Internship Project Report

July 2020

Analysis and Design of Steel Truss Bridge by

using SAP2000

by
Ananya Mohanty

Under the Guidance of

Mr. Sirajudheen CH
Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
CET Bhubaneswar.

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

 COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
BHUBANESWAR

CERTIFICATE

It is certified that the work contained in the report titled “Analysis & design of Steel
Truss bridge by using SAP 2000” by Ananya Mohanty has been carried out under
my supervision at College of Engineering & Technology Bhubaneswar and this work
has not been submitted elsewhere for a degree.

Dr. D. P. Satapathy Mr.Sirajudheen CH

Head of the department Project Guide

Civil Engineering Assistant professor
CET, Bhubaneswar, Ghatikia Civil Engineering Department
CET Bhubaneswar, Ghatikia
 COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, GHATIKIA,
BHUBANESWAR

DECLARATION BY STUDENT

I hereby declare that the project entitled “Analysis & design of Steel Truss bridge by
using SAP2000” submitted by me to College of Engineering and Technology,
Bhubaneswar as part of Summer Internship during July, 2020 in Department of Civil
Engineering at College of Engineering and Technology, Bhubaneswar is an authentic
record of my work carried out under the supervision of Mr. Sirajudheen CH,
Assistant professor. The work reported in this project has not been submitted either
in part or in full for the award of any other Degree or Diploma in this Institute or any
other Institute or University.

CET,Bhubaneswar Signature of Candidate

Date: 15.08.2020
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I express my deepest sense of reverence, gratitude and indebtedness to

Mr.Sirajudheen CH, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, College of
Engineering and Technology, Bhubaneswar. Without his valuable guidance,
stimulating criticism, encouragement, constructive suggestions and sympathetic
attitude, the present study would not have seen the light of this day.

I further acknowledge my gratitude towards Dr. D. P. Satapathy, Head of

Department, Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering and
Technology, Bhubaneswar for giving me this internship opportunity in the situation of
COVID-19 pandemic.

I am extremely thankful to my fellow interns for their kind co-operation and

helping hand throughout the project.

I express my sincere thanks to my parents for their constructive suggestions to

bring about improvements in the quality of this report.

Ananya Mohanty
 ABSTRACT

A bridge must be designed to safely resist all loads and forces that may occur during its life.
The loads not only include the weight of passing vehicles but also the weight of its own structure.
They may act individually or as a combination of two or more loads applied simultaneously.
Different types of bridges are constructed depending on the purpose, available building material and
local climatic condition.

Steel truss bridges are Modern Design Bridges. In a truss bridge, the primary forces in its
members are axial forces. Structural steel is used over other construction materials due to its
strength and ductility. It has a higher strength to cost ratio in tension and a slightly lower strength to
cost ratio in compression when compared with concrete. The stiffness to weight ratio of steel is much
higher than that of concrete. Thus, structural steel is an efficient and economic material for
construction of bridges.

In the project discussed, “Analysis and Design of Steel Truss Bridge”, the bridge spans a total
length of 17m and consists of 2 parallel trusses on both the side. The lower chord of the truss
supports the roadway of width 4.5m which carries the vehicle traffic. Height of truss is 4.26m.
Modeling and analysis of the bridge is done by assuming a live load produced by the heaviest truck
passing through the bridge. The dynamic forces produced due to vehicle motion across the bridge are
modeled using Impact factor during the static analysis. 14 different loading cases are considered to
represent various position of the vehicle. Analysis of load in each member is done for all the loading
cases. The modeling of the truss and analysis of loads in each member is done manually as well as
using SAP2000. This software features an intuitive and versatile user interface along with unique
analysis engine and design tools for engineering works. Designing of the truss members is done
manually with reference to Steel Table IS 800: 2007. SAP2000 is also used to design the truss
members. The results are compared to conclude that the computational design is more efficient and
reliable.
Keywords: Steel truss bridges, Structural steel, dynamic forces, Impact factor, static analysis,
SAP2000, Steel Table IS 800: 2007.

CONTENTS
Sl. No. TOPIC Page No.
Acknowledgement
Abstract

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 General 1
1.1.1 Classification Of Bridge 1
1.1.2 Truss Bridge 3
1.1.3 Use Of Software In Designing 3
1.2 Definition Of Problem 4
1.3 Objective & Scope 4
1.4 Organization Of Report 5

2. LOADS ON BRIDGE
2.1 General 8
2.2 Components Of Bridge 8
2.3 Types Of Load 9
2.3.1 Dead Load 9
2.3.2 Live Load 10
2.4 Load Transfer Mechanism 10

3. MANUAL CALCULATION OF LOADS &

MODELING OF TRUSS IN SAP
3.1 General 12
3.2 Calculation Of Equivalent Joint Load Due To Deck 12
Slab And Floor Beam
3.2.1 Joint Load Due To Deck Slab 12
3.2.2 Joint Load Due To Floor Beam 13
3.3 Calculation Of Live Load 13
3.4 Modeling In Sap2000 14
3.4.1 Define Material Properties For Steel Grade 14
3.4.2 Define Section Properties 14
3.4.3 Define Load Patterns 15
3.4.4 Define Load Combination 15

4. ANALYSIS OF TRUSS
4.1 General 18
4.2 Assumptions 18
 4.3 Method Of Analysis 19
4.3.1 Method Of Joints 19
4.3.2 Method Of Sections 19
4.4 Different Loading Conditions 20
4.5 Result Of Manual Analysis Of Truss Under Loading 21
Condition 7
4.6 Analysis Result In Sap2000 Under Loading Condition 7 24
4.6.1 To Assign Loads 24
4.6.2 To Analyze The Truss 24
4.6.3 To Display The Result Of Analysis 25
4.7 Comparison Of Results Of Manual & Sap 26
4.8 Design Force in all Members 27

5. INFLUENCE LINE DIAGRAM FOR

ANALYSIS OF TRUSS
5.1 General 29
5.2 Development Of Influence Line Diagram For Member 29
6-8
5.2.1 Calculation The Member Force Of Member 6-8 Using ILD 30
5.3 Development Of Influence Line Diagram For Member 30
5-6
5.3.1 Calculation Of Member Force For Member 5-6 Using ILD 31
5.4 Comparison Of Analysis Result With ILD Result 31

6 DESIGN OF TRUSS MEMBERS

6.1 General 33
6.1.1 Causes Of Bridge Failures 33
6.2 Design Philosophy 33
6.3 Design Of Typical Compression Member 6-8 34
6.4 Design Of Typical Tension Member 13-14 35
6.5 Manual Design Results 35
6.6 Design Of Members In Sap2000 36
6.6.1 To Set Standard Preferences: 36
6.6.2 To Design The Members 36
6.6.3 To Verify The Members 36
6.6.4 Final Designing 37
6.7 Sap2000 Design Results 37

7. SUMMARY & CONCLUSION

7.1 General 40
7.2 Summary 40
7.3 Conclusion 41

References
 LIST OF FIGURE
Fig. No. SUBJECT Page No.
1.1 Types of bridge 2
1.2 Truss Configuration 4

2.1 Elevation View 8

2.2 Isometric View 8
2.3 Pint Joint in Truss 9
2.4 Gusset Plate Connections 9

3.1 Section Deck For Each Joint 12

3.2 Loading Condition 7 13
3.3 Quick Grid Lines 14
3.4 Add Material Property 14
3.5 Section Property 14
3.6 Define Load Pattern 15
3.7 Load Combination 16

4.1 Heaviest Truck Configuration 20

4.2 Truss Members 20
4.3 Loading Condition 7 21
4.4 Forces At Joint 1 22
4.5 Forces At Joint 3 22
4.6 Deformed Shape 24
4.7 Frame Force 25

5.1 ILD for Member 6-8 under Loading condition 7 29

5.2 Influence Data of 6-8 30
5.3 ILD for Member 5-6 under Loading condition 7 30
5.4 Influence Data of 5-6 31
 LIST OF TABLES

Table No. SUBJECT Page No.

4.1 Result of Manual Analysis under Loading Condition 7 23
4.2 SAP2000 Analysis Result under Loading Condition 7 25
4.3 Comparison of Manual Analysis Result and SAP2000 26
Analysis Result
4.4 Design Force in Each Truss Member 27

6.1 Manual Design 35

6.2 Design Results from SAP2000 37
 SYMBOLS

Symbol Definition
A Area of Cross-Section
E Modulus of Elasticity
fy Yield Strength
∠ Angle Section
∑ Summation
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
 INTRODUCTION

1.1 General
A bridge is a structure providing passage over an obstacle without closing the way
underneath. The passage provided can be a road, a railway, a canal or a pipeline. The obstacle
crossed can be a river, a valley, a road or a railway. A bridge is supported at two ends and can have a
limited number of intermediate supports at required locations. Bridges vary in size from very short
span over a small river to extremely large spans covering wide estuaries. Designs of bridges vary
depending upon their purpose, materials used and construction budget.

Steel is widely used as a building material because of its mechanical properties, availability
in a variety of useful shapes, design simplicity and speed of construction. Steel can be produced with
a variety of additional properties by adding enhancements. It has a higher strength to cost ratio in
tension and a slightly lower strength to cost ratio in compression when compared with concrete. The
stiffness to weight ratio of steel is much higher than that of concrete. Thus, structural steel is an
efficient and economic material for construction of bridges.

1.1.1 Classification of Bridge

Bridges can be classified in several different ways. Some common categories of classification
are structural elements, building materials used, type of support provided, purpose, etc.

 Classification based on material used:

a. Steel Bridge: Decks, arches, trusses, suspension cables are all made of steel
b. Wooden Bridge: These bridges have relatively short span
c. Concrete Bridge: Reinforces and pre-stressed concrete is used as the main building
material
 Classification by Purpose
a. Highway Bridge: Bridges which carry heavy vehicle traffic
b. Railway Bridge: Bridges which carry train
c. Combined Bridge: Bridges which carry both train and vehicle
d. Pedestrian Bridge: Bridges which carry pedestrians
 Classification by position of carriageway:
a. Deck bridge: The carriageway is positioned at the top of supporting structure

1
 b. Through Bridge: The carriageway is supported by the bottom flange of the supporting
structures
 Classification by structural system:
a. Beam Bridge: Main girder consists of plate girders
b. Box girder bridge: Main girder consists of a single or multiple box beam fabricated
from steel plates
c. T-beam Bridge: Multiple reinforced concrete T-beams are placed side by side to
support live loads
d. Truss Bridge: Truss members resist axial forces (either tensile or compressive).
e. Arch Bridge: Structure is vertically curved and resists load by compression.
f. Cable-stayed Bridge: Main girders are supported by high strength cables directly from
one or more towers. Best suitable for long span.
g. Suspension Bridge: Main girder is supported by vertical hangers, which are further
supported by main suspension cable extending over tower anchorage to anchorage.
Best suitable for long span.
 Classification by Support conditions
a. Simply Supported Bridge: The main girders are supported by a movable hinge at one
end and fix hinge at the other end. These are determinate system.
b. Continuously Supported bridge: Girders are continuously supported at regular
intervals resulting in an indeterminate system. These are more economical.
c. Cantilever bridge: A continuous bridge is made determinate by placing intermediate
hinges between the support
d. Rigid Frame Bridge: The girders are rigidly connected to the supporting Structure.
 Classification By length of the span:
a. Short span Bridge: Bridge has a span length of less than 50m.
b. Medium Span Bridge: Bridge has a span length of between 50m and 200m.
c. Long span Bridge: Bridges has a span length more than 200m.

Fig. 1.1 Types of Bridge

2
1.1.2. Truss Bridge

A truss bridge is a bridge whose load-bearing superstructure is composed of a truss.

A truss is a structure of connected elements forming triangular units. The connected
elements are straight, may be stressed from tension, compression, or sometimes both in
response to dynamic loads. A truss bridge is economical to construct because it uses
materials efficiently.

The nature of a truss allows the analysis of its structure using a few assumptions and
the application of Newton's laws of motion according to the branch of physics known
as statics. For purposes of analysis, trusses are assumed to be pin jointed where the straight
components meet. This assumption means that members of the truss (chords, verticals and
diagonals) will act only in tension or compression.

1.1.3. Use of Software in Designing

Structural engineering is the branch of civil engineering that deals with the analysis
and design of structure that will support or resist the stresses, forces and loads. The civil
engineering profession requires a lot of accuracy because most of the time; the final result
of any project will directly or indirectly affect people’s lives and safety. Use of software in
this industry reduces the complexity of lots of challenging projects. Software of structural
design is used mostly for the analytical purpose in the detailed design phase. They are being
applied to all phases of the design process. Structural software gives the opportunity to
visualize different structure’s components on screen. Calculation and data analysis for a
wide range of building elements are the most important part of these programs. By applying
this software, civil engineers accomplish more than they ever could before, both in quantity
and quality.
SAP2000 is one of the most popular structural analysis programs available for
civil engineers. SAP2000 program has many capabilities; for example: fast equation
solvers, force and displacement loading, non-prismatic frame elements, tension-only braces,
post-tensioning tendons, highly accurate shell elements, Eigen and Ritz model analysis,
multiple coordinate systems for skewed geometry, many different constraint options, the
ability to merge independently defined meshes, a fully-coupled 6-by 6 spring stiffness and
the option to combine or envelope multiple dynamic analysis in the same run. This program
is mainly used by civil engineers to design and analyze various civil structures such as

3
 bridges, stadiums, buildings, and any type of structures. Using SAP2000 program in
structural engineering helps civil engineers in saving time and efforts, simplifying the
complex calculation process, offering flexible data modification during the solution and
providing a good level of accuracy even for the complex design. SAP2000 program is very
efficient and user friendly.

1.2. Definition of Problem

The Problem at hand is to perform the structural analysis of steel truss bridge to
design the size of each truss member. The simply supported bridge spans a total length of 17m
and consists of 2 parallel trusses on both the side. The height of the truss is 4.26m. The lower
chord of the truss supports a carriage way of width 4.5m which carries the vehicle traffic. Floor
beams of cross section “ISMB 600” are provided at an interval of 2.13m connecting the truss
on both sides. Thickness of the concrete slab is 250mm. the truss configuration is shown in the
figure below.

Fig 1.2 Truss Configuration

1.3 Objective & Scope

Objective:

The objective of this project is to analyze and design a through type truss bridge
for the above mentioned conditions.

Scope:

1. Modeling of truss in SAP2000.

4
 2. Manual Calculation of all types of load acting on the bridge
3. Analysis of truss bridge under all the 14 loading conditions manually as
well as using SAP2000.
4. Using influence line diagram to determine the design force of each
member of the truss.
5. Design of each member of truss bridge for the maximum design=n force
acting on it.

1.4 Organization of Report

Chapter 1: Introduction

This chapter gives a brief idea about bridges, types of bridges and the importance of
software in civil engineering especially in structural analysis and design. The definition of
problem at hand along with the objective and scope associated with the project are also
mentioned.

Chapter 2: Loads on Bridge

This chapter describes the different types of loads acting on the truss
bridge. It also focuses on the component parts of a truss bridge and the load
transfer from one part of the bridge to another.

Chapter 3: Manual Calculation of Loads & Modeling of Truss in SAP

This chapter contains the calculation to determine the superimposed deal

load and live load acting on the joints of truss. it contains the description of the
procedure to model truss in SAP2000.

Chapter 4: Analysis of Truss in SAP2000

This chapter lists down all the assumptions made for analysis of truss and
describes the different methods of truss analysis. It also describes 14 different
loading conditions based on the position of vehicle. This chapter contains the

5
manual as well as SAP analysis of truss. it also compares the analysis results and
shows the design forces in all members of truss.

Chapter 5: ILD Analysis of Truss

This chapter describes the significance and use of Influence Line

Diagram. It describes the process of developing ILD in SAP2000 and shows the
determination of maximum member force from ILD.

Chapter 6: Design of Truss Members Manually & Using SAP2000

This chapter describes the need of designing structures and specifies

conditions for safe structures. It shows the procedure of designing members
manually and by using the software.

Chapter 7: Summary & Conclusion

This chapter contains the summary of all work done during the project. It
also contains the conclusion drawn from the observations made.

6
 CHAPTER 2

LOADS ON BRIDGE

7
 LOADS ON BRIDGES
2.1 General

The objective of a civil engineer is to design a structure that will be able to withstand all
the loads to which it is subjected while serving its intended purpose throughout its intended life
span. The loads that act on common civil engineering structures can be grouped according to
their nature and source into three classes:
(1) Dead loads;
(2) Live loads;
(3) Environmental loads.

In addition to estimating the magnitudes of the design loads, an engineer must also
consider the possibility that some of these loads might act simultaneously on the structure. The
structure is finally designed so that it will be able to withstand the most unfavorable
combination of loads that is likely to occur in its lifetime.

2.2 Components of Truss Bridge

The major components of a typical truss bridge are –

a) Top Chord: top bracing between vertical members

b) Bottom Chord: bottom bracing between members
c) Vertical & Diagonal Members: load carrying components
d) Struts: horizontal top members between trusses
e) Lateral Bracing: diagonal members connecting between floor beams
f) Floor beams: horizontal members connecting the two trusses

Fig. 2.1 Elevation View Fig. 2.2 Isometric View

8
 The elevation view shows the bridge from the side. The isometric view is a three-
dimensional representation of the structure.

The truss drawings above do not show the connections that are used to join the structural
members together. Even though the connections are not shown, they are important. They have a
big influence on the ability of a structure to carry load.

There are two common types of structural connections used in trusses-pinned

connections and gusset plate connections. As the name suggests, the pinned connection uses a
single large metal pin to connect two or more members together, much like the pin in a door
hinge. In a gusset plate connection, members are joined together by one or two heavy metal
gusset plates, which are attached to the individual members with rivets, bolts, or welds. Pinned
connections were used extensively throughout the 19th century. Most modern bridges-including
the model bridge we will be building here-use gusset plate connections.

Fig. 2.3 Pin Joint in Truss Fig. 2.4 Gusset plate connections

In early truss bridges, all of these members would have been made of wood or iron.
Today they are usually made of steel. Modern steel truss members are manufactured in a wide
variety of shapes and sizes.

2.3 Types of Load

2.3.1 Dead Load

Dead loads are gravity loads of constant magnitudes and fixed positions that act
permanently on the structure. Such loads consist of the weights of the structural system itself
and of all other material and equipment permanently attached to the structural system. The
weigh to f the structural system, i.e., the weight of structural members, the material used in their

9
 construction is called Self Weight. The load experienced by the equipments and materials
attached to the structural system permanently at a definite position is called Superimposed
Dead Load.

2.3.2 Live Load

Live loads are loads of varying magnitudes and/or positions caused by the use of the
structure. The position of a live load may change, so each member of the structure must be
designed for the position of the load that causes the maximum stress in that member. Different
members of a structure may reach their maximum stress levels at different positions of the given
load.

2.4 Load Transfer Mechanism

One major component of a truss bridge that is usually not made of steel is the deck. The deck
is a flat surface between the two main trusses. Bridge decks are usually made of concrete, but might
also be built from wooden planks or steel grating. When vehicles or pedestrians cross a bridge, their
weight is directly supported by the deck. The deck, in turn, is supported on the floor beams. The
floor beams transmit the weight of the vehicles and pedestrians and the weight of the deck to the
main trusses. In a truss the loads are assumed to be applied at the joints only. When the external load
is applied, internal forces are developed in each structural member. In a truss, these internal forces
are either tension or compression. A tensile force tends to elongate the member. A compressive force
tends to make the member shorter.

10
 CHAPTER 3

MANUAL CALCULATION OF LOAD

&

MODELING OF TRUSS IN SAP

11
 MANUAL CALCULATION OF LOADS &
MODELING OF TRUSS IN SAP

3.1 General
Loads acting on the bridge are Self weight of the bridge, Weight of Deck slab and floor
beams and the Live load due to movement of vehicles. The dead loads are uniformly distributed on
all lower chord joints of the two parallel trusses. The live load acts on the truss joints according to
load transfer mechanism.
For the analysis of truss in SAP2000, it has to be modeled first. Modeling of truss means
defining the material properties of the truss members, defining the load patterns and load
combinations, and drawing the truss configuration.

3.2 Calculation of Equivalent Joint Load due to Deck Slab and Floor Beam

The load of deck slab and floor beams constitutes the superimposed deal load acting on the
truss. We have assumed that all the load acting on the bridge is equally divided between two parallel
trusses of the bridge. So, the weight of deck slab and floor beams will also be divided between the
two trusses.

3.2.1. Joint Load due to Deck Slab:

The total weight of the deck slab will be distributed on the joints of the bottom chord on the
truss. To calculate the total weight of the deck slab, we have,

Width of the slab, b=4.5m

Thickness of slab, d=0.25m
Density of concrete=25kgm-3
Fig. 3.1 Section of deck for each joint

Consider a joint 6-6 in the bottom cord of the truss, as shown in the figure.
The joint 6-6 of the truss will experience a load of the shaded portion of deck slab.
As the bridge has 2 parallel trusses, the total load applied by the shaded region is distributed
between the 2 trusses.

Width sharing force on the joint 6-6 = 2.13m

2.13∗4.5∗0.25∗25
Weight carried by joint 6 of one truss, W = = 29.95 kN.
2

12
 Similarly, 29.95kN load will be carried by all joints from 2 to 8 of the truss of one side.

2.13
Joint 1 and 9 experience load due to 1.065m (i.e.; ) width of the slab. So,
2
𝑊
Weight carried by joints 1 & 9 = = 14.97kN.
2

3.2.2 Joint Load due to Floor Beams:

We are using floor beams of cross section ISMB 600 (Indian Standard Medium weight Beam
of depth 600mm) at every 2.13m connecting the 2 trusses. (Ref. Code book IS-808)
Weight of beam used = 1.23kNm-1
1.23∗4.5
Weight carried by each joint = = 2.7675kN
2
Therefore,
Equivalent joint loads due to Deck slab & Floor beams
On joints 1 & 9 = 14.97kN + 2.7675kN = 17.7kN.
On all other joints (2-8) = 29.95kN + 2.7675kN = 32.71kN

3.3 Calculation of Live Load

We assume that the live load is given by the heaviest vehicle that can cross the bridge. The loads
are 3.6, 14.4, 14.4 tons separated by a
distance of 4.26m from each other. The
dynamic forces produced by the
vehicle’s motion are modeled using the
9
dynamic amplification factor ( ),
13.5+𝐿
where L is the span of the bridge.
Fig. 3.2 Loading Condition 7

Dynamic Amplification Factor (DAF), is a dimensionless number which describes how many
times the deflections or stresses should be multiplied to the deflections or stresses caused by
the static loads when a dynamic load is applied on to a structure.

Dynamic Amplification Factor,

9 9
DAF = = = 0.295
13.5+𝐿 13.5+17
That means we have to increase the live loads by 29.5%.

13
Modified values of Live loads,
3.6 ton is now 3.6*100*1.294 = 46.6kN.
14.4 ton is now 14.4*100*1.294 = 186.3kN.

3.4 Modeling in SAP2000

To Create A New Model:

1. Go to File menu.
2. Click on New Model.
3. A New Model dialogue box appears. Here, set the
Units to (kN, m, C) & Default Materials to India.
4. Select Template - Grid Only.
5. Quick Grid Line dialogue box appears. Set the
values as shown in Fig.
6. Click on OK Fig. 3.3 Quick Grid Lines

3.4.1 Define Material Properties for Steel Grade

To Define Material:
1. Go to Define menu
2. Click on Material
3. In the Define Materials dialogue box, click
on Add New Materials.
4. Add Material Property dialogue box
appears. Set Region to India,
Material Type to Steel, Fig. 3.4 Add Material Property
Standard to Indian &
Grade to Fe250.
5. Click on OK.

3.4.2 Define Section Properties

To Define Section:
1. Go to Define menu and select Section properties.
2. Click on Frame Sections.
Fig. 3.5 Section Properties

14
 3. In the Frame Properties dialogue box, click on Import Properties.
4. Import Frame Section Property dialogue box appears.
5. Set Frame Section Property Type to Steel.
6. Import angle section. The Section Property File Window appears. Select Indian.Pro from the
list and click on Open.
7. From the list of angle sections, select all.
8. Click on OK.
9. In the frame properties dialogue box, all the angle sections are present as shown in Fig.

3.4.3. Define Load Patterns

To define load patterns:

1. Go to Define menu and select Load Patterns.

2. Define Load Pattern
dialogue box appears. It
will have a pre define load
pattern “Dead” of type
Dead and self weight
multiplier 1. Click on Add
New Load Pattern. This
Fig. 3.6 Define Load Property
load pattern refers to the
self weight of the truss and is automatically calculated by the software.
3. Mention load pattern SDL of “Dead” type and self weight multiplier “0” and Click on Add
New Load Pattern.
4. Mention another load pattern Wheel Load of “Live” type and self weight multiplier “0” and
Click on Add New Load Pattern.
5. Click on OK.

3.4.4 Define Load Combination

To define load combinations:

1. Go to Define menu and click on Load Combinations.

15
2. In the Define Load Combination
dialogue box, click on New
Combinations. Load Combination
Data dialogue box appears.
3. Set Load Combination Type to Linear
Add.
4. Define the load cases for the
combination as shown in the fig.
click on Add after defining each load
case.
5. Give a name to the combination as
“DD + SDL + 1.294LL” Fig. 3.7 Load Combination

6. Click on OK.
7. The defined load combination appears in the load combination lists. Click on OK.

16
 CHAPTER 4

ANALYSIS OF TRUSS

17
 ANALYSIS OF TRUSS

4.1 General

Generally, truss members are assumed to be joined together so as to transfer only the axial
forces and not moments and shears from one member to the adjacent members. The loads are
assumed to be acting only at the nodes of the trusses. The trusses may be provided over a single
span, simply supported over the two end supports, in which case they are usually statically
determinate. Such trusses can be analyzed manually by the method of joints or by the method of
sections. From the analysis based on pinned joint assumption, one obtains only the axial forces in the
different members of the trusses. However, in actual design, the members of the trusses are joined
together by more than one bolt or by welding, either directly or through larger size end gussets.
Further, some of the members, particularly chord members, may be continuous over many nodes.
Generally, such joints enforce not only compatibility of translation but also compatibility of rotation
of members meeting at the joint. As a result, the members of the trusses experience bending moment
in addition to axial force. Further, the loads may be applied in between the nodes of the trusses,
causing bending of the members. Such stresses are referred to as secondary stresses. The secondary
bending stresses can be caused also by the eccentric connection of members at the joints. The
analysis of trusses for the secondary moments and hence the secondary stresses can be carried out by
an indeterminate structural analysis, usually using computer software.

4.2 Assumptions

Generally analysis of trusses is based on a few assumptions

 All members are connected only at their ends by frictionless hinges
 All loads and support reactions are applied only at the joints.
 The centroidal axis of each member coincides with the line connecting the centres of the adjacent
joints.
For analyzing the steel truss bridge given, a few more assumptions are made. Here
 Live load is represented by the heaviest truck that can cross the bridge
 The dynamics forces produced due to vehicular motion are modeled using Amplification
9
Factor, AF = * Load of truck.
13.5+𝐿

18
  Total load applied on the bridge is divided equally to each truss because bridge has 2 parallel
trusses. Each truss will carry the weight of each member, half of the weight of the roadway &
vehicular load due to traffic.
 The roadway is carried by the lower chords of the truss & hence weight of the roadway is
shared by the 9 joints.

4.3 Method of Analysis

4.3.1 Method of Joints

In the method of joints, the axial forces in the members of a statically determinate
truss are determined by considering the equilibrium of its joints. Since the entire truss is in
equilibrium, each of its joints must also be in equilibrium. At each joint of the truss, the
member forces and any applied loads and reactions form a coplanar concurrent force system
which must satisfy two equilibrium equations,

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 & ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
in order for the joint to be in equilibrium. These two equilibrium equations must be satisfied
at each joint of the truss.

The method of joints consists of selecting a joint with no more than two non-collinear
unknown forces acting on it and applying the two equilibrium equations to determine the
unknown forces. The procedure may be repeated until all the desired forces have been
obtained. All the unknown member forces and the reactions can be determined from the joint
equilibrium equations. In many trusses, it may not be possible to find a joint with two or
fewer unknowns to start the analysis unless the reactions are known beforehand. In such
cases, the reactions are computed by using the equations of equilibrium and condition (if any)
for the entire truss before proceeding with the method of joints to determine member forces.

4.3.2 Method of Sections

The method of sections involves cutting the truss into two portions by passing an
imaginary section through the members whose forces are desired. The desired member forces
are then determined by considering the equilibrium of one of the two portions of the truss.
Each portion of the truss is treated as a rigid body in equilibrium, under the action of any
applied loads and reactions and the forces in the members that have been cut by the section.

19
 The unknown member forces are determined by applying the three equations of equilibrium
to one of the two portions of the truss.

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 ∑𝑀 = 0

Thus, sections should be chosen that do not pass through more than three members
with unknown forces. The method of sections enables us to determine forces in the specific
members of trusses directly, without first calculating many unnecessary member forces, as
may be required by the method of joints.

4.4. Different Loading Conditions

The given vehicular load is assumed to be the heaviest truck that can pass the bridge. For the
purpose of analysis, it is assumed that this truck passes the bridge from right to left, i.e.; it enters the
bridge from the right and exits the bridge from left.

Fig. 4.1 Heaviest Truck Configuration

Fig. 4.2 Truss Members

For the static analysis, 14 different loading conditions can be considered with respect to the
14 different positions of the truck on the truss bridge. The loading conditions are:

20
LC-1. The truck just enters the bridge. The first load of 3.6 Ton acts on the joint 16.
LC-2. Load of 3.6 ton acts on the joint 15.
LC-3. Load of 3.6 ton acts on the joint 13. The load of 14.4ton acts on joint 16.
LC-4. Load of 3.6 ton acts on the joint 11. The load of 14.4ton acts on joint 15.
LC-5. Load of 3.6 ton acts on the joint 9. The load of 14.4ton act on joint 13 & 16 respectively.
LC-6. Load of 3.6 ton acts on the joint 7. The load of 14.4ton acts on joint 11 & 15 respectively.
LC-7. Load of 3.6 ton acts on the joint 5. The load of 14.4ton acts on joint 9 & 13 respectively.
LC-8. Load of 3.6 ton acts on the joint 3. The load of 14.4ton acts on joint 7 & 11 respectively.
LC-9. Load of 3.6 ton acts on the joint 1. The load of 14.4ton acts on joint 5 & 9 respectively.
LC-10. The load of 14.4ton acts on joint 3 & 7 respectively.
LC-11. The load of 14.4ton acts on joint 1 & 5 respectively.
LC-12. The load of 14.4ton acts on joint 3.
LC-13. The load of 14.4ton acts on joint 1.
LC-14. The truck is out of the bridge. No vehicular load acts on the bridge.

4.5. Result of Manual Analysis of Truss under Loading Condition 7

Fig. 4.3 Loading Condition 7

In loading condition 7, the forces acting on the truss are:-

32.71kN on all the joints from 2 to 8

17.7kN on joints 1 & 9 } Superimposed Dead Load

46.6kN on joint 5
186.3kn on joint 9 & 13 } Modified Live Load

Calculating the Support Reactions

21
For the truss to be in static equilibrium We have considered the truss to be in
∑ Fz = 0 & ∑ Fx = 0 X-Z plane. The directions are:

∑ M@1 = 0 & ∑ M@2 = 0

Solving these equilibrium equations, we get

Vertical reaction at joint 1 = 306.9kN
Vertical Reaction at joint 16 = 376.75kN
Horizontal Reaction at joint 1 = 270.44kN
Horizontal Reaction at joint 16 = -270.44kN

Using Method of Joints;

At Joint 1,

F12 & F13 are the member forces of 1-2 & 1-3 respectively. They
are assumed to be tensile in nature. All other forces are directed in
their natural directions. Forces are resolved along X and Z
direction as shown in the Fig.

For static equilibrium,

Taking ∑ Fz = 0;

F12 sin (63.44) + 306.9 = 17.74

Fig. 4.4 Forces at Joint 1
Taking ∑ Fx = 0;

F13 + F12 cos (63.44) + 270.44 = 0

Solving these two equations,
F12 = -323.3kN & F13 = -125.8kN
(-ve sign indicated that the forces are compressive in nature).

At Joint 3,

F32 & F35 are the member forces of 2-3 & 3-5 respectively. They
are assumed to be tensile in nature. All other forces are directed in
their natural directions. The directions of forces are shown in Fig.
For static equilibrium,
Fig. 4.5 Forces at Joint 3

22
Taking ∑ Fz = 0

F32 – 32.71 = 0

Taking ∑Fx = 0

F13 + F35 = 0
Solving these two equations,
F32 = 32.71kN & F35 = -125.8kN
(-ve sign indicated that the forces are compressive in nature)
Similarly method of joints in applied at all the joint of the truss. The member forces in all members
of truss are determined as follows:

Table 4.1 Result of Manual Analysis under Loading Condition 7

Member Force
SI No Member Nature of force
in kN
1 1-2 323.30 COMPRESSIVE
2 1-3 125.80 COMPRESSIVE
3 3-2 32.70 TENSILE
4 3-5 125.80 COMPRESSIVE
5 2-4 272.28 COMPRESSIVE
6 2-5 286.00 TENSILE
7 4-5 0.00 COMPRESSIVE
8 4-6 272.28 COMPRESSIVE
9 5-6 198.00 COMPRESSIVE
10 5-7 90.90 TENSILE
11 7-6 32.70 TENSILE
12 7-9 90.90 TENSILE
13 6-8 433.68 COMPRESSIVE
14 6-9 161.50 TENSILE
15 8-9 0.00 COMPRESSIVE
16 8-10 433.68 COMPRESSIVE
17 9-10 83.00 TENSILE
18 9-11 125.80 TENSILE
19 11-10 32.70 TENSILE
20 11-13 125.80 TENSILE
21 10-12 342.69 COMPRESSIVE
22 10-13 120.00 COMPRESSIVE
23 12-13 0.00 COMPRESSIVE
24 12-14 342.69 COMPRESSIVE
25 13-14 364.00 TENSILE
26 13-15 90.94 COMPRESSIVE
27 15-14 32.70 TENSILE
28 15-16 90.94 COMPRESSIVE
29 14-16 401.00 COMPRESSIVE

23
4.6 Analysis Result in SAP2000 under Loading Condition 7
In order to analyze the truss in SAP, it is mandatory to define the load cases and load
combination. The procedure for defining load cases and combinations is already discussed in the
previous chapter. Another important step is to assign the loads to joints.

4.6.1 To assign loads:

1. Select the joint(s).
2. Go to Assign menu and select joint loads. Assign Joint Force dialogue box appears.
3. Select the required load pattern. Mention the magnitude of load with sign in Force Global Z
field.
4. Set Coordinate System to Global.
5. Select the Option Replace Existing Loads.
6. Click on Apply. The loads mentions are displayed on the truss.
7. Click on Ok.
Follow the same procedure to apply loads to all joints.

4.6.2 To analyze the truss:

1. Go to analyze menu. Select set load cases o run
2. Set load cases to run dialogue box appears. Set action of all load cases to run.
3. Click on run now.
4. Software will take few seconds to run the analysis. Once the analysis is done, analysis
message appears. If the errors are zero, click on done.
5. The selected window shows the deformed shape of the truss.

Fig. 4.6 Deformed Shape of Truss

24
4.6.3 To display the result of analysis:
1. Go to Display menu. Select Show Forces/Stress.
2. Select Frame/Cable/Tendon. Display Frame Force dialogue
box appears.
3. Set the Options as shown in Fig.
4. Click on Apply. The member forces are displayed on the truss
model.
5. Click on OK. Fig. 4.7 Frame Force

Result of analysis of loading condition 7 in SAP2000 is as follows:

Table 4.2 SAP2000 Analysis Result under Loading Condition 7

Member Force (SAP) in
SI No Member Nature of force
kN
1 1-2 325.13 COMPRESSIVE
2 1-3 126.34 COMPRESSIVE
3 3-2 32.93 TENSILE
4 3-5 126.34 COMPRESSIVE
5 2-4 274.17 COMPRESSIVE
6 2-5 288.09 TENSILE
7 4-5 0.22 COMPRESSIVE
8 4-6 274.17 COMPRESSIVE
9 5-6 198.92 COMPRESSIVE
10 5-7 91.40 TENSILE
11 7-6 32.93 TENSILE
12 7-9 91.40 TENSILE
13 6-8 435.47 COMPRESSIVE
14 6-9 161.84 TENSILE
15 8-9 0.22 COMPRESSIVE
16 8-10 435.45 COMPRESSIVE
17 9-10 83.72 TENSILE
18 9-11 126.34 TENSILE
19 11-10 32.93 TENSILE
20 11-13 126.34 TENSILE
21 10-12 344.05 COMPRESSIVE
22 10-13 120.80 COMPRESSIVE
23 12-13 0.22 COMPRESSIVE
24 12-14 344.05 COMPRESSIVE
25 13-14 366.21 TENSILE
26 13-15 91.40 COMPRESSIVE
27 15-14 32.93 TENSILE
28 15-16 91.40 COMPRESSIVE
29 14-16 403.25 COMPRESSIVE

25
4.7 Comparison of Results of Manual & SAP

There is a clear difference between the result of manual calculation and analysis result of
SAP. The designing software automatically includes the self weight of the structure (truss members).
It is possible through the material properties defined while modeling. The software is previously
provided with all the standard data that is required for analysis of structures. That is why; the results
obtained from SAP analysis are more accurate and reliable.

Table 4.3 Comparison of Manual Analysis Result and SAP2000 Analysis Result
SI Member Force in kN % difference b/w SAP
No Member Manual calculation SAP Results Nature of force & manual calculation
1 1-2 323.30 325.13 COMPRESSIVE 0.57
2 1-3 125.80 126.34 COMPRESSIVE 0.43
3 3-2 32.70 32.93 TENSILE 0.7
4 3-5 125.80 126.34 COMPRESSIVE 0.43
5 2-4 272.28 274.17 COMPRESSIVE 0.7
6 2-5 286.00 288.09 TENSILE 0.73
7 4-5 0.00 0.22 COMPRESSIVE -
8 4-6 272.28 274.17 COMPRESSIVE 0.7
9 5-6 198.00 198.92 COMPRESSIVE 0.47
10 5-7 90.90 91.40 TENSILE 0.55
11 7-6 32.70 32.93 TENSILE 0.7
12 7-9 90.90 91.40 TENSILE 0.55
13 6-8 433.68 435.47 COMPRESSIVE 0.41
14 6-9 161.50 161.84 TENSILE 0.21
15 8-9 0.00 0.22 COMPRESSIVE -
16 8-10 433.68 435.45 COMPRESSIVE 0.41
17 9-10 83.00 83.72 TENSILE 0.86
18 9-11 125.80 126.34 TENSILE 0.43
19 11-10 32.70 32.93 TENSILE 0.7
20 11-13 125.80 126.34 TENSILE 0.43
21 10-12 342.69 344.05 COMPRESSIVE 0.4
22 10-13 120.00 120.80 COMPRESSIVE 0.67
23 12-13 0.00 0.22 COMPRESSIVE -
24 12-14 342.69 344.05 COMPRESSIVE 0.4
25 13-14 364.00 366.21 TENSILE 0.61
26 13-15 90.94 91.40 COMPRESSIVE 0.5
27 15-14 32.70 32.93 TENSILE 0.7
28 15-16 90.94 91.40 COMPRESSIVE 0.5
29 14-16 401.00 403.25 COMPRESSIVE 0.56

26
4.8 Design Force in all Members

Member force for all the truss members has been determined under all loading conditions.
For the purpose of designing, it is essential to known the maximum axial force acting on each
member under any condition. This maximum axial force is also known as Design Force. The design
force of each member is:

Table 4.4 Design Force in Each Truss Member

SI No Member Maximum force Remarks

1 1-2 442.31 C / LC - 10
2 1-3 135.07 C / LC - 6
3 3-2 219.27 T / LC - 12
4 3-5 135.07 C / LC - 6
5 2-4 332.40 C / LC - 9
6 2-5 353.19 T / LC - 10
7 4-5 7.00 C
8 4-6 332.40 C / LC - 9
9 5-6 257.52 C / LC - 8
10 5-7 129.25 T / LC - 8
11 7-6 219.27 T / LC - 8
12 7-9 129.25 T / LC - 8
13 6-8 435.47 C / LC - 7
14 6-9 161.84 T / LC - 7
15 8-9 15.00 C
16 8-10 435.45 C / LC - 7
17 9-10 174.86 T / LC - 9
18 9-11 129.25 T / LC - 6
19 11-10 219.27 T / LC - 6
20 11-13 129.25 T / LC - 6
21 10-12 344.05 C / LC - 7
22 10-13 270.54 C / LC - 8
23 12-13 23.00 C
24 12-14 344.05 C / LC - 7
25 13-14 366.21 T / LC - 7
26 13-15 135.07 C / LC - 8
27 15-14 219.27 T / LC - 6
28 15-16 135.07 C / LC - 8
29 14-16 461.85 C / LC - 6

27
 CHAPTER 5

INFLUENCE LINE DIAGRAM

FOR

ANALYSIS OF TRUSS

28
INFLUENCE LINE DIAGRAM FOR ANALYSIS OF TRUSS

5.1 General

If a structure is subjected to a live or moving load, the variation of the shear and bending
moment in the member is best described using the influence line. An influence line is a graph of a
response function of a structure as a function of the position of a downward unit load moving across
the structure. It represents the variation of the reaction, shear, moment, or deflection at a specific
point in a member as a concentrated force moves over the member. Once this line is constructed, one
can tell at a glance where the moving load should be placed on the structure so that it creates the
greatest influence at the specified point. Furthermore, the magnitude of the associated reaction,
shear, moment, or deflection at the point can then be calculated from the ordinates of the influence-
line diagram. For these reasons, influence lines play an important part in the design of bridges,
industrial crane rails, conveyors, and other structures where loads move across their span.

5.2 Development of Influence Line Diagram for Member 6-8

From analysis of truss under various loading condition using the SAP software, we know that
the Maximum member force in 6-8 = 435.466 (Compressive) in Load condition 7. In loading
condition 7, joint 3 & 5 experience 144kN load and joint 7 experience 36kN load due to the vehicle.

The maximum member force can also be calculated by using the influence line diagram for
member 6-8 under loading condition 7.

Fig. 5.1 ILD for Member 6-8 under LC 7

29
 Fig. 5.2 Influence Data of 6-8
5.2.1 Calculation the Member Force of Member 6-8 Using ILD
Calculating maximum axial force in member 6-8:
Force = (SDL×∑ Ordinate of all joints) + ∑ (LL×AF×ordinate)
= {32.71× (-0.2499-0.4999-0.7499-0.9999-0.7501-0.5001-0.2501)
+ {14.4×100×1.294× (-0.4999)}
+ {14.4×100×1.294× (-0.9999)}
+ {3.6×100×1.297× (-0.5001)}
= -433.5kN
= 433.5kN (Compressive)

5.3 Development of Influence Line Diagram for Member 5-6

From analysis of truss under various loading condition using the SAP software, we know that
the Maximum member force = 257.516 (Compressive) in Load condition 8. In loading condition 8, 4
& 6 experience 144kN load and joint 8 experience 36kN load due to the vehicle..

The maximum member force can also be calculated by using the influence line diagram for
member 5-6 under loading condition 8.

Fig. 5.3 ILD for Member 5-6 under LC 7

30
 Fig. 5.4 Influence Data for 5-6

5.3.1 Calculation of Member Force for Member 5-6 using ILD

Calculating maximum axial force in member 5-6:
Force= (SDL x Ordinate of all joints) + Σ (LL x AF x ordinate)
= {32.71 x (-0.1397-0.2794-0.4192-0.559-0.6987+0.279+0.1398)
+ {14.4 x 100 x 1.294 x (-0.4192)}
+ {14.4 x 100 x 1.294 x (-0.6987)}
+ {3.6 x 100 x 1.297 x (0.1398)}
= -256.6kN
= 256.6kN (Compressive)

5.5 Comparison of Analysis Result with ILD Result

Maximum axial force for all members of truss is calculated using the ILD as shown above.
The result of ILD is compared with SAP2000 analysis result. The difference in the forces is very
negligible and hence can be neglected. The maximum axial force for all members of truss, obtained
from SAP2000 analysis, is considered for designing the members in the next chapter.

31
 CHAPTER 6
DESIGN OF TRUSS

32
 DESIGN OF TRUSS MEMBERS
6.1 General

The nature of a truss allows the analysis of the structure using a few assumptions and the
application of Newton's laws of motion according to statics. For purposes of analysis, trusses are
assumed to be pin jointed where the straight components meet. This assumption means that members
of the truss will act only in tension or compression. In the bridge, top vertical members are in
tension, lower horizontal members in tension, shear, and bending, outer diagonal and top members
are in compression, while the inner diagonals are in tension. The central vertical member stabilizes
the upper compression member, preventing it from buckling. The ability to distribute the forces in
various ways has led to a large variety of truss bridge types.

A bridge is designed to carry or resist design loadings in a safe and economical manner.
Loads may be concentrated or distributed depending on the way in which they are applied to the
structure. The designer should have first seen and studied many bridges in the course of a long
learning process

6.1.1. Causes of Bridge Failures

In practice, failures occur in different forms in a material and are likely to be different
for steel, concrete, and timber bridges. Common types of failure that occur in steel bridges
are yielding, buckling, fracture and fatigue, shearing and corrosion. Large deformations due
to impact, sway, violent shaking during seismic events, erosion of soil in floods or settlement
due to expansive soils may induce failure in both steel and concrete bridges. The most
common causes of bridge failure include: overstress of structural elements due to section loss,
design defects and deficiencies, long-term fatigue and fracture, failures during construction.
Any one of the above causes may contribute to bridge failure or may trigger a collapse, but
failures actually occur due to a critical combination of loads.

6.2 Design Philosophy

For the design of any structure, capacity and demand are the two factors that play an
important role. Capacity is the amount of load that can be taken by a member. Capacity is the

33
maximum load that a member can sustain. It is different for different materials. Capacity also varies
with dimension. On the other hand, demand is the amount of load that will be applied. Demand is the
maximum load that will be applied on a structure. Demand can also be understood as design force.

To avoid failure of a structure,

𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ≥ 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑

Capacity = permissible stress × area of cross-section of the member

Demand = design force

𝑓𝑦
Therefore, ( ) ×𝐴 ≥ 𝑃
𝐹𝑜𝑆

6.3 Design of Typical Compression Member 6-8

From the problem statement it is known that members of truss are made of mild steel with
yield strength 250MPa. For a compression member, Factor of Safety (FoS) is taken 2.5.

From the analysis of truss members, it is known that the maximum force applied on member
6-8 is 435.47kN (compressive) under loading condition 7.

Thus, for no failure condition;

fy
( ) ×A ≥ P
FoS
250
× A ≥ 435.47 × 103
2.5

435.47 × 103 × 2.5

A ≥
250

A ≥ 4354.7 mm2

A ≥ 43.547 cm2

For designing of members we refer steel table IS: 808 section 5 (i.e., Indian Standard Equal
Angle sections). The section ∠ 150 × 150 × 16 with sectional area of 45.6cm2 is selected for
member 6-8.

34
6.5. Design of Typical Tension Member 13-14

From the problem statement it is known that members of truss are made of mild steel with
yield strength 250MPa. For a tension member, Factor of Safety (FoS) is taken 2.

From the analysis of truss members, it is known that the maximum force applied on member
613-14 is 366.21kN (Tensile) under loading condition 7.

Thus, for no failure condition;

fy
( ) ×A ≥ P
FoS
250
× A ≥ 366.21 × 103
2

366.21 × 103 × 2
A ≥
250

A ≥ 2929.68 mm2

A ≥ 29.2968 cm2

For designing of members we refer steel table IS: 808 section 5 (i.e., Indian Standard Equal
Angle sections). The section ∠ 130 × 130 × 12 with sectional area of 29.9cm2 is selected for
member 13-14.

6.6 Manual Design Results

ISA sections for all members of truss are designed using the maximum applied force on them
with reference to the steel table IS: 808. The assigned sections are as follows:
Table 6.1 Manual Design

SI No Member Design force (in kN) Nature of force Assigned Section from steel table

1 1-2 442.31 C 150 x 150 x 16

2 1-3 135.07 C 90 x 90 x 8
3 3-2 219.27 T 80 x 80 x 12
4 3-5 135.07 C 90 x 90 x 8
5 2-4 332.40 C 150 x 150 x 12
6 2-5 353.19 T 150 x 150 x 10
7 4-5 0.22 C 20 x 20 x 3
8 4-6 332.40 C 150 x 150 x 12
9 5-6 257.52 C 150 x 150 x 10
35
 10 5-7 129.25 T 90 x 90 x 6
11 7-6 219.27 T 80 x 80 x 12
12 7-9 129.25 T 90 x 90 x 6
13 6-8 435.47 C 150 x 150 x 16
14 6-9 161.84 T 70 x 70 x 10
15 8-9 0.22 C 20 x 20 x 3
16 8-10 435.45 C 150 x 150 x 16
17 9-10 174.86 T 75 x 75 x 10
18 9-11 129.25 T 90 x 90 x 6
19 11-10 219.27 T 80 x 80 x 12
20 11-13 129.25 T 90 x 90 x 6
21 10-12 344.05 C 150 x 150 x 12
22 10-13 270.54 C 150 x 150 x 10
23 12-13 0.22 C 20 x 20 x 3
24 12-14 344.05 C 150 x 150 x 12
25 13-14 366.21 T 130 x 130 x 12
26 13-15 135.07 C 90 x 90 x 8
27 15-14 219.27 T 80 x 80 x 12
28 15-16 135.07 C 90 x 90 x 8
29 14-16 461.85 C 200 x 200 x 12
6.5 Design of Members in SAP2000

To design a model in SAP2000, it is necessary to analysis the model. After analyzing the
model, standard preferences should be set.

6.5.1 To Set Standard Preferences:

1. Go to Design menu and select Steel Frame Design

2. From the drop down menu, select View/Revise Preferences
3. Steel Frame Design Preferences window opens. For Design Code, select IS800 : 2007
4. Click on OK.

6.5.2 To Design the Members

1. Go to Design menu and select Steel Frame Design.

2. Select Start Design from the sub menu.
3. After some seconds, the model shows the suitability of previously assigned sections.
For purpose of analysis, all the members of truss were assigned ∠ 40 × 40 × 6.

6.5.3 To Verify the Members

1. Go to Design menu and select Steel Frame Sections.

36
 2. Select Verify All Members Pass from the sub menu.
3. A dialogue box appears which specifies the number of members that failed the stress
check.
4. Click on OK to select those members.

6.5.4 Final Designing

To find out the most suitable section for a member under the given loading condition, it
is necessary to let the software design and analyze the section. For that we need to assign an
auto select option for the section.

1. Unlock the model.

2. Select all truss members.
3. Go to Assign menu. Select Frames & then Frame Sections.
4. From the frame section s list, choose the auto select option created earlier (Angle Section).
5. Click on Apply & then click on Ok. The software will assign some random angle section to
all the members of the truss.
6. Perform the analysis again.
7. Once analysis is completed, go to Design menu and select Steel Frame Design.
8. Chose Start Design and wait for a few seconds.
9. The software will show us a model in which the members are assigned the most suitable
section according to the loading conditions.

6.6 SAP2000 Design Results

To find the most suitable section of any member it is essential to consider the maximum force
that it experiences. From the analysis result it is known that most of the members experience
maximum force in loading conditions 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 and 12. These loading conditions are modeled,
analyzed and designed to know the most suitable section for all the members. The results are:
Table 6.2 Design Results from SAP2000
SI No Member Design force (in kN) Nature of force Section designed in SAP
1 1-2 442.31 C 200 x 150 x 18
2 1-3 135.07 C 90 x 90 x 8
3 3-2 219.27 T 100 x 65 x 8
4 3-5 135.07 C 90 x 90 x 8
5 2-4 332.40 C 130 x 130 x 12
6 2-5 353.19 T 100 x 75 x 8

37
 7 4-5 0.22 C Any section
8 4-6 332.40 C 130 x 130 x 12
9 5-6 257.52 C 150 x 150 x 12
10 5-7 129.25 T 70 x 70 x 6
11 7-6 219.27 T 100 x 65 x 8
12 7-9 129.25 T 70 x 70 x 6
13 6-8 435.47 C 150 x 150 x 12
14 6-9 161.84 T 90 x 90 x 6
15 8-9 0.22 C Any section
16 8-10 435.45 C 150 x 150 x 12
17 9-10 174.86 T 90 x 60 x 8
18 9-11 129.25 T 70 x 70 x 6
19 11-10 219.27 T 100 x 65 x 8
20 11-13 129.25 T 70 x 70 x 6
21 10-12 344.05 C 130 x 130 x 12
22 10-13 270.54 C 150 x 150 x 12
23 12-13 0.22 C Any section
24 12-14 344.05 C 130 x 130 x 12
25 13-14 366.21 T 100 x 100 x 12
26 13-15 135.07 C 90 x 90 x 8
27 15-14 219.27 T 100 x 65 x 8
28 15-16 135.07 C 90 x 90 x 8
29 14-16 461.85 C 200 x 150 x 18

38
CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION

39
 SUMMARY & CONCLUSION

7.1 General

In this internship project, the problem at hand was to perform the structural analysis of steel
truss bridge to design the size of each truss member. The simply supported bridge had a total span
length of 17m and consisted of 2 parallel trusses on both the sides. The lower chord of the truss
supports the roadway which carries the vehicle traffic. Height of the truss was 4.26 m or 14 ft. Floor
beams of cross section “ISMB 600” were provided at 2.13 m interval connecting the truss on both
the side. Width of carriage way was 4.5 m. Thickness of concrete deck slab was 250 mm. It was
assumed that live load is represented by the heaviest truck that can cross the bridge. For static
analysis, dynamic forces due to vehicular motion were modeled using Dynamic Amplification Factor
9
(DAF), times the truck load. Some other assumptions were:
13.5+𝐿

 Width of bridge = 4.5m

 Bridge had single lane of traffic
 Thickness of concrete deck slab for roadway = 250mm
 Density of concrete = 25kNm-3.
 Modulus of elasticity, E = 210 GPa.
 Yield strength, fy = 250MPa

7.2 Summary

Different loads on the bridge were determined. The load of floor beams and deck slab make
the superimposed dead load. The live load due to motion of vehicle is represented using Dynamic
Amplification Factor for static analysis. Various loading conditions were considered for different
positions of the truck. Then the truss bridge was analyzed manually using method of joints to
determine the member forces. Maximum member force foe each member was considered to design
the members. Steel table IS: 808 were referred to select the most suitable section for the structure to
attain no failure condition.

In the SAP2000 software, the truss was first modeled by defining various material properties
and load pattern. The truss was analyzed under certain load combinations and loading cases to
determine the member forces. Influence line diagram was used to determine the maximum force in
each member under various loading conditions. Finally the truss was designed to find the most
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suitable section for each member under different conditions. Designing in software was done with
reference to Indian standard code IS 800: 2007.

7.3 Conclusion

In this project, the truss bridge is analyzed and designed both manually and by using
SAP2000 software. The result of analysis and design of both methods were compared. Analysis done
by SAP2000 is more accurate as it also considers the self weight of the bridge which is not possible
in manual analysis. The design of member, i.e., the selection of most suitable angle section for each
member is done more accurately by the software. The whole process of analysis and design using the
software takes much less time compared to manual analysis and design.

Thus, it can be concluded that use of software for the purpose of analysis and design of any
structure is more accurate and quick. The profession of a structural engineer needs accuracy because
final result of a project directly affects the life and safety of common people. Structural software also
provides the opportunity to visualize different structure’s components on screen. Thus use of
software in the field of structural engineering will produce more accurate results while solving
complex problem in a very short period of time.

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 REFERENCES

1. Structural Analysis by Aslam Kassimali

2. Engineering mechanics by S Timoshenko & Young

3. Steel Table IS 808

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