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THE NEW MIDDLE EAST
WHAT EVERYONE NEEDS TO KNOW®
 THE NEW
MIDDLE EAST
WHAT EVERYONE NEEDS TO KNOW®

Second Edition

JAMES L. GELVIN
 Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers
the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education
by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University
Press in the UK and certain other countries.

“What Everyone Needs to Know” is a registered trademark of

Oxford University Press.

Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press

198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America.

© Oxford University Press 2023

First edition published in 2018

Second edition published in 2023

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
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and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Gelvin, James L., 1951- author.
Title: The new Middle East : what everyone needs to know / James L. Gelvin.
Description: Second edition. | New York, NY : Oxford University Press, [2023] |
Series: What everyone needs to know |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2023032477 (print) | LCCN 2023032478 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780197622094 (pb) | ISBN 9780197622087 (hb) | ISBN 9780197622117 (e)
Subjects: LCSH: Middle East—Politics and government—21st century. |
Middle East—History. | Arab Spring, 2010– | IS (Organization)—History. |
Middle East—Foreign relations—21st century. | Human security—Middle East.
Classification: LCC DS63.123 .G45 2023 (print) | LCC DS63.123 (ebook) |
DDC 320.9/56—dc23/eng/20230713
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023032477
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023032478

DOI: 10.1093/​wentk/​9780197622087.001.0001

Paperback printed by Sheridan Books, Inc., United States of America

Hardback printed by Bridgeport National Bindery, Inc., United States of America
 CONTENTS

PREFACE IX

1. Before the Deluge: The Middle East, 1945–​2011 1

What is the Middle East? 1

Who lives in the Middle East? 2
What is the Middle East state system? 4
Do the states in the Middle East have anything in common? 8
What was political life like in the Middle East up through 2010? 11
How did state formation in the region breed autocracies in the
Middle East? 14
How did great power meddling in the region foster autocracies in
the Middle East? 15
How has the exploitation of oil affected the Middle East? 18
What is the “New Middle East”? 21

2. The Arab Uprisings and Their Fallout 24

How did the Arab uprisings begin? 24

How appropriate is the term “Arab Spring” to describe the uprisings? 27
What deep-​seated factors made Arab states vulnerable to popular anger? 29
What contingent factors made Arab states vulnerable to popular anger? 32
vi Contents

What were the uprisings like in Tunisia and Egypt? 33

Why have Islamic movements been so popular in the Middle East? 36
Why did uprisings in Yemen and Libya differ from those in Tunisia
and Egypt? 38
How could regimes in Bahrain and Syria hold on so doggedly? 40
Why did the uprisings leave most Arab monarchies relatively
unscathed? 42
What were protests in hybrid regimes like? 43
Were the Arab uprisings bound to fail? 45
What were the overall effects of the uprisings that began
in 2010–​2011? 47
Was there an “Arab Spring 2.0”? 48

3. Things Fall Apart 52

What is a “crisis state”? 52

How did the conflict in Syria begin? 53
Why did the Syrian conflict evolve as it did? 53
How did the conflict in Libya begin? 58
What’s behind the chaos in Libya? 59
What is the conflict in Yemen about? 61
How has the intervention of outside powers prolonged civil conflict? 64
How has warlordism affected conflicts in Syria, Libya, and Yemen? 67
What have been the consequences of conflict in Syria, Libya,
and Yemen? 70
Has Syria become a narco-​state? 73
What is ISIS? 74
What legacy did the ISIS caliphate leave the Middle East
and the world? 78
What is Rojava? 81
What’s behind the meltdown of Lebanon? 84
How fragile is the regime in Iran? 86
 Contents vii

4. Patrons, Proxies, and Freelancers: The

International Relations of the New Middle East 91

How did the United States become hegemonic in the Middle East? 91
How did the United States lose its hegemonic position in
the Middle East? 95
Will China take America’s place as Middle East hegemon? 99
How has the relationship between the United States and its partners
changed since the Cold War? 102
What are the roots of the Saudi-​Iranian competition? 105
Will Saudi Arabia and Iran reconcile? 109
What role will oil play in the New Middle East? 111
How have relations among states changed in the New Middle East? 114
What is Turkey’s role in the New Middle East? 118
Whatever happened to the Israel-​Palestine conflict? 120

5. Human Security in the New Middle East 123

What is “human security”? 123

How do population pressures affect the Middle East? 125
What are the effects of diminishing water supplies on the Middle East? 126
What is the impact of war on the environment in the Middle East? 130
How might climate change affect the Middle East? 132
What is the refugee crisis all about? 134
What is the status of women in the Middle East? 137
To what extent was the COVID-​19 pandemic a game changer? 142
How poor is the Middle East? 144
What is the state of human poverty in the non–​Gulf Cooperation
Council Arab world? 147
What is education like in the Arab world? 151
Can human security be measured? 153
What are the greatest threats to human security in the
New Middle East? 156
viii Contents

NOTES 159
FURTHER READING 165
INDEX 169
 PREFACE

I am a historian by training and trade. Although I began my

career as a specialist in early-​twentieth-​century Syria, the on-
rush of events in the Middle East and the insatiable appetite of
the general public for information that might help it better un-
derstand the region encouraged me to shift my focus to what
is called “contemporary history”—​a phrase that seems more
a contradiction in terms than an established subfield of his-
tory. Hence my book, The Arab Uprisings: What Everyone Needs
to Know, also published by Oxford University Press.
One of the greatest practitioners of my trade, Fernand
Braudel, once wrote that anyone who tries to understand cur-
rent affairs by focusing only on today and the immediate past
“will continually have his eye caught by anything that moves
quickly or glitters.” However (he continued), a knowledge of
history enables us “to know whether what one is witnessing is
the rise of a new movement, the tail end of an old one, an echo
from the very distant past, or a monotonously recurring phe-
nomenon.”1 History matters: it is embedded in the present (or,
as novelist William Faulkner put it, “The past is never dead.
It’s not even past.”2). And so I wrote this book to apply what
I have learned over the years to ongoing events.
I am grateful for the encouragement and hard work of
my editor at Oxford University Press, Nancy Toff, and her
assistants, Elda Granata and Elizabeth Vaziri (for the first
x preface

edition) and Chelsea Hogue (for the second). I am also grateful

to those who reviewed the manuscript for the first edition of
this book, whose criticisms and suggestions made it all the
better. Finally, I am grateful to my students at UCLA who, on
multiple occasions, patiently sat through seminars and lectures
concerning many of the issues raised in this book while I honed
my arguments and put them in a comprehensible form.
Earlier renditions of parts of this book first appeared
on the online websites History News Network and The
Conversation. I have also drawn from my print publications,
including The Arab Uprisings: What Everyone Needs to Know, 2nd
ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015); The Modern
Middle East: A History, 4th ed. (New York: Oxford University
Press, 2015); and “The Arab World at the Intersection of the
Transnational and National,” in David W. Lesch and Mark Haas
(eds.), The Arab Spring: Hope and Reality of the Uprisings,
2nd ed. (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2012).
THE NEW MIDDLE EAST
WHAT EVERYONE NEEDS TO KNOW®
Map 1 The Middle East
 1
BEFORE THE DELUGE
THE MIDDLE EAST, 1945–​2 011

What is the Middle East?

“Middle East” is one of several terms that refer to the territory
of southwest Asia and North Africa. Other terms for the same
region include Greater Middle East, Near East, and Middle
East and North Africa (MENA).
Although now commonplace, the term “Middle East” is of
recent vintage. It was coined in the first years of the twentieth
century. At the time, it referred only to the area surrounding
the Persian Gulf. In 1920, the British Royal Geographic Society
recommended its use to refer to the area stretching from
the Turkish Straits in the west to the frontier of India in the
east. Nevertheless, it did not displace “Near East” in British
and US policy circles until World War II. But even after the
term passed into general usage, the boundaries of the region
remained imprecise and a bit arbitrary. Is Sudan, an Arab state
bordering Egypt in the south, part of the Middle East? What
about Armenia?
In this book, “Middle East” refers to the territory that
stretches from Morocco in the west to Iran in the east. It
includes Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt (but not
Sudan—​boundaries have to be drawn somewhere) in North
Africa, and Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Iraq,
Iran, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar, the United Arab
Emirates (UAE), Oman, and Yemen (but not Armenia—​again,
2 The New Middle East

for the same reason) in southwest Asia. It also includes Turkey,

which straddles Europe and southwest Asia.

Who lives in the Middle East?

According to the World Bank, as of 2020 there were approx-
imately 538 million people living in the Middle East.1 This
statistic must, however, be treated with some skepticism. For
example, Lebanon has not conducted a census since 1932.
Doing so might invalidate the agreed-​upon formula for pro-
portional representation among the various religious groups
living there. Because of conscription in Egypt, parents do
not always register the births of their sons. And although the
World Bank puts the population of Qatar at close to 2.9 million,
that statistic fails to take into account that more than 88 per-
cent of the people living in Qatar are temporary guest workers.
There are about 336,000 Qatari citizens.
Whatever the number of inhabitants of the region, however,
those who live there represent a broad array of ethnic, lin-
guistic, and religious groups. The three largest ethnic groups are
Arabs, Turks, and Iranians. Arabs make up the overwhelming
majority. Estimates of the number of Arabs in the Middle East
run between 300 million and 345 million, although these num-
bers, like most official statistics, must be taken with more than
a grain of salt. Most Arabs, Turks, and Iranians live in the Arab
world, Turkey, and Iran, respectively. But Arabs, Turks, and
Iranians live outside those areas as well. Arab populations live
in both Turkey and Iran, ethnically Turkish tribes live in Iran,
and Iranian refugees live in both Iraq and Turkey.
Other ethnic groups in the region include Kurds and
Berbers. Kurds live mainly in Turkey, Iraq, Syria, and Iran.
Clocking in at upward of thirty-​five million, they represent
the world’s largest stateless nation. Most Berbers live in North
Africa. Because the term “Berber” can refer both to those who
descend from the inhabitants of the region who lived there be-
fore the Arab conquest in the eighth century as well as to those
 Before the Deluge 3

whose native language is Tamazight (Berber), estimates of the

number of Berbers vary widely.
The Middle East is also linguistically diverse. The native
language of most Arabs and Turks is, of course, Arabic and
Turkish, but Farsi (also known as Persian) is the native lan-
guage of only about half the population of Iran. Other ethnic
groups in the region have their own native languages, such as
Kurdish, Tamazight, and Armenian. And in Israel, Hebrew is
the official language (as was Arabic until 2018).
A majority of the inhabitants of the Middle East are Muslim.
There are two main branches of Islam—​Sunni Islam and Shiʿi
Islam. The split in the Islamic community took place after the
death of Muhammad, when his followers disagreed about who
should lead the community. Over time, each branch developed
different rituals, traditions, and beliefs. Understanding that
there is a divide between Sunnis and Shiʿis is important for
understanding some of the political rivalries in the region. It is
important to note, however, that the rivalries that pit members
of the two communities against each other concern political
issues, such as which group should govern. They rarely con-
cern religious issues per se. Where sects contend against each
other, religion merely acts as an identifier of the political com-
munity to which one belongs. Therefore, understanding how
each community’s rituals, traditions, and beliefs differ from
the other’s is not at all important for understanding the New
Middle East.
Most Arabs and Turks are Sunnis, although Shiʿis make up
a significant minority in Lebanon, Yemen, Kuwait, and Saudi
Arabia. They make up a majority in two other Arab coun-
tries, Bahrain and Iraq. Most Iranians are Shiʿis, and Iran is the
world’s largest Shiʿi country.
There are other religious groups in the region as well.
Christians of various stripes—​Orthodox, Catholics, Maronites
(mainly in Lebanon), Copts (mainly in Egypt)—​live throughout
the Middle East. After the establishment of the State of Israel,
most of the members of the Arab world’s once flourishing
4 The New Middle East

Jewish communities quit their homelands voluntarily or be-

cause they were coerced to do so by their governments. The
largest number decamped to Israel. A similar exodus of Iranian
Jews took place after the establishment of the Islamic Republic
in 1979. Then there are a myriad of other religious groups as
well, including Zaydis in Yemen, Alawites in Syria and Turkey,
Alevis in Turkey, Yazidis in Iraq and Syria, Ibadis in Oman and
North Africa, and Druze in Israel, Syria, Lebanon, and Jordan.
Again, the fact that these groups are present in the region is, at
times, an important element in our story.

What is the Middle East state system?

The year 2016 marked the hundredth anniversary of the
Sykes-​Picot Agreement, and there were countless op-​eds and
commentaries commemorating (bemoaning?) it. This agree-
ment was a plan hatched during World War I by two officials,
Sir Mark Sykes of the British War Office and François Georges-​
Picot, the French consul in Beirut, to divide up the Asiatic
provinces of the Ottoman Empire in the aftermath of the war.
The Ottoman Empire, which ruled much of the Asiatic Arab
world as well as Anatolia (the site of present-​day Turkey) and
Egypt, had entered the war on the side of the Central Powers,
which Britain, France, and their allies were fighting.
Ever since, Sykes-​Picot has come to symbolize the artificial
nature of state boundaries in the Middle East. According to
most of the op-​eds and commentaries written on the occasion
of the anniversary, we have instability in the region today be-
cause these boundaries were drawn by far-​off diplomats who
had no regard for the wishes of the populations living there.
Or at least that is the story. The reality is quite different.
The boundaries Mark Sykes and François Georges-​Picot drew
up would have been no more or less artificial than any other
boundaries that separate states—​had they actually gone into
effect. They did not. The British, whose military actually occu-
pied the territory covered by the agreement, were dissatisfied
 Before the Deluge 5

with the boundaries, and the French were powerless to com-

plain. In other words, by the end of World War I the agreement
was already a dead letter.
How, then, did states in the territory covered by the agree-
ment (which, by the way, included only a tiny fraction of the
territory of the Middle East) get their boundaries? In the Asiatic
Arab territories, a number of states had their boundaries set
through the mandates system, which the League of Nations,
the precursor to the United Nations, instituted there. The
system allotted Britain and France temporary control over ter-
ritory in the region. The two powers took it upon themselves
to combine or divide territories into proto-​states in accord-
ance with their imperial interests. Thus, Britain created Iraq
and Trans-​Jordan (later the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, or
simply Jordan) after the war. Israel and Palestine came even
later. France did the same for Lebanon and Syria.
Those states, like most others in the Middle East, gained their
independence during two waves. The first wave took place
during the period between World War I and World War II. Iraq,
Saudi Arabia, and Turkey achieved independence then, and
Egypt became somewhat independent (Iran and Oman—​the
latter known then as Muscat and Oman—​were already inde-
pendent states). The British granted independence to its man-
date, Iraq, mainly because remaining there would have been
a drain on the imperial treasury. They almost did the same
for Egypt, which they had been occupying since 1882. After
a widespread rebellion convinced them that Egypt would be
ungovernable unless changes were made, they granted Egypt
“conditional independence” in 1922. It took Egyptians almost
thirty-​five years to eliminate the British role there entirely and
change conditional independence into full independence.
Saudi Arabia and Turkey achieved independence on the bat-
tlefield. In the former case, Abdulaziz ibn Saud, a warlord from
north/​central Arabia, led an army composed of warriors from
a mix of tribes that conquered much of the Arabian Peninsula.
When the dust had settled, he established a dynasty that has
6 The New Middle East

ruled Saudi Arabia to this day. In Anatolia, Turkish nationalists

fought a grueling four-​year war that drove out foreigners who
had been occupying the peninsula since the end of World War
I. The result was the contemporary Republic of Turkey.
The second wave of state construction took place during
the Period of Decolonization, which began after World War II
and lasted through the first half of the 1970s. The Period of
Decolonization marked the end of formal British, French, and
Portuguese colonial empires. During this period, Morocco,
Algeria, Tunisia, Lebanon, and Syria gained their indepen-
dence from France (Spain also abandoned most of the territory
it controlled in Morocco). Much of the Gulf (the UAE, Qatar,
Bahrain, and Kuwait), along with Israel and Jordan, gained
theirs from Britain.
None of these places had been colonies, per se. There had
been only one real colony in the Middle East—​the British
colony of Aden. After independence, Aden became, first, part
of South Yemen, then part of Yemen (established in 1990 when
North Yemen merged with South Yemen). Instead of colonies,
the British and French empires in the Middle East consisted
mainly of mandates and protectorates (proto-​states in which
local rulers set domestic policy and kept order while Britain
and France handled their dealings with the rest of the world).
There was also the occasional occupation (Egypt) or the whole-
sale integration of territory into the mother country (as in the
case of Algeria, which the French considered as much a part of
France as Paris until its independence in 1962). Libya, which
the Italians had integrated into Italy in like fashion, also be-
came an independent state during this period. Captured by
the Allies from the Italians during World War II, Libya became
a ward of the United Nations, which granted it independence
three years after the organization’s founding.
Some states in the region—​ Turkey, Israel, Algeria—​won
their independence through armed struggle. Others—​ most
of the mandates, for example—​won it through negotiation.
And some—​ Saudi Arabia, Yemen—​ went through painful
 Before the Deluge 7

periods before the state-​building process was over. Then there

is the unique case of Palestine. Palestinians engaged in armed
struggle with Israel for forty-​five years before joining their
opponent in direct negotiations. Short bursts of negotiation,
separated by periods of breakdown and conflict, continued
thereafter. The United Nations voted to recognize Palestine as
a nonvoting observer state in 2012.
In spite of its motley origins and the lamentations of those
who hold on to the myth of Sykes-​Picot, the Middle East state
system has been remarkably stable ever since the end of the
Period of Decolonization. There have been exceptions, of
course, including the shifting borders of Israel and the unifica-
tion of North and South Yemen in 1990. Nevertheless, the state
system in the Middle East has been one of the most stable state
systems in the world. It certainly has been more stable than the
state system in Europe.
There are two reasons for this stability. First, the passage of
time. Although most member states of the state system in the
region received their complete independence after World War
II, the process of formulating distinct national identities began
while those states were under foreign rule. Ever since, states
engaged their citizens in common practices and worked to de-
velop their own internal markets and divisions of labor. These
are necessary (but obviously not sufficient) preconditions
for the formation of distinct national identities. The states in
the region also jealously guarded their borders, rewrote their
histories, and, indeed, produced enough of their own histories
to differentiate their national experience from that of their
neighbors. As a result, with the exception of Yemen, no at-
tempt to adjust state borders by negotiation—​including the
short-​lived union between Egypt and Syria (the United Arab
Republic, 1958–​1961)—​bore fruit during the postcolonial era.
The second reason the state system has been relatively stable
has been support for that system provided by great powers—​
first Britain, then the United States—​and by regional actors
anxious to maintain the status quo. Great power intervention
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'Ammān 13, 34, 54, 157;

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'Antara, Gedichte des 57, 63.

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Antiochien 169, 309, 310, 312, 323, 324, A. 306, A. 307;

Beschreibung der Überreste 312 f.;
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Apostelbrunnen 7.

Araber 14, 16, 22, 35, 54, 57, 90, 99, 103, 119;
Dichtung 57-59;
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Sitten 35, 36, 39, 46, 64;
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der große Hof A. 161;
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Brunnen im großen Hof A. 173;
Fragment eines Gebälkes A. 174;
Basilika des Konstantin A. 175;
Steinlager A. 177;
Rās ul 'Ain A. 179;
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 Kapitäle A. 171.

Bāb el Hawah 286; A. 289.

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kurdisches Mädchen A. 285.

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Gefängnistür A. 121;
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Beida, weißes Land 103, 116.

Beirut 95, 201, 222, 255.

Belkaaraber 23, 25, 54; A. 32, A. 47.

Belkaebene 18, 22.

Beni Atijjeh 231.

Beni Awadjeh, Araberst. 61.

Beni Hassan, Stamm 61, 64, 92.

Beni Sachr, Stamm 23, 32, 35, 37, 39, 84.

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Brünnow 32 Anm.

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Burdj Heida 282.

Burenkrieg 220.

Busān, Wādi 102.

Butler, Mr. 71, 235, 266, 266 Anm., 267 Anm., 272 Anm., 275 Anm.

Calycadnus, Fluß 232.

Cassius, Berg 317, 323.

Chabbaz, Hanna 187.

Chālid Beg 'Azam, Haus das, in Hamāh 219.

Chamberlain, Mr. 100.

Charāneh, Ruinen von 52.

Chaulik 317.

Chirāb esch Schems 272, 275, A. 273;

Skulpturen im Innern eines Grabes A. 275.

Chirbeh 119.

Chirbet Hāß, Dorf 236;

Oberschwelle A. 239.

Chittāb 108, 112, 126.

Christusdorn 11.

Chudr, Gefangener 188.

Chureibet es Suk, Tempel und Mausoleum 26 bis 29;
Tempel A. 29;
Mausoleum A. 31.

Cromer, Lord 55, 100, 221.

Cufische Inschriften 76, 117.

Da'dja, Stamm 22, 25, 38, 50, 61, 65, 92.

Damaskus 73, 77, 83, 92, 95, 100, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 133;
Freitag in 147;
Große Moschee 136, 144, 145;
Große Moschee, Hof der A. 147;
und Dächer vom Fort aus A. 131;
Kornmarkt A. 135;
vor den Toren von A. 151;
Wasserverkäufer A. 152;
Verkäufer von Zuckerwaren A. 145.

Dāna, Dorf 286;

Grab zu A. 287;
Pyramidengrab in 245;
Grabmal A. 249.

Danādischeh, Familie 200.

Daphne, der Weg nach 314, A. 313.

Dār Kita 275.

Decimus, Centurio der Legion des Flavian 209.

Dehes 286, 293.

Deir es Sleb 212.

Deiret Azzeh 286.

Deir Sambil 241.

Dera'a, Höhlendorf 104.

Derwisch, Soldat 162, 165.

Deutschland, Bagdadbahn 252.

Dīn, Scheich ed 55.

Djad'allah 65, 80.

Djebeliyyeh 71, 92.

Djerūd, Oase von 147, 148.

Djerūdi, der Brigant, s. Mohammed Pascha, Scheich von Djerūd.

Djisr el Wād, Brücke 202.

Djof 80.

Domaszewski 32 Anm.

Drekisch, Dorf 204.

Dreschplatz in Karyatein A. 148.

Drusāra 91.

Drusen 37, 41, 49, 55, 63, 66, 72, 74, 82, 87, 98, 99, 118, 298, 300;
Sitten 124;
Streitigkeiten mit den Suchūr 83-101;
eine Gruppe A. 83.
Drusische Pflüger A. 91.

Druz, Djebel 60, 65, 66, 74, 75, 81, 90, 104, 111, 118, 157, 158.

Drusisches Gebirge 20, 41, 60, 65, 74, 90, 96.

Dussaud, Mr. 71, 80, 98, 117, 120, 169.

Edsch Dscheida 104.

Effendi, Derwisch, Afghane 219.

Effendi, Jusef 81, 82.

Effendim 212.

Eisenbahn nach Mekka 13, 165;

Rayak-Hamah 252;
Bagdad 252;
französische 214, 252.

Eisernes Tor, Antiochien 313.

El, Gott 118, 119.

El 'Ablā 116, 117.

El Adjlād 104.

El Bārah, Dorf 236, 237, 238, 264, 300;

ein Haus in A. 237;
Fries A. 239.

El Chudr, Grab von 89, 91.

El Churbeh, Türbalken A. 101.

El Hayyāt, Moschee in Hamāh 222.

El Mugharāh, Dorf 246.

El Muwaggar 50, 121;

Kapitäl A. 51, 52, 53.

Emesa, Römerstadt 181.

Englisch-japanisches Bündnis 221.

Epiphania, Festung 213.

Ethreh 80.

Euphrat 259.

Euting, Reisender 80.

Fāfertīn, Dorf 263, 271.

Fāiz, Neffe des Mohammed en Nassār 102, 104, 125, 126.

Faīz el Atrasch, Scheich von Kreyeh 73, 77.

Faiz', Talāl ul 23, 24.

Fāris, Maultiertreiber 260, 261, 262, 293, 300.

Fāris, Habīb 18, 21, 324.

Fayyād Agha von Karyatein 147.

Fedhāmeh 104.
Feiertag, ein, im Orient A. 185.

Fellahīn-Bank 55.

Fendi, Führer 73.

Fīda Abu'l 21.

Frankreich, Bagdadbahn 252.

Gablān, Araber 38, 42, 47, 48, 49, 50, 52, 53, 56, 57, 60, 61, 63, 64,
66, 69, 70, 324, A. 57.

Garīz, der, Seleucia 321, 322, A. 319;

unterer Teil des A. 325.

Gethsemane 4.

Gharz, Ghādir el 116, 118.

Gharz, Wādi el 119.

Ghassaniden Forts 32, 50, 121.

Ghawārny 40.

Ghazu 63, 76.

Ghiāth 92, 104, 107, 112, 115, 125.

Ghor, das 10, 16, 40;

Zug durch das, A. 12.

Giour Dāgh 280, 290.

Gischgāsch, Scheich von Umm Ruweik, 102, 104, 106, 107, 112,
115.

Gottesherz 111.

Grabeskirche, heilige, in Jerusalem A. 2.

Griechen 134, 135.

Griechische Inschriften 117, 233, 244, 245, 271, 276.

Habīb, Maultiertreiber 3, 14, 69, 107, 119, 162, 166, 260.

Habrān, Torweg A. 97;

kurdisches Mak'ad A. 99.

Haddjbahn 21, 33, 42.

Haddjstraße 231, A. 58.

Hadūdmadūd 283.

Haida, Dr. 165.

Haifa 18.

Haīl, Stadt 42, 46, 80.

Halakah, Djebel 286.

Hamad 103, 107, 112, 119.

Hamāh 162, 166;

Beschreibung 213-215;
Bewohner 215-223;
Römerstraße 211, 212;
 Moschee 215;
Kubbeh A. 215;
Kapitäl A. 221, A. 223, A. 233;
Na'oura A. 213;
Tekyah Killānijjeh 219, A. 217.

Hamath, Festung 213.

Hamdān, Sohn der Weisheit 115.

Hamūd, Gablāns Vater 49.

Hamūd von Sueda 77, 89, 90.

Hanelos 119.

Hārim 298, 300;

Burg 300, A. 299.

Hārith, Ibn el 59.

Harra, schwarzes Land 103.

Harūn er Raschid 205.

Haseneh 66, 166, 190;

Kamele der A. 67.

Hāß, Djebel el 250.

Hassan Beg Rā'i 178.

Hassaniyyeh, Stamm 22, 61, 66, 84.

Haurān, Gebirge 17, 55, 66, 71, 72, 78, 80, 82, 103, 120, 121, 126,
298.
Hayat, Kalybeh 126;
Haus des Scheich A. 127.

Heddjasbahn 133.

Helbān, Dorf 250.

Hermon 116, 153.

Heschbān 16.

Hind, das Land 189.

Hiran 121.

Hīt, Dorf 126.

Hittiter 166, 169, 170, 214.

Hober, Dorf 250.

Höhlen Namrūds 28-33.

Höhlendörfer 104.

Homs 104, 162, 169, 170, 173, 174;

die Einwohner 173, 174, 182-187;
Häuser 178, 181;
der Orontesanger
Mardj ul 'Asi 181;
Kastell 177;
ein Feiertag im Orient A. 185;
Straße in A. 187.

Homs, See 169.

Homsi, Nicola 257.

Howeitāt, Araberstamm 61, 231.

Hurmul, Turm von 165, 166.

Husn es Suleimān 206;

Tempel A. 207;
Tempel, Nordtor A. 209.

Husn, Kal'at el 188, 192, 195, 197, 200;

griechisches Kloster 202; A. 193;
Inneres der Festung A. 195;
innerer Festungsgürtel A. 199;
Bankettsaal 198, A. 198;
der Schwarze Turm 192.

Ibrahim, Armenier, 317, 318, 321.

Ibrahim, Maultiertreiber 3.

Ibrahim Pascha 34, 173.

Iliān, Milhēm 81, 82, 91, 92.

Imtain 65, 77.

'Isa, Fellāh ul 49, 50, 53, 54, 55, 60, 65, 72, 80, 158, A. 49.

Islam 220, 221.

Ismailiten 188, 211, 212, 225.

'Isset Pascha 144, 205.

Jadūdeh, Felsengräber 24.

Jaffa 7.

Jahya Beg el Atrasch 77, 298.

Jakit Ades 262.

Japanische Krieg 98 bis 101, 150, 178.

Jemen, Aufstand 13, 14, 78, 121, 221, 231, 255, 256.

Jericho 10.

Jerusalem 4, 95, 154, 256;

Klagemauer in A. 17;
Moschee Omar A. 1;
heilige Grabeskirche A. 2;
Straße in A. 3;
Stephanstor in A. 4.

Jezīdi, Sekte 272;

Glaube der 268, 269, 282, 283, 284.

Jordan, Tal, das 10, 22.

Jordanbrücke 12, 13, 14, A. 13.

Judäa, Wüste von 9.

Juden aus Buchara A. 18.

Jūnis, Scheich von El Bārah 238, 241, 242, 243, 246, A. 242, 327.

Jusef, Führer 22, 24, 96, 98, 101.

Kabul 219.
Kabuseh 322.

Kadesch 169, 170.

Kāf 80.

Kaffee, Gebräuche 19, 20;

am Wegrande A. 191.

Kais, Imr ul 47, 56, 58, 63.

Kalam, Muschkin 143, A. 143.

Kalb Lōzeh, Kirche von 293, 297, 299, A. 295.

Kalkutta 219.

Kalōteh, Dorf 272, 275;

Kirche 276;
Kapitäl A. 276.

Kamele, Tränken der A. 71.

Kāmu'a Hurmul 165, A. 183.

Kanawāt 104, 158;

Basilika A. 105;
Tempel A. 107;
Tor der Basilika A. 109;
Mauern von A. 103.

Kantarah 112.

Karyatein, Oase von 147;

Dreschplatz in A. 148.
Kasr el 'Alya 50.

Kasr el Banāt 246, A. 247.

Kastal 32, 121.

Kāturā, Grabmal A. 272.

Kbēs, Monsieur 214, 215, 216, 222, 223.

Kbeschīn, Dorf 263.

Kefr 'Abīd, Dorf 250, 251.

Kefr Anbīl 235, 236.

Kefr Lāb 282.

Kefr Nebu 280.

Keifār 280.

Kerak 198, 199.

Khayyām, Omar 22.

Kiāzim Pascha, Vāli von Aleppo 255-259.

Kieperts Karte 162, 250, 263.

Killani, Familie zu Hamāh 215, 219, 227.

Killiz 252.

Klagemauer in Jerusalem A. 17.

Konia 162, 260, 261.

Konstantin, Münzen 26.

Konstantinopel 46, 99, 144, 166, 205.

Koran, Erzählungen vom 225, 226.

Kreta, Muselmänner von 146.

Kreuzfahrer 199, 202.

Kreyeh 74, 77, A. 89.

Ksedjba, Dorf 286.

Kseir 166, 169.

Kubbeh in der Moschee zu Hamāh A. 215.

Kubbet el Chazneh 136, 143, A. 137.

Kuda'a, Stamm 134.

Kuleib 79.

Kulthum, Ibn, Gedicht des 134.

Kurden 99, 263, 264, 281, 285.

Kurutul, Kloster oberhalb Jerichos A. 11.

Kurunfuleh 154, 157.

Kuseir es Sahl 26.

Kutaila, Klagegesang von 59.

Kuwēk, Fluß 250.

Kweit 46, 256.

Kymet, eine kurdische Frau 322, 323.

Lager in der Nähe des Toten Meeres A. 23;

Abbrechen des A. 73.

Lahiteh 126.

Lampe in Rifa't Aghas Sammlung A. 313.

Laodicea ad Orontem 169, 170.

Larissa, Stadt 227.

Lava 116, 119, 122.

Lebīd, Gedichte des 57, 58.

Lebweh 162, 165.

Ledschastraße 126.

Libanon 157, 158, 162, 169;

Zedern des A. 182.

Littmann, Dr. 71, 73, 117 Anm.

Lütticke, deutscher Konsul in Damaskus 129.

Lysicrates, Denkmal des 286.

Ma'alūla, Kloster von 202.