remains so robust in “Anglo” countries
such as Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
Yet other chapters draw on traditions of political theory, gender theory, and human
rights to explore normative claims and new ways to conceive of environmental rights and
obligations to humans and non-​humans. David Pellow, for instance, argues that climate,
environment, and animal liberation movements can engage in more deeply intersectional
practice by emulating the radical institutional reforms called for by anti-​racism and aboli-
tionist movements. Nicole Detraz uses a gender lens to explore discourses associated with
debates about the global human population as they play out in the US context, seeking to
problematize and interrogate them. Farhana Sultana argues that a gender perspective is
essential to understand the various dimensions of the human right to water. Eric Chu and
Linda Shi critique dominant climate adaptation discourses in urban planning, providing
examples of alternatives that would more adequately meld climate adaptation and environ-
mental justice concerns.
The study of CEP, as shown above, is not limited to scholars working in the discipline
of political science. Indeed, the field draws on the much broader sweep of environmental
studies to ask questions about power, governance, and distribution of human welfare with
insights from anthropology, geology, urban studies, and sociology. The contributions of
these disciplines in broadening the contours of environmental politics include the chapters
by Christopher Gore on urban environmental anthropology, Manisha Anantharaman on
ethnographies of informal work and the circular economy in India, and Raul Pacheco-​Vega
on employing ethnographic methods to study water and waste.
Several chapters in this volume call for more consideration of underutilized approaches
in both method and methodology. Notably, the chapter by Barkin et al. challenges CEP
scholars to engage in more “methodological creativity” by employing interpretive episte-
mology alongside quantitative methods, a relatively rare combination in the field.
In exploring trends over the past decade, the Handbook highlights the growth in schol-
arship about a broader range of countries and regions than the initial focus on Europe and
the United States, with growth in coverage of “developing” countries, authoritarian states,
and the Global South. Important work on globally influential countries such as Brazil,
China, South Africa, and India is growing rapidly, as is work that compares cases in the
Global South and grapples thematically with issues of great salience to a broader range of
countries. In this volume, the expanded geographic scope is well captured in contributions
that draw on extensive fieldwork and field knowledge of non-​Western contexts. These in-
clude the chapters by Barandiarán on Chile, Alcañiz and Sanchez-​Rivera on Puerto Rico,
Pacheco-​Vega on Mexico, Henry on Russia, Kashwan on India, Kauffman on Ecuador,
al-​Suwaidan and Mazaheri on rentier states in the Persian Gulf, also examined in the
chapter by Rabinowitz, Songhkhun et al. on the Mekong Basin, Gore on African cities,
Anantharaman on India, Daoudy on Syria, and Duffy and Massé on South Africa. This
trend is also seen in comparative studies of energy transitions and industrial policy in low-​
and middle-​income countries (e.g., Hochstetler 2021; Lewis, this volume).
4    Jeannie Sowers, Stacy D. VanDeveer, and Erika Weinthal

Furthermore, comparative regional studies, for example of Africa and Latin America,
are also on the rise. Beyond simply including more of the world’s states and societies
in CEP scholarship, however, this work is increasingly recognized as theory-​generating
and not just testing theoretical propositions developed elsewhere. In other words, con-
ceptual and theoretical frameworks constructed and developed mostly via social science
research in and about Europe and North America are being challenged, augmented, or
replaced by scholarship about the rest of the world. For example, Kate Neville’s (2021)
work develops a framework for understanding contestation and resistance to energy
projects based on her research in Kenya’s Tana Delta and Canada’s Yukon and deploying
scholarship from social mobilization theories and political economy. Kathy Hochstetler’s
book (2021) analyzes renewable energy outcomes across countries based on her compar-
ative work on Brazil and South Africa. Hochstetler’s contribution to this volume argues
that CEP scholarship should continue to interrogate and de-​center the North–​South
binary in comparative politics scholarship. She also argues that environmental politics
scholars should engage more with the classic questions and analytical tools of compara-
tive politics scholarship.
The Handbook also finds new trends in CEP scholarship, particularly in more explicit
attention to the comparative study of environmental injustice and intersectional inequities.
Environmental hazards are often distributed unequally, reflecting entrenched relationships
of inequality and exclusion based on class, caste, racial, gender, citizenship, tribal, and
Indigenous ascriptions (see contributions by Compaoré and Andrews, Aklin and Bartley,
for example). The unequal distribution of environmental hazards and increased vulner-
ability to these hazards based on lack of adequate access to healthcare, basic services,
and civic representation, among other factors, can be understood as a form of “slow vio-
lence” (Nixon 2011). These injustices include colonial origins of land and biodiversity con-
servation (e.g. chapters by Duffy and Massé, and Fuentes-​George), the siting of landfills
near communities of color, and lack of access to clean water and air (Marion Suiseeya).
Meanwhile Sowers and Weinthal’s chapter draws our attention to the many human rights
violations from the growing inclination of military combatants to target and destroy ci-
vilian and environmental infrastructure. Globally, the field of environmental justice and
rights has examined the role of environmental defenders and activists in protecting the
environment and community livelihoods. It has also explored new forms of law and juris-
prudence that call into questions patterns of economic growth and consumption, putting
forward the rights of nature. Gellers and Jeffords’s contribution seeks to take stock of evi-
dence about whether and under what conditions the increasingly diverse set of “environ-
mental rights” produce meaningful outcomes in implementation.
The question of environmental injustice extends beyond simply that of humans to
non-​humans. Because politics, broadly understood, is usually considered a domain of
collective human action, political science has not embraced animals, plants, insects, and
other nonhumans as subjects and agents, as an influential strand of environmental his-
tory has done. David Pellow’s chapter argues that scholars and activists should consider
how to build upon discursive and conceptual linkages between movements for racial,
environmental, climate, and animal justice. The overlaps between considerations of non-​
humans, along with claims for the “rights of nature” and struggles against environmental
racism are well articulated in the chapters by Kemi Fuentes-​George and Craig Kauffman.
These chapters outline an important set of questions for CEP scholars moving forward.
 Introduction   5

Dustin Mulvaney’s contribution links these discussions and CEP research to the growing
“just energy transitions” literature.
The remainder of this chapter introduces the major themes of each section by putting the
chapters within it in dialogue with each other. We also note where specific chapters speak
to important issues raised in other sections.

Part I: States, Domestic Political

Institutions, and Policymaking

The nation-​state is the traditional locus of environmental policymaking, and Part I takes
stock of advances in studies of state policy and practice. The chapters explore the growth
and scope of environmental regulation in various countries, the turn to neoliberalism, and
recent rollbacks in environmental regulation under right-​populist regimes, as in Chile. The
contributions also examine subnational variation in effectiveness, particularly in federal
systems, and the impact of domestic politics on broader environmental issues and the de-
sign and implementation of international environmental regimes. Variations in state ca-
pacity and legacies of state formation shape both supranational and subnational forms of
environmental governance.
James Meadowcroft’s “The Environmental State and Its Limits” asks us to reflect on the
accomplishments, the very demonstrable limits, and the continuing potential of decades
of effort to “green” states since the 1960s. Air pollution issues and regulation in wealthier
countries offer illustrative examples of substantial environmental achievements in many
countries, alongside persistent failures to grapple with the ecological and human health
challenges. Meadowcroft traces the construction of contemporary understandings of the
“environment” and the parallel idea that states are responsible for various forms of envi-
ronmental protection through attempts to regulate various undesirable outcomes. While
such regulation is often “ratcheted up” over time, involving changing scientific and tech-
nical understandings alongside political activism and advocacy, the limits of this approach
are manifest in the long list of current air pollution-​related environmental challenges.
Meadowcroft challenges researchers and practitioners to ask questions about the poten-
tial of environmental states to move beyond regulating adverse impacts toward a focus on
transforming production and consumption in more sustainable directions.
David Vogel’s chapter, “California’s Environmental Policy Leadership,” focuses on one
of the globe’s leading environmental policy entities: the US state of California. He explores
several dimensions of California’s environmental leadership and the impact of this leader-
ship well beyond California’s borders, with particular attention to energy, climate change,
air pollution, and chemicals regulation. This work connects the California “case” to US and
comparative environmental federalism and adds to scholarship comparing national and
subnational public sector leaders and political processes around the globe (e,g., Selin and
VanDeveer 2015).
Javiera Barandiarán’s contribution takes us to Chile, focusing on how neoliberal
ideas, assumptions, and goals are embedded in environmental policies through state
institutions and constitutional provisions. Her work, which deploys scholarship from the
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male of, 223 n.
Rhizopoda, as food for Polychaeta, 296
Rhizota, 220 n.
Rhombogen (form of Dicyemid), 93
Rhopalonaria, 521 n.
Rhopalophorus, 73
Rhopalura giardii, occurrence and structure, 94, 95;
R. intoshii, 94
Rhynchelmis, 365, 376
Rhynchobdellae, 396 f., 405
Rhynchodemidae, 35, 42
Rhynchodemus, 34, 35, 42
Rhynchopora, 531
Rhynchozoon, 529 n., 531
Riches, on British Nemertinea, 110;
on Malacobdella, 119
Rietsch, on Gephyrea, 443
Rockworm, 319
Rods—see Rhabdites
Rohde, on muscles of Nematoda, 128 f.
Rootlet, in Polyzoa, 485, 517
Rosa, on Oligochaeta, 364, 380, 385, 390
Rosette-plates, 471, 522
Rotifer, 201, 202, 210, 216, 222, 226, 227
Rotifera, 197 f.;
distribution, 200;
parasitic, 204;
digestive organs, 209;
renal organs, 213;
nervous system and sense organs, 215;
reproduction and development, 216;
classification, 220;
habits 226;
preservation, 228;
affinities, 229
Rousselet, on Rotifers, 198, 216, 228
Sabella, 299, 337; parapodium, 265;
habitat, 286;
tube, 287;
tube-building, 288;
colour, 293, 294;
S. saxicava, habits of, 287
Sabellaria, 341;
body, 259;
cirri, 265.;
tube, 287, 290;
S. alveolata, 259, 300;
S. spinulosa, paleae, 267, 300
Sabellidae, 258, 336;
head, 261;
chaetae, 266, 267;
regeneration, 283;
from fresh water, 284;
colour, 292
Sabelliformia, 258, 306, 336;
chlorocruorin in, 252; body, 259;
head, 260, 261;
uncini, 266, 267;
nephridia, 269, 306;
genital organs, 273;
development of gills, 275;
gland shields, 287
Saccobdella, 226
Sacconereis, 275, 276, 280
Saccosoma, 434, 440, 442
Sagitella, 321
Sagitta, 186, 186, 191, 534;
anatomy, 186 f., 188;
development, 189;
habits, 190;
species, 191, 193;
American species, 534
Salensky, on development of Nemertinea, 99;
 of Rotifers, 218
Salinella, 93, 96
Salivary glands, in Polyclads, 10, 24;
in Leeches, 396
Salmacina, 273, 341;
brood-pouch, 276;
fission, 281
Salpina, 200, 225
Salpinidae, 225
Sandmason, 328
Saxicava, Eulalia in borings of, 314
Scales, of Gastrotricha, 233
Scalibregma, 334
Scalibregmidae, 258, 334
Scapha, 259, 330
Scaridium, 201, 207, 225
Schistocephalus, 75, 91;
reproductive organs, 86;
larva, 84;
life-history, 78, 85
Schizocerca, 225
Schizogamy, in Syllidae, 278, 279, 281
Schizonemertea, 109;
characters, 111;
development, 113;
transverse section, 103
Schizoporella, 518, 527, 528, 529, 530, 531;
zooecium and avicularia, 482;
Leptoplana on, 22
Schizotheca, 482, 518, 529
Schmarda, on Oligochaeta, 366, 387
Schmidt, on Rhabdocoels, 6
Schneider, on life-history of certain Mesostoma, 48;
on classification of Nematoda, 129;
on oesophageal glands, 131;
on Strongylidae, 142
Schultze, on Polyclads, 13, 26;
 on Nemertinea, 108, 109
Schultzia, 50
Schulze, F. E., Stichostemma found by, 118;
Trichoplax found by, 96
Scirtopoda, 200, 201, 203, 206, 207, 223
Sclerocheilus, 334
Sclerostomum, 163
Scoleciformia, 258, 305, 331 f.;
vascular system, 252;
buccal region, 269;
food of, 296
Scolecolepis, 299, 322
Scolex, 5, 74, 75 f., 89;
S. polymorphus, 77;
of Taenia solium, 79
Scolithus, 302
Scoloplos, 299, 321;
parapodium, 265;
habitat, 286
Scruparia, 527
Scrupocellaria, 517, 518, 519, 526;
vibracula, 477, 485, 517;
phosphorescence, 478;
larva, 511
Scutum, 525
Seals, parasites of, 142, 183
Sea-mat, 466, 477
Sea-mouse, 312
Secondary orifice, 522, 524
Sedentaria, 285
Segment, 241;
of Nereis, 246, 247
Seison, 226
Seisonaceae, 204, 216, 220 n., 225, 227
Seisonidae, 226
Selenaria, 518;
vibracula, 487
Selenka, on Sipunculids, 424 n., 447
Self-fertilisation, in certain Mesostoma, 48;
in Trematodes, 52, 58;
in Cestodes, 86
Semper, on excretory system of Nemertinea, 108;
on Geonemertes palaensis, 101 n., 117;
on mimicry in Polychaeta, 294
Sense-organs, of Leptoplana, 13;
of Polyclads, 26;
of Triclads, 36;
of Trematodes, 56, 86;
of Cestodes, 86;
of Nemertinea, 106;
of Nematoda, 128;
of Gordius, 166;
of Acanthocephala, 178;
of Chaetognatha, 188;
of Rotifera, etc., 215, 233, 234;
of Polychaeta, 255, 272;
of Oligochaeta, 354;
of Leeches, 395;
of Gephyrea, 417;
of Phoronis, 457
Septum, of Archiannelida, 244;
of Nereis, 249, 251;
of Polychaeta, 269;
of Chlorhaemidae, 334;
of Oligochaeta, 355;
of Gephyrea, 440
Serpula, 300, 339, 340;
fossil, 301;
tubes, 290, 301;
commensal with Polynoid, 298;
colour, 292
Serpulidae, 258, 339;
nerve cords, 255;
gills, 261;
 operculum, 261;
cirri, 265;
thoracic membrane, 266;
uncinus, 267;
fission, 281;
tube, 290;
colour, 292, 293;
from great depth, 300;
fossil, 301
Serpulite chalk, 301
Seta, of vibraculum, 484, 485, 486, 517, 524
Setosella, 530
Sharks, Trematodes of, 62, 72;
Cestodes of, 78
Sheep, parasites of, 67, 81, 82, 83
Sheldon, Miss, on Nemertinea, 99 f.
Shell-gland, of Leptoplana, 8, 9, 14, 16;
of Polyclads, 28;
of Trematodes, 59;
of Cestodes, 86
Shield, cuticular, of Polychaeta, 259;
of Sternaspis, 335;
glandular—see Gland shields.
Shipley, on Bipalium, 37;
on Nemathelminthes, 123 f.;
on Chaetognatha, 186 f., 534;
on Gephyrea, 411 f.;
on Phoronis, 450 f.
Sialis lutaria, host of Gordius, 171, 172;
host of Acanthocephala, 185
Side organs, of Carinellidae, 107
Siebold, von, on Tape-worms, 76
Sigalion, 313
Silliman, on Nemertinea, 101, 109, 118
Silurian, Polychaeta, 301
Sinus, in Polyzoa, 482, 484, 525
Siphon, of Capitelliformia, 272, 305;
 of Gephyrea, 436
Siphonogaster, 353, 368
Siphonostoma, 334;
commensal, 298
Sipunculoidea, 412, 420, 446;
species, 426
Sipunculus, 425;
history, 411;
species, 426;
anatomy, 412 f., 413, 415;
development, 419, 419;
food, 422;
habits, 426
Size, of Cestodes, 5;
of Polyclads, 20;
of Land Planarians, 33;
of Cestodes, 75;
of Nemertinea, 100
Slavina, 377
Sluiter, on Gephyrea, 429, 447
Smitt, on Polyzoa, 516
Smittia, 518, 527, 529;
zooecium and avicularium, 482
Snakes, parasites of, 142
Solenopharyngidae, 50
Solenopharynx, 50
Solenophorinae, 91
Solenophorus, 91
Sorocelis, 42
Spadella, 186, 189, 192;
anatomy, 186 f.;
eggs, 189;
habits, 190;
species, 192, 194;
American species, 534
Spallanzani, on Oligochaeta, 348
Sparganophilus, 366, 386;
 anatomy, 355.
Spatangus, as host, 298
Spencer, on Land-Planarians, 34;
on earthworms, 349, 380
Spengel, on Gephyrea, 440
Spermatheca, of Dinophilus, 243;
of Oligochaeta, 362, 363, 364
Spermatophores, 27, 402
Spermiducal gland, 361
Sphaerodoridae, 320
Sphaerodorum, 321
Sphaerosyllis, 308
Sphaerularia, 150, 153, 160, 161
Sphyranura, 73;
setae in, 56
Spine, of Polyzoa, 481, 523 f., 524
Spinther, 318
Spio, 322
Spionidae, 258, 321;
larva, 274, 275
Spioniformia, 258, 304, 321;
peristomial cirri, 263;
gill, 265;
chaetae, 266, 267;
eyes, 272;
food, 296
Spirographin, 290
Spirographis, 338;
substance of tube, 290
Spiroptera, 147, 163;
S. reticulata, 149;
S. obtusa, 161;
S. alata, 163
Spirorbis, 340, 341;
operculum, 261, 341;
genital organs, 273, 274;
brood-pouch, 261, 276;
 fossil, 301; shell, 341
Spirosperma, 378;
chaeta, 350
Spirulaea, 301
Sporocysts, 92;
of Distomum macrostomum, 64, 65;
of D. hepaticum, 67;
hosts of, 71
Staggers, induced by Coenurus, 82
Statoblast, 493, 499, 501 f., 506;
sessile, 502;
germination, 501, 503, 514;
resemblance to ephippian ova, 493
Steenstrup, on Tape-worms, 76
Steganoporella, 530
Stelechopoda, 344
Stelechopus, 342
Stenostoma, 44, 49;
asexual reproduction, 44
Stephanoceros, 202, 205, 210, 213, 220, 221
Stephanops, 225
Stercutus, 376
Sternaspidae, 258, 335;
nephridia of, 305
Sternaspis, 335, 411, 445;
anatomy, 335, 336;
shape, 259;
shield, 259;
head, 264;
chaetae, 265;
gills, 268;
intestine, 271;
compared with Gephyrea, 336, 447, 449
Sthenelais, 299, 300, 309, 313
Stichostemma eilhardii, 118
Stilesia, 91;
generic characters, 90;
 S. centripunctata, 91;
S. globipunctata, 91
Stock, asexual, of Autolytus, 279;
of Myrianida, 281
Stolc, on Oligochaeta, 360
Stolon, 480, 488, 518, 525
Stolonata, 518 n.
Stomatopora, 518, 532
Stork, parasites of, 63, 163
Strobila, 75, 76
Strobilation, 76
Strodtmann, on Chaetognatha, 191
Stromatoporoids, 520
Strongylidae, 131, 142
Strongylus, 129, 142, 143, 160, 163;
S. filaria, 132;
S. tetracanthus, 163
Stuhlmann, on Polyzoa, 493
Stuhlmannia, 359, 386
Stylaria, 348, 377
Stylets of Nemertine proboscis, 104, 110
Stylochoplana, 18, 19, 20
Stylochus, 19;
development, 28
Stylostomum, 19, 22
Sub-cuticle, 125, 175
Submalleate, 210, 211
Succinea putris, infested by larvae of Distomum macrostomum,
64, 66
Sucker, of Leptoplana, 8, 16 n.;
of Triclads, 35, 36;
of Temnocephala, 53, 54;
of Monogenea, 53, 56, 57, 60;
of Digenea, 62, 64, 65, 69;
of Cestodes, 75, 79;
of Dinophilus, 243;
of Chaetopterus, 324;
 of Myzostoma, 342;
of larva of Polyzoa, 509, 511
Summer-eggs, of Mesostoma, 48;
of Rotifera, 216
Sutroa, 376, 380
Swim-bladder, of Syllidae, 272
Swimming, of Leptoplana, 9, 10;
of Polyclads, 23;
of Rotifers, etc., 206, 235
Syllidae, 258, 306;
palps, 260;
tentacles, 262;
head, 262;
parapodium, 264;
jaw, 270, 271;
alimentary tract, 271;
swim-bladder, 272;
asexual reproduction, 278 f., 279;
regeneration, 278, 283;
colours, 293;
phosphorescence, 296;
ancestral, 303
Syllis, 274, 307;
development, 278;
S. armillaris, 307;
S. ramosa, 282;
S. vivipara, 276
Synapta, bearing Rotifers, 222, 227
Synchaeta, 200, 204 f., 224, 226
Synchaetidae, 223, 224
Syncoelidium, 33, 42
Syncytium, 125
Syngamus trachealis, 130, 142, 144, 161, 163, 164
Syrinx, 411

Taenia, 74, 78, 79, 91;

life-histories of species of, 83;
 table of species, 89;
T. (Cysticercus) acanthotrias, 80;
T. coenurus, 81, 82;
life-history, 83;
specific characters, 90;
T. crassicollis, life-history, 78, 83;
specific characters, 89;
T. echinococcus, 80;
life-history, 83;
specific characters, 90;
T. krabbei, 81;
T. marginata, 81;
life-history, 83;
specific characters, 90;
T. (Hymenolepis) murina, 70, 80 n., 89;
life-history, 80, 83;
specific characters, 91;
T. perfoliata, 163;
T. saginata (= T. mediocanellata), 78, 79;
life-history, 83;
specific characters, 89;
T. serialis, 82;
life-history, 83;
specific characters, 90;
T. serrata, 81;
life-history, 83, 87, 89;
specific characters, 90;
T. solium, 79;
life-history, 79, 83;
specific characters, 89
Taeniasis, 82
Taeniidae, 91
Tail, of Arenicola, 333;
of Nereis, 246, 248;
regeneration of, 283
Tanypus, host of Gordius, 172
Tape-worms, 5, 74
Taphrocampa, 200, 204, 224
Tardigrada, affinities, 344
Telmatodrilus, 378
Temnocephala, 4, 53, 54, 73
Temnocephalidae, 53, 73;
habits and structure, 53 f.;
affinities, 54
Tennent, on land-leeches, 408
Tentacles, in Polyclads, 15, 26;
in Triclads, 30, 36;
in Vorticeros, 45, 46;
in Trematodes, 53;
(peristomial), of Spionidae, 322;
(prostomial), 255, 260, 262 f.;
of Nereis, 248;
of Polycirrus, 294, 295;
of Polygordius, 244;
of Terebellids, use of, 289;
nerves to, 254
Tentacle-sheath, in Polyzoa, 470
Tentacular cirri = Peristomial cirri, q.v.
Tentacular filaments, 304;
of Cirratulids, 326, 327
Terebella, 328;
otocyst, 273;
fossil, 301;
T. conchilega, tube, 286, 287, 288;
building of tube, 289, 290;
gill, 329;
T. nebulosa, colour, 292;
as host, 311;
gill, 329
Terebellidae, 258, 327;
shape, 259;
tentacles, 263;
gill, 265;
chaetae, 266, 267;
 gizzard, 271;
tube, 286;
use of tentacles, 289;
colour, 293;
phosphorescence, 296;
food of, 296;
tube containing Polynoid, 298
Terebellides, 299, 330;
gill, 329
Terebelliformia, 258, 325;
definition, 304;
genital organs, 273;
gland shields, 287;
nephridia, 269;
nuchal organs, 273;
uncini, 266, 267;
vascular system, 252
Terebripora, 478
Terricola, 30, 42
Tertiary, Polyzoa, 521
Tessin, on Rotifers, 198, 218
Testes, of Leptoplana, 14, 15;
of Planaria lactea, 38, 39;
of Acoela and Alloeocoela, 47;
of Temnocephala, 54;
of Polystomum, 57;
of Cestodes, 75, 76, 86—see also Reproductive organs
Tetragonurus, 389
Tetraonchus, 73
Tetraphyllidae, 91
Tetrarhynchidae, 91
Tetrarhynchus, 75, 76 n., 85, 91
Tetrastemma, British species, 110;
land forms, 101, 115, 118;
fresh-water forms, 101, 118;
excretory system, 108, 109;
habits, 114;
 hermaphrodite species, 109;
viviparous species, 117
Thalamoporella, 530
Thalassema, 411, 435 f., 441, 443;
development, 439;
habits, 443
Thelepus, 299, 329
Theodisca, 321
Thompson, J. V., on term Polyzoa, 475
Thoracic membrane, 266, 305
Thorax, of Polychaeta, 259, 306, 337
Thysanosoma, 91;
generic characters, 90;
T. fimbriata, life-history, 83;
specific characters, 90;
T. giardii, specific characters, 90
Thysanozoon, 13, 18, 19, 20
Tomopteridae, 258, 291, 315
Tomopteris, 315;
colour, 294;
light-producing organ, 296;
prostomium, 259;
T. rolasi, 315
Tooth, in Polyzoa, 482, 522
Tortoise, Temnocephala associated with, 53
Torus uncinigerus, 268
Tracks, fossil, 302
Travisia, 332
Travisiopsis, 321
Trematoda, 4, 51 f.;
life-histories, 71;
classification, 73
Trembley, on Turbellaria, 6;
on Polyzoa, 496, 497
Trepostomata, 520
Triaenophorus (= Tricuspidaria), 91;
excretory system, 84
Triarthra, 201, 203, 206, 211, 224, 225, 226
Triarthridae, 200, 201, 202, 206, 207, 224, 226
Trias, Serpulid in, 301
Trichina, 131, 135, 144, 161;
T. spiralis, 146, 163
Trichinosis, 82, 146, 147
Trichocephalus, 131, 135, 136, 144, 160, 163;
species of, 145;
T. dispar, 145
Trichochaeta, chaeta, 351
Trichoderma, 159
Trichoplax, 93, 95
Trichosoma, 144, 163;
species of, 145
Trichotrachelidae, 144
Tricladida, 7, 30 f.;
habits, 35 f.;
sexual reproduction, 38;
asexual reproduction, 40;
classification, 42;
British species, 31, 32, 34, 42
Tricoma cincta, 157
Tricuspidaria, 91
Trigaster, 359, 384
Trigonoporus, 19, 27
Trinephrus, 357, 382 f.
Triophthalmus, 224
Triphylus, 224
Tristicochaeta, 158
Tristomatidae, 53, 55, 73
Tristomatinae, 73
Tristomum, 73
Triticella, 478, 518, 533
Trocheta, 393, 407
Trochophore, 229
Trochopus, 73
Trochosphaera, 200, 201, 221, 229, 230
Trochosphaeridae, 221
Trochosphere, of Archiannelida, 243, 245;
of Polychaeta, 274, 275, 510, 512;
of Echiuroidea, 439, 510;
of Polyzoa, 510
Trochus, in Rotifers, 202, 204
Trophi, of Rotifers, 209, 210
Trophonia, 299, 334;
genital organs, 273;
head, 262;
intestine, 271
Trunk, of Nereis, 246;
of Polychaeta, 259;
of Gephyrea, 412 f.
Tube, of Rotifers, 205;
of Polychaeta, 287 f.; composition of, 290;
fossil, 301, 302;
of Chaetopterus, 323;
of Clymene, 287;
of Dodecaceria, 326;
of Eunice tibiana, 290;
of Eunicidae, 285, 290, 318;
of Haplobranchus, 339;
of Hekaterobranchus, 326;
of Hyalinoecia, 290, 319;
of Maldanidae, 332;
of Myxicola, 285, 338;
of Nereis, 316;
of Nicomache, 287;
of Onuphis, 287, 319;
of Owenia, 325;
of Pectinaria, 285, 288, 330;
of Polydora, 323;
of Polynoids, 285;
of Panthalis, 313;
of Sabella, 287 f.;
of Sabellaria, 287;
 of Sabellidae, 337;
of Serpulidae, 290, 339 f., 340;
of Terebellidae, 286, 287, 288, 289, 327 f.;
of Priapuloidea, 433;
of Echiurus, 444
Tube-forming glands, 304
Tube-making, of Polychaeta, 287 f.
Tubicolous Polychaeta, 285, 300, 304, 306
Tubifex, 351, 367, 369, 378;
chaetae, 350
Tubificidae, 350, 361, 366, 378
Tubulipora, 518, 531, 532
Turbellaria, 3 f.
Turtles, parasites of, 142
Tylenchus, 131, 154, 155, 157, 160, 163
Tylosoma, 422, 423, 426, 430, 447
Typhloscolecidae, 258, 291, 321;
nuchal organ, 273 n.
Typhloscolex, 321
Typosyllis, regeneration of head, 283 n.

Udekem, D', on Oligochaeta, 365

Udonella, 73;
U. caligorum, 55;
U. pollachii, eggs of, 58
Udonellinae, 73
Umbonula, 531
Uncinaria, 143
Uncinate, 210, 211
Uncini, of Polychaeta, 266, 267, 304, 305
Uncus, 210
Urnatella, 490, 493, 518
Urobenus, 388
Uteriporus, 42
Uterus, of Leptoplana, 8, 14;
of Planaria, 38, 39;
of Triclads, 40;
of Rhabdocoela, 48;
of Temnocephala, 54;
of Polystomum, 57, 59;
of Diplozoon, 60;
of Didymozoon, 71;
of Calliobothrium, 75;
of Taenia, 79;
of Schistocephalus, 86;
in Bothriidae, 87;
of Rotifers, 216

Vagina, of Leptoplana, 16;

in ectoparasitic Trematodes, 57 f.;
in Cestodes, 86, 87
Vaillant, on Hirudinea, 392, 405
Valencinia, 113;
V. lineformis, 112
Valkeria, 533
Vallentin, on Rotifers, 198
Vallisnia, 73
Vanadis, 315
Varme, 297
Vasa deferentia, of Leptoplana, 14, 15;
of Planaria, 38, 39;
of Acoela and Alloeocoela, 47;
of Diplozoon, 60;
of Schistocephalus, 86
Vasa efferentia, of Leptoplana, 14, 15;
of Triclads, 38
Vascular System, of Nemertinea, 106, 107;
of Archiannelida, 244;
of Nereis, 251 f.;
of Polychaeta, 251 f.;
 of Cryptocephala, 252;
of Scoleciformia, 252;
of Terebelliformia, 252;
absence of, in certain Polychaeta, 253;
of Oligochaeta, 355;
of Leeches, 396;
of Gephyrea, 415, 436, 447;
of Phoronis, 455
Vaucheria, Rotifers in, 227
Vejdovsky, on Rhabdocoels, 46;
on Gordius, 164, 166;
on Oligochaeta, 365, 369, 374, 400
Vermes, 347
Vermiculus, 378
Vermiformia, 461
Verrill, on Chaetognatha, 534
Vertebrates, parasites of, 163, 174, 179, 183
Verworn, on statoblasts, 501
Vesicula seminalis, of Planaria, 39
Vesicularia, 481, 518, 533
Vesicularina, 518, 523
Vestibule, 488, 490;
of larva, 509
Vibracular zooecium, 485, 486, 517, 524
Vibraculum, 477, 484, 485, 517, 524;
movements, 487;
function, 486
Vicarious avicularia, 482
Victorella, 492, 501, 505, 518, 533
Villot, on life-history of Gordius, 172
Vinella, 521 n.
Virgate, 210
Visceral nervous system, of Nereis, 255
Vitellarium = Yolk-gland, q.v.
Vitello-intestinal canal, in Polystomatidae, 57
Viviparous, Nemertinea, 109, 117;
Rotifers, 200, 216 f.;