New Chemistry Numerical Notes

New Chemistry Notes Class 9 ME English Center
Chapter 1 FUNDAMENTALS OF CHEMISTRY

Example 1.1: if any element have number of protons 11 and number of neutrons 12, find out its
atomic number and atomic mass?
Data:
Number of protons = 11
Number of neutrons = 12
Z =?
A =?
As we know atomic number Z is number of protons due to this
Atomic number Z = 11
Atomic mass is A = Z+n
A = 11+12
A =23
Example 1.2: How many number of protons and neutrons are there in an atom having A= 40 and Z=
20?
Data:
A = 40
Z = 20
Number of protons?
Number of neutrons?
As Number of protons is Z = 20
Number of neutrons = A – Z
= 40 - 20
= 20
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Example 1.3: Calculate the molecular mass of HNO3

Solution Atomic mass of H = 1 a.m.u
Atomic mass of N = 14 a.m.u
Atomic mass of O = 16 a.m.u
Molecular mass = 1(At. Mass of H) +1(At. Mass of N) +3(At. Mass of O)
= 1 + 14 +3(16)
= 1 + 14 + 48
= 63 a.m.u
Example 1.4: Calculate the Formula mass of Al2 (SO4)3

Solution:
Atomic mass of Al = 26.98 a.m.u
Atomic mass of S = 32 a.m.u
Atomic mass of O = 16 a.m.u
Formula unit = Al3 (SO4)2
Formula mass of Al3 (SO4)2 = 2(26.98) + 3(32) +12(16)
= 53.96 + 69 + 192
= 342.14 a.m.u
Example 1.5: Calculate the number of moles in 40g of Na.

Solution:
Given mass of Na =40g
Molecular m ass of Na = 23 a.m.u
Number of moles =?
known mass of a substance
Number of moles =
Molar mass of the substance
40
Number of moles of Na=
23
=1.73 moles of Na
2
Example 1.6: What is the mass of 4 moles of CO2?

Solution:
Number of moles of CO2 = 4 moles
Formula mass of CO2 = 44 gm
mass of CO2 = ?
Mass of CO2 = number of moles of CO2 × formula mass of CO2
= 4 x 44 = 176 gm
Example 1.7: Calculate the number of atoms present in 9.2gm of Calcium (Ca)
Solution:
Atomic mass of Calcium (Ca) = 40
1g atomic weight of Calcium = 40gm
40g of Calcium contains =6.02x1023 atoms of Calcium
By using the formula

NA × Mass in g
Number of atoms =
Atomic mass
6.02 x 1024 x 9.2

Number of atoms =
40
= 1.384 x1023 atoms of Ca
Example 1.8: Calculate the number of moles, number of molecules present in 8g of C6H12O6?
Solution:
Molecular weight of glucose ( C6H12O6 ) = (6x12) + (12x1) + (6x16) =180
Weight of C6H12O6 = 8gm

8
Number of moles = =0.04 mole
180
Number of molecules = Number of moles x NA
= 0.04 x 6.02 x1023
= 0.240 x1023
=2.40 x1022 molecules of glucose
3
Example 1.9: A coin of silver (Ag) having 8.5 gm weight. Calculate the number of moles of silver in
coin?
Solution:
The mass is converted to number of moles by the following equation:
known mass of substance
Number of Moles =
Molar mass of substance
8.5
=
107
= 0.07 moles of silver in 8.5 gm silver coin
Example 1.10: Calculate the number of moles, number of molecules and number of atoms present
in 10gm of H2SO4?
Solution:
The known mass of H2SO4 = 10 gm
Molar mass of H2SO4 = 98 gm

known mass of substance 10
Number of Moles H2SO4 = = = 0.10 mole
Molar mass of substance 98
Number Of molecules = Number of moles x Avogadro’s number
= 0.10 x 6.02x1023
= 0.602 x1023 = 6.02 x1022
Example 1.11: How many liters of carbon dioxide would be produced if 0.450 of a mole of carbon
monoxide reacts with excess oxygen at STP.
Solution:
The equation for the reaction is
2CO (g) + O2 (g) --------------> 2CO2 (g)
x1 = 0.450 moles x2 liters = ?
2 moles of CO 2 moles of CO2
So,
0.450 x2 0.450 × 2 0.450
Step 1 = ---------------> x1 =
2 2 2 moles
4
1 mole of gas at STP means 0 oC temperature and 1 atom pressure occupied 22.4dm3 .
22.4l x2 22.4l × 0.450moles

Step 2 = x2 = 10.08liter of CO2
1mole 0.450moles 1mole
So 10.08 liter of CO2 would be produced when 0.450 a mole of carbon monoxide reacts with excess
oxygen at STP.
SECTION- B: SHORT QUESTIONS:

1. Differentiate between the physical and analytical chemistry?
Ans)
Physical Chemistry Analytical Chemistry:

Physical chemistry is the branch of chemistry Analytical chemistry is the branch of chemistry
which deals with relationship between which deals with separation and analysis of kind,
composition and physical properties of matter quality and quantity of various components in
with the changes in them. given substance.
2. Write down the classification of molecule?
Ans) Types of Molecules: There are six types of molecules.

1. Mono atomic Molecule.
2. Di atomic Molecule
3. Tri atomic Molecule
4. Poly atomic Molecule
5. Homo atomicbMolecule
6. Hetero Molecule
Mono atomic Molecule: Molecules consist of one atom.

Example: helium (He), neon(Ne)
Di atomic Molecule: Molecules consist of two atoms.

Example: Hydrogen (H2 ) ,Oxygen (O2 )
Tri atomic Molecule: Molecules consist of three atoms.

Example: H2O , CO2
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Poly atomic Molecule: Molecules consist of many atoms.

Example: H2SO4 ,C6H12O6
Homo atomic Molecule: Molecules consist of same type of atoms.

Example: H2 ,O3
Hetero Molecule: Molecules consist of different type of atoms.

Example: CO2 , H2O
3. Identify the differences among the following:
(a) Atom and Ion
(b) Molecule and Molecular ion
(c) Compound and Mixture
Ans)
(a) Atom and Ion:

Atom Ion
Atom is the smallest particle of an element. Ion is the smallest unit of ionic compound.
Atom can or can not exist independently and take Ion can not exist independently and surrounded
part in chemical reaction. by oppositely charged ions.
Atom is electrically neutral. Ion has negative or positive charge.
(b) Molecule and Molecular ion:

Molecule Molecular Ion
Molecule is the smallest particle in a chemical Molecular ion formed by gain and lose of
element or compound that has chemical electrons by a molecule.
properties of that element or compound.
Molecule is always neutral. Molecular ion have positive or negative charge.
Molecule is stable unit. Molecular ion is reactive species.
Molecule is formed by the combination of atoms Molecular ion formed by the ionization of a
molecule.
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(c) Compound and Mixture:

Compound Mixture
Compound is formed by a chemical combination Mixture formed by the simple mixing of the
of atoms of the elements. substances.
Compounds have fixed composition by mass. Mixtures have no fixed composition by mass.
Constituent of compound lose their identity and Constituents of mixture retain their properties in
form a new substance with new properties. mixture.
Compounds have homogenous composition. Mixtures have homogenous as well as
heterogeneous composition.
4. Define the following terms:

(a) Gram atomic mass
(b) Gram molecular mass
(c) Gram formula mass
Ans)
(a) Gram atomic mass: The atomic mass of an element expressed in gram is called gram atomic
mass. It is also called 1 mole.
Example:
1. 1 gram atom of oxygen = 16.00g = 1 mole of oxygen atom.
2. 1gram atom of carbon = 12.00g = 1 mole of carbon atom
(b) Gram molecular mass: The molecular mass of an element or a compound expressed in gram
is called gram molecular mass. It is also called 1 mole.
Example:
1. 1 gram molecule of oxygen (O2 ) = 32.00g = 1 mole of oxygen molecule
2. 1gram molecule of water (H20) = 18.00g = 1 mole of water
(c) Gram formula mass: The formula mass of an ionic compound expressed in grams is called
gram formula mass. It is also called 1 mole.
Example:
1. 1 gram formula of NaCl = 58.5g = 1 mole of sodium chloride
2. 1gram formula mass of CaCO3 = 100g = 1 mole of calcium carbonate.
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5. Write down the chemical, empirical and molecular formula of the following?
Sulphuric acid, Carbon dioxide, Glucose, Benzene.
Ans)
Sulphuric acid:
Empirical formula:
H₂SO₄
molecular formula:
H₂SO₄
Carbon dioxide:
Empirical formula:
CO2
molecular formula:
CO2
Glucose:
Empirical formula:
CH2O
molecular formula:
C₆H₁₂O₆
Benzene:
Empirical formula:
CH
molecular formula:
C6H6
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6. What is Free Radical?
Ans) Free Radicals:
Definition: Free radicals are atoms and group of atoms having number of unpaired electrons.
Representation: It is represented by putting a dot over the symbol of an element.
Example: Ho , Clo .
7. Describe relationship between empirical and molecular formula? Explain with examples.
Ans)
The empirical formula is simply a ratio of the different atoms in a compound to each other. The
molecular formula shows the actual number of atoms of each of the elements in a compound.
Example: The empirical formula of Benzene is CH which shows simple ratio of carbon and hydrogen
(1:1) while the molecular formula is C6H6 which shows the actual number of atoms of carbon and
hydrogen.
8. Explain why hydrogen and oxygen are considered as element where as water is compound?
Ans) Hydrogen and oxygen are considered as elements which cannot split into different substances by
applying any kind of energy like heat or electricity whereas water is a composed of constituents like
hydrogen and oxygen in a fixed proportion and it can be split up by applying energy.
SECTION- C: DETAILED QUESTIONS:

1. What do you mean chemical species, explain ion, molecular ion and free radical?
Ans) Chemical species: A chemical species is a chemical substance or ensemble composed of

chemically identical molecular entities that can explore the same set of molecular energy levels on a
characteristic or delineated time scale.
Ion:
Definition: Ion is the smallest unit of ionic compound.
Representation: It is represented by putting a positive or negative over the symbol of an element.
Example: H+ , Cl- .
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Molecular ion:
Definition: Molecular ion formed by gain and lose of electrons by a molecule.
Representation: The molecular ion is often given the symbol M+ or M- .
Example: H3O+ , CH3COO-
Free Radicals:
Definition: Free radicals are atoms and group of atoms having number of unpaired electrons.
Representation: It is represented by putting a dot over the symbol of an element.
Example: Ho , Clo .
2. Writ down the applications of chemistry in daily life?
Importance of Chemistry in daily life:

The role of chemistry in daily life is unavoidable fact.
 Cooking, eating and digestion of food are purely camical processes.

 Construction, cleaning and washing of our homes are dependable on chemistry.
 The production of fertilizers, glass, plastic synthetic fiber, polymer, ceramics, petroleum
products, soaps, and detergents are based on chemistry.
 The diseases transmitted through impure drinking water as cholera, typhoid, dysentery, skin and
eye infections can be controlled with the help of chlorine treatment to kill the pathogenic
organism to obtain pure water.
3. Explain in detail empirical and molecular formula?

Ans)
Empirical Formula: The formula showing minimum relative numbers of each type of atoms in a
molecule is called Empirical Formula.
Example: Empirical formula of benzene is CH.
Molecular Formula: The Molecular formula is the formula which shows actual number of atoms of
each element present in a molecule.
Example: Molecular formula of benzene is C6H6.
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4. Explain the steps for balancing the equation?
Balancing of Chemical equation:

Step 1: Write the correct formula of all reactants on the left side and products on the Right side of an
arrow .
Step 2: Balance the number of atoms on each side.

Step 3: If the number of atoms may appears more or less than other side, balance the equation by
inspection method. Multiply the coefficient with formula to make the number of atoms same on the
both (reactants and products) sides of equation.
Step 4: The covalent molecules of hyderogen, nitrogen and chlorine exist as diatomic molecules. e.g H2 ,
O2 , N2 and Cl2 . We must write them as diatomic molecule rather than isolated atoms in chemical
equation.
Step 5: Finally check the equation to be sure that number and kind of atom are same on the reactant
and product side. If yes now equation is balanced.
5. Name the branches of chemistry and discuss any five branches?
Branches Of Chemistry:
1. Physical Chemistry.
2. Organic Chemistry.
3. Inorganic Chemistry.
4. Biochemistry.
5. Industrial Chemistry.
6. Nuclear Chemistry.
7. Environmental Chemistry.
8. Analytical Chemistry.
9. Medicinal Chemistry.
10. Quantum Chemistry.
11. Green Chemistry.
1. Physical Chemistry: Physical chemistry is the branch of chemistry which deals with
relationship between composition and physical properties of matter with the changes in them.
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2.Organic Chemistry: Organic chemistry is the branch of chemistry which deals with
hydrocarbons and their derivatives.
3. Inorganic Chemistry: Inorganic chemistry is the branch of Chemistry which deals with the
study of all elements and their compound except hydrocarbons.
4. Biochemistry: Biochemistry is the branch of Chemistry which deals with the compounds of
living organisms,plants and animals and their metabolism and synthesis in the living body such as
carbohydrates, proteins and fats.
5. Industrial Chemistry: The branch of chemistry which deals with the study of chemical
processes involved in the chemical industries for the manufacture of synthetic products like fertilizers,
glass, cement and medicines is called an industrial chemistry.
SECTION- D: Numerical
(1) Balance the following equations by inspection method:
(a) NH3 + O2 ------------> NO + H2O
Ans)
NH3 + O2 ------------> NO + H2O
Product Reactant
N(1) -------------------> N(1)
H(3) -------------------> H(2)
O(2) -------------------> O(2)
2NH3 + O2 ------------> NO + 3H2O
Product Reactant
N(2) -------------------> N(1)
H(6) -------------------> H(6)
O(2) -------------------> O(4)
2NH3 + O2 ------------> 2NO + 3H2O
Product Reactant
N(2) -------------------> N(2)
H(6) -------------------> H(6)
12
O(2) -------------------> O(5)

5
2NH3 + O2 ------------> 2NO + 3H2O
2
Product Reactant
N(2) -------------------> N(2)
H(6) -------------------> H(6)
O(5) -------------------> O(5)
Now this chemical equation is balanced.
(b) KNO3 --------------> KNO2 + O2

Ans)
KNO3 ------------------> KNO2 + O2
Product Reactant
K(1) -------------------> K(1)
N(1) -------------------> N(1)
O(3) -------------------> O(4)
2KNO3 ------------------> 2KNO2 + O2
Product Reactant
K(2) -------------------> K(2)
N(2) -------------------> N(2)
O(6) -------------------> O(6)
(c) Ca +H2O -------------------> Ca(OH)2 + H2

Ans)
Ca +H2O -------------------> Ca(OH)2 + H2
Product Reactant
Ca(1) -------------------> Ca(1)
H(2) -------------------> H(4)
O(1) -------------------> O(2)
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Ca +2H2O -------------------> Ca(OH)2 + H2
Product Reactant
Ca(1) -------------------> Ca(1)
H(4) -------------------> H(4)
O(2) -------------------> O(2)
(d) NaHCO3 -------------------> Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2

Ans)
NaHCO3 -------------------> Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2
Product Reactant
Na(1) -------------------> Na(2)
H(1) -------------------> H(2)
C(1) -------------------> C(2)
O(3) -------------------> O(6)
2NaHCO3 -------------------> Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2
Product Reactant
Na(2) -------------------> Na(2)
H(2) -------------------> H(2)
C(2) -------------------> C(2)
O(6) -------------------> O(6)
14
(e) CO + O2 -------------------> CO2

Ans)
CO + O2 -------------------> CO2
Product Reactant
C(1) -------------------> C(1)
O(3) -------------------> O(2)
2CO + O2 -------------------> 2CO2
Product Reactant
C(2) -------------------> C(2)
O(4) -------------------> O(4)
(2) Calculate the formula mass (a.m.u) of the following?

Al2O3 , MgCl2 , NaCl , KNO3
Ans)
Formula mass of Al2O3 = 2(26.98) + 3(16) = 101.96 a.m.u
Formula mass of MgCl2 = 24+2(35.5) = 95 a.m.u
Formula mass of KNO3 = 39 + 14 + 3(16) = 101 a.m.u
(3) Calculate the molecular mass (a.m.u) of the following?

C2H5OH, H2O, NH3 , CO2
Ans)
molecular mass of C2H5OH = 2(12) + 5(1) +16 + 1 = 46 a.m.u
molecular mass of H2O = 2(1) + 16 = 18 a.m.u
molecular mass of NH3 = 14 + 3(1) = 17 a.m.u
molecular mass of CO2 = 12 + 2(16) = 44 a.m.u
15
(4) How many moles are required to prepare 40 gm of H2SO4 ?

Ans) Number of Moles =
40
Number of Moles of H2SO4 =
98
= 0.408 moles.
(5) Calculate the number of moles and number of molecules present in the following?
(a) 16 g of H2CO3 (b) 20g of C6H12O6
(a) 16 g of H2CO3:
16
Number of Moles of H2CO3 = = 0.258 moles
62
Number of molecules of H2CO3 = 0.258 x 6.02 x 1023 = 1.553 x 1023 molecules.
(b) 20g of C6H12O6

20
Number of Moles of C6H12O6 = = 0.111 moles
180
Number of molecules of H2CO3 = 0.111 x 6.02 x 1023 = 6.682x 1022 molecules.
Test Yourself:
Q) Identify and list down the chemistry in your home?
Ans) These things were invented by chemistry which are in your home:
1. Baking powder (NaHCO3)
2. Soap(Esters)
3. Detergent(Sodium sulphate)
4. Toothpaste(sodium flouride)
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Q) How you can relate living things with chemistry?

Ans) We can relate living things with chemistry in this way that Living things are made of elements,
especially C, H, O, N, P, and S. Living things are alive because of the chemical reactions that occur in their
cells, such as cellular respiration and protein synthesis, among many others.
Q) In which branch of chemistry analysis of quality and quantity of compounds studied?

Ans) Analytical Chemistry.
Q) What happens due to defficiency of biomolecules?
Ans) Diseases can be caused by deficiency of certain biomolecules.
Q) Identify and list down examples of green chemistry in our environment?
Ans)
Examples of green chemistry in our environment:

1. Safer chemical (polyphenylsulfon).
2. Less hazardous chemical (poly carbons)
3. Safer solvents
Q) Differentiate among Medicinal chemistry and Biochemistry?

Ans)
Medicinal chemistry Biochemistry

The branch of Chemistry which deals with Biochemistry is the branch of Chemistry which
synthetic organic chemistry, pharmacology and deals with the compounds of living organisms.
various biological specialties. plants and animals and their metabolism and
synthesis in the living body such as
carbohydrates, proteins and fats.
The medicinal chemistry is used in synthesis of It tells that how disorder or deficiency of these
chemicals, bioactive molecules (Drugs) and biomolecules causes diseases.
pharmaceutical agents.
Q) How you can differentiate between matter and substance?

Ans)
Matter Substance
Anything that occupies space and has mass is The matter that has specific composition and
matter. chemical characteristics is substance.
It is not the type of anything. It is the type of matter.
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Q) What elements do the following compounds contains?

Washing soda, sugar, sand, caustic soda
Ans)
Elements of washing soda:

1. Sodium
2. Carbon
3. Oxygen
Elements of sugar:
1. Carbon
2. Hydrogen
3. Oxygen
Elements of sand:
1. Silicon
2. Oxygen
Elements of caustic soda:

1. Sodium
2. Hydrogen
3. Oxygen
Q) Identify mixture, element or compound from the following?

Table salt, ice cream, blood, silicon, coca cola, tin, zinc, water, sulphur
Ans)
Mixture Element Compound

ice cream, blood, coca cola Silicon, tin, zinc table salt,water,sulphur
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Q) How you can differentiate empirical formula and molecular formula?

Ans)
Empirical Formula Molecular Formula

The formula showing minimum relative numbers The Molecular formula is the formula which
of each type of atoms in a molecule is called shows actual number of atoms of each element
Empirical Formula. present in a molecule.
Cannot get the exact molecular mass by it. Can get the exact molecular mass by it.
Can predict the type of atom in ionic compounds Can predict oxidation number of atoms,their
and the repeating unit in a polymer. reactions and end products of reactions.
The empirical formula of benzene is CH. The molecular formula of benzene is C6H6
Q) Why formula mass and molecular mass calculated separately while process of calculation is same?
Ans) Because formula mass is used to represent ionic compound while molecular mass is used to
represent covalent compound.
Q) Identify the cations, anions, free radicle, molecular ion, molecule from the following.
O2 , H- , N2 , Cl2 ,CO32- , H2O , Br2 , H2 , H3Co, Na+
Ans)
cations anions free radicles molecular ions molecules

Na+ H- H3Co CO32- O2 , N2 , Cl2, H2O,
Br2 , H2
Q) Justify the classification of molecules?
Types of Molecules: There are six types of molecules.

1. Mono atomic Molecule.
2. Di atomic Molecule
3. Tri atomic Molecule
4. Poly atomic Molecule
5. Homo atomicbMolecule
6. Hetero Molecule
Mono atomic Molecule: Molecules consist of one atom.

Example: helium (He), neon(Ne).
Di atomic Molecule: Molecules consist of two atoms.

Example: Hydrogen (H2 ) ,Oxygen (O2 ).
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Tri atomic Molecule: Molecules consist of three atoms.

Example: HO2 , CO2.
Poly atomic Molecule: Molecules consist of many atoms.

Example: H2SO4 ,C6H12O6.
Homo atomic Molecule: Molecules consist of same type of atoms.

Example: H2 ,O3
Hetero Molecule: Molecules consist of different type of atoms.

Example: CO2 , H2O.
Q) Balance the following equation with coefficient 4 in front of KClO3 on reactant side and 4 in front of
KCl on product side.
KClO3(S) KCl(S) + O2 (g)
Ans)
KClO3(S) KCl(S) + O2 (g)
Product Reactant
K(1) -------------------> K(1)
Cl(1) -------------------> Cl(1)
O(3) -------------------> O(2)
4KClO3(S) 4KCl(S) + 6O2 (g)
K(4) -------------------> K(4)
Cl(4) -------------------> Cl(4)
O(12) -------------------> O(12)
20
Q) Balance the following equation.

CaCO3 +HCl CaCl2 +H2O +CO2
Ans)
CaCO3 +HCl CaCl2 +H2O +CO2
Product Reactant
Ca(1) -------------------> Ca(1)
C(1) -------------------> C(1)
O(3) -------------------> O(3)
H(1) -------------------> H(2)
Cl(1) -------------------> Cl(2)
CaCO3 +2HCl CaCl2 +H2O +CO2
Product Reactant
Ca(1) -------------------> Ca(1)
C(1) -------------------> C(1)
O(3) -------------------> O(3)
H(2) -------------------> H(2)
Cl(2) -------------------> Cl(2)
Q) Prove that Avogadro's number is related to mole of any substance.

Ans) You cannot prove it.
Q) Calculate the number of moles in 30gm of H3PO4 .
Ans)
known mass of a substance
Number of moles =
Molar mass of the substance
30
Number of moles of H3PO4 =
3(1)+31+4(16)
= 0.306 moles.
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Chapter 2 : ATOMIC STRUCTURE

1. Draw the structure of isotopes of chlorine to justify the definition of isotopes?
Ans)
22
2. An atom has 5 electrons in M shell than:

(a) Find out its atomic number?
(b) Write Electronic configuration of atom?
(c) Name the element of atom?
Ans)
(a) Atomic number: 15
(b) Electronic configuration of atom: 1s2 , 2s2 ,2p6 ,3s2 ,3p3 .
(c) Name of element of atom: Phosphorus.
3. Justify that Rutherford atomic model has defects?

Ans)
Defects of Rutherford atomic model:

1. Rutherford did not explain the stability of an atom.
2. In Rutherford atomic model the negativelycharged electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular
path and emits energy continuously. Due to continuous loss of energy ultimately falls into the nucleus.
3. If the revolving electron continuous emits energy, then there would be a continuous spectrum but in
contrast to it we get line spectrum from the atoms of elements.
4. Describe wave particle duality of electron of De Broglie Hypothesis?
Ans)
De Broglie Hypothesis: De Broglie proposed a hypothesis that all matter has particle as well as
wave nature at the submicroscopic level.
Derivation:
De Broglie combine the Einstein and Planck equations and argued that if
E=hγ
Where;
E = energy
h = plank 'constant
γ= frequency of light
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And E = mc2
Where;
E = energy
m = mass,
c = speed of light
hγ = mc2
γ = mc2/h
λ= h/m γ
λ=h/p
Example: According to De-Broglie a light can also exhibit the properties of a particle, similarly a particle
should also exhibit the properties of a wave.
5. What are Limitations of Bohr's Atomic Model?

Ans) Limitations of Bohr's Atomic Model :
1. Bohr's model of an atom failed to explain the Zeeman Effect (effect of magnetic field on the
spectra of atoms).
2. It also failed to explain the Stark effect (effect of electric field on the spectra of atoms).
3. It deviates the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle.
4. It could not explain the spectra obtained from larger atoms.
6. Differentiate between shell and sub shell with examples?

Ans)
Shell Sub Shell

The Energy levels or Shell or Orbit are all possible Any of the one or more orbitals making up an
paths on which electrons are revolving around electron shell of an atom.
nucleus.
K, L, M, N, O, P are shells. s,p,d and f are shells.
Given the principal quantum number. Given the angular momentum quantum number.
Can hold up to a maximum number of 32 Maximum number of electron this can hold
electrons. depends on the type of subshell.
7. How the atoms of 8O17 and 8O16 are similar or different from each other?
Ans) They are similar because both have same number of protons but they are different in that manner
that both have different number of neutrons.
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9. Write down the names of sub atomic particles their masses in a.m.u with their unit charges.
Ans)
Name Mass in a.m.u Charge

−4
Electron 5.45 × 10 Negative
Proton 1 Positive
Neutron 1 Neutral

1. Discuss Rutherford' gold metal foil experiment in the light of structure of atom.
Rutherford's gold metal foil Experiment: Rutherford took a thin sheet of gold and
bombarded it with alpha particles obtained from a radioactive element (Like Polonium). These rays
scattered from the atom and examined on a zinc sulphide (ZnS) screen.
Observations:
1. Most of the particles passed straight and un deflected through the sheet and produced illumination
on the zinc sulphide screen.
2. Very few alpha particles undergo small and strong deflection after passing through gold sheet.
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3. A very few alpha particles (one of 8000) retraced their path.
Conclusion:
1. According to Rutherford an atom consist of two parts nucleus and extra nuclear part.
2. Majority of the alpha particles passed straight line and un-deflected, shows that most volume
occupied by atom is empty.
3. Alpha particles are positively charged and their deflection indicates that the spelling of atom has a
positive charge, which is named as nucleus.
4. The mass is concentrated in the nucleus and the electrons are distributed outside the positively
charge nucleus.
5. The electrons are revolving around the nucleus in extra nuclear part in orbits.
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2. Writ down the applications of isotopes in daily life.

Ans)
3. Explain how Bohr's atomic model is different from Rutherford atomic model.
Bohr's atomic model Rutherford atomic model

Bohr’s model explains that the electrons always Rutherford model states that an atom is
travel in specific shells or orbits which are located composed of a central core where nearly the
around the nucleus these shells have discrete whole mass of that atom is concentrated and
energy levels. light weight particles move around this central
core.
Developed based on observations of line spectra Developed based on observations of gold foil
of the hydrogen atom. experiment.
Describes the presence of discrete energy levels. Does not describes the presence of discrete
energy levels.
Explains the relationship between orbital size and Does not explain the relationship between orbital
the energy of the orbitals;smallest orbital has the size and the energy of the orbitals.
lowest energy.
27
4. Prove that modern theory of De Broglie is related with Einstein and Plank's equations.
Ans)
Derivation:
De Broglie combine the Einstein and Planck equations and argued that if
E=hγ
Where;
E = energy
h = plank 'constant
γ= frequency of light
And E = mc2
Where;
E = energy
m = mass,
c = speed of light
hγ = mc2
γ = mc2/h
λ= h/m γ
λ=h/p
5. How are cathode rays produced? What are their major characteristics?
Ans) Production of Cathode rays: When electrodes inside evacuated discharge tube are
connected with high voltage source at very low pressure(1mm of Hg), as the high voltage current start
passing between electrodes a streak of bluish light (cathode rays) originate and travel in straight line
from cathode (-ve electrode) to anode(+ve electrode).
Major characteristics of Cathode rays:

1. They travel in straight line from cathode towards Anode.
2. They produce sharp shadow of an opaque object placed in their path.
3. They have negative charge and bend towards positive plate in electric and magnetic field.
28
4. These rays when strike with glass and other material cause material glow.
6. Describe the schrodinger atomic model.

Ans)
Schrodinger Atomic Model or quantum mechanical model of the atom:

Introduction: This model was proposed by Schrodinger.
Postulates:
1. The quantum mechanical model determines that electron can be find in various location around the
nucleus. He found electrons are in orbit as an electron cloud.
2. Each energy subshell in an orbit have different shapes which determine the presence of electron.
3. Different subshells of orbitals are orbitals named as s, p, d and f with different shapes as 's' is
spherical and 'p' is dumbbell shaped.
4. The numbers and kind of atomic orbitals depends on the energy subshell.
7. Describe briefly the experiments which provide clue and evidences of electron, proton and neutron in
an atom.
Ans)
Discovery of Electrons:
Introduction: Electron is the lightest particle carrying negative charge in an atom discovered by
J.J.Thomson and William crooks.
Apparatus: The apparatus used for this type of experiment is called discharge tube which consists of
glass tube fitted with two metal electrodes connected to a high voltage source and a vacuum pump.
29
Working: When electrodes inside evacuated, discharge tube are connected with high voltage source at
very low pressure(1mm of Hg), as the high voltage current start passing between electrodes a streak of
bluish light originate and travel in straight line from cathode (-ve electrode) to anode(+ve electrode),
Which cause glow at the wall of opposite end.
Conclusion: J.J.Thomson justified that these rays were deflected towards positive plate in electric and
magnetic field which shows that these rays possess negative charge due to this negative charge,particle
was named Electron.These electrons were obtained from the gas in discharge tube which proves that
electrons are constituent of all matter.
Discovery of Protons:
Introduction: Proton is positively charged particle discovered by Goldstein.
Apparatus: Protons were observed in same apparatus of cathode rays tube but with perforated
cathode.
Working: When voltage is applied goldstein discovered that not only negatively charged cathode but
positively charge are rays are moving in opposite direction by perforating cathode.These positive rays
pass through the holes of cathode,where they strike cause the glow of tube.
Conclusion: Goldstein justify that atoms are electrically neutral, while electrons carry negative charge.It
mean for each electron there must be one equivalent positive charge to neutralize that electron. This
particle is called proton and it is a fundamental particle of all Atoms.
30
Discovery of Neutrons:
Introduction: Neutron is discovered by Chadwick.
Apparatus: He took a paper of beryllium and source of alpha rays. Working: Chadwick bombarded
alpha particles on Beryllium and he found that when alpha particles bombarded on Beryllium some
penetrating radiations were given out.
Conclusion: Chadwick suggested that these radiations were due to material particle with mass
comparable to hydrogen atom but have no charge. These radiations (particle) are called Neutron.
Equation:
8. How many protons, neutrons and electrons are present in the following elements ?
Ans)
(i) Number of protons: 26
Number of electrons: 26
Number of neutrons: N = A – Z = 56 -26 = 30.
(ii) Number of protons: 8

Number of neutrons: N = A – Z = 17 - 8 = 9.
(iii) Number of protons: 17

(iv) Number of protons: 92

31
(v) Number of protons: 6

Test Yourself:
a. What is atomic number of an oxygen atom which have 8 electrons and 8 protons?
Ans) Atomic number: 8.
b. Find out mass number of chlorine which have 17 protons and 18 neutrons?
Ans) Mass number = A = Z + N = 17 + 18 = 35.
c. How many electrons, protons and neutrons are present in Co ?
Ans)
Number of protons: 27
d. Do you know any element which have no neutron in its atom?

Ans) Hydrogen.
Q) Which particles shows mass of an atom?
Ans) Protons and neutron.
Q) Prove Rutherford atomic model based on classical theory and Bohr atomic model based on quantum
theory?
Ans) Rutherford did not give the concept of quantised energy while classical theory also does not
give the concept of quantised energy it means that Rutherford atomic model based on classical
theory. Bohr states that when electron goes to higher energy level it takes energy and when electron
comes back to it’s own energy level it loses energy.This energy is quantised and actually quantum
theory says the same thing, so we can say that Bohr atomic model based on quantum theory.
Q) How you can relate living things with chemistry?

Ans) We can relate living things with chemistry in this manner that Living things are made of elements,
especially C, H, O, N, P, and S. Living things are alive because of the chemical reactions that occur in their
cells, such as cellular respiration and protein synthesis, among many others.
32
Q) What is maximum number of electrons that can be accommodate in's' subshell?

Ans) 2 electrons.
Q) How many electrons will be in L shell of an atom having atomic number 11?
Ans) 8 electrons.
Q) In the distribution of electrons of an atom, which shell filled first and why?
Ans) K shell is filled first because it has lowest energy.
Q) If both K and L shells of an atom are completely filled, what is the total number of electrons are
present in them?
Ans) 10 electrons.
Q) Which of the isotopes of hydrogen contains greater number of neutrons?
Ans) Tritium.
Q) Why do isotopes of same elements have same chemical but different physical properties?
Ans) The reason for this is because isotopes of an element have the same number of protons as an
atom of that element but they have different number of neutrons which affects the mass number. Mass
number determines the physical properties while atomic number determines the chemical properties.
Q) How the isotopes of Carbon are different from isotopes of Hydrogen?

Ans) All isotopes of carbon have neutrons but one isotope of hydrogen(proitum) has no neutron.
33
Chapter 3 PERIODIC TABLE AND PERIODICITY OF PROPERTIES

1. Distinguish between periods and groups.
Periods Groups
The horizontal lines in periodic table known as The vertical columns in periodic table are known
periods. as groups.
There are seven periods in the moder periodic There are eight groups in the moder periodic
table. table.
There is no sub division of period. They are divided into A and B sub groups.
Shortest period,short period and long period are Alkali metals and Alkaline earth metals are the
the examples of period. examples of group.
2. Describe the trend of electronegativity within group and period with the help of examples?
Ans) Electronegativity increases across a period
Electronegativity decreases down a group.
3. Explain the similarity of chemical and physical properties of elements in the same family.
Ans) Elements in the same group have the same number of valence electrons and so interact with other
elements in a similar way. They display similar physical and chemical properties.
Example: The halogens (F, Cl, Br, I) all react similarly.
34
4. Justify that periodicity of properties dependent upon number of protons in an atom?

Ans) The periodic trends are based on the Periodic Law, which states that if the chemical elements are
listed in order of increasing atomic number, many of their properties go through cyclical changes, with
elements of similar properties recurring at intervals.
5. Identify that which halogens exist as gases, liquid and solid?

Ans) Fluorine and chlorine are gases,bromine is a liquid, and iodine and astatine are solids.
6. Why Alkaline earth metals shows irregular melting and boiling point?
Ans) They have small size and are highly electropositive in nature. Consequently, they are solid and the
crystal lattice is not packed uniformly. Due to this irregularity, they show anomalous trends in melting
and boiling points.
7. Why ionization energy, electron affinity and electronegativity exhibit same trend in period and
groups?
Ans) Because all depend on the attraction of electrons.

1. Discuss in detail the long form of periodic table.
Ans)
Long Form of Periodic Table:
The modern or long form of the periodic table is based on the modern periodic law. The table is the
arrangement of elements in increasing order of their atomic numbers. The modern periodic table is the
present form of the periodic table. And it consists of 18 vertical columns and 7 horizontal rows.
Groups in the Modern Periodic Table:
 Groups are the vertical columns in the modern or long form of the periodic table.
 There are 18 groups in the periodic table.
 These groups are numbered from 1 to 18.
 Each group consists of elements having the same outer shell electronic configuration.
35
Periods in the Modern Periodic Table:
 Periods are the horizontal rows in the modern or long form of the periodic table.
 There are 7 periods in the periodic table.
 These are numbered as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 from top to bottom.
 The 1st period consists of only two elements – Hydrogen and Helium.
 While the 2nd and 3rd period consists of 8 elements each.
 The 4th and 5th period consists of 18 elements each
 On the other hand, the 6th period consists of 32 elements.
 The 7th period of the periodic table now has four new elements. They are 113-Nihonium, 115-
Moscovium, 117-Tennessine, and 118 –Oganesson. This addition has completed the 7th period with
32 elements.
 Also, the long form of the periodic table consists of a separate panel at the bottom. It consists of 14
elements of the 6th period called the lanthanoids. And 14 elements in the 7th period called
the actinoids.
 Each period represents the number of shells or energy levels present in an atom of an element.
s, p, d and f block:
Furthermore, based on the entry of the valence electrons in the respective sub-shell, the periodic table is
divided into s, p, d and f block.
36
2. Determine the demarcation of periodic table into s, p, d and f blocks.
Ans)
Demarcation of periodic table in S, P, d and f blocks: The periodic table has been divided
into four blocks, S , P , d , and f based on electronic configuration.
Noble gases: They are colourless, unreactive and diamagnetic gases. They are placed in zero group.
Their electronic configuration is ns2 and np6 and are exceptionally stable.
Representative Elements: It includes metals and nonmetals. Some are diamagnetic and some are
paramagnetic and marked as S block and P block elements.
S-block elements: In S-block elements electrons occupy in ns orbital. The elements of group IA and IIA
are S-block elements. Their electronic configuration varies ns1 to ns2 .
P-block elements: In P-block elements electrons begin to fill np1 to np6 .Elements of group IIIA to VIIA
and zero group are also P-block elements.
d block elements( Outer transition elements): The elements exhibit common Oxidation state. In
these elements electron fills in (n - 1) d orbital. d-block elements consist of three series.
37
f-block elements(Inner Transition Elements) : The elements in which inner f- block filled, are called
f-block elements. They exhibit electronic configuration (n−2)f (0−14) (n−1)d (0−1)ns2 . These are two series
called lanthanides and actinides.
3. Identify the electronic configuration of the following elements.
Na, Ca, F, Si
Ans)
Na: 1s2,2s2,2p6,3s1
Ca: 1s2,2s2,2p6,3s2,3p6,4s2.
F: 1s2,2s2,2p5
Si: 1s2,2s2,2p6,3s2,3p2
4. Determine the location of families on periodic table.
Ans) The location of families on periodic table can be determine by numbers located at the top of the
periodic table.
1. Alkali Metals: Group 1

2. Alkaline Earth Metals: Group 2
38
3. Transition Metals: Groups 3-12

4. Boron Family: Group 13
5. Carbon Family: - Group 14
6. Nitrogen Family: - Group 15
7. Oxygen Family: - Group 16
8. Halogens: - Group 17
9. Noble Gases: - Group 18
5. Discuss that Mendlevee periodic law provide a base for modern periodic table.
Ans) Mendeleev periodic table was the first attempt to arrange the elements although this periodic
table was failed due to many demerits but provide the base for discovery of Periodic Law. On the basis
of periodic Law a periodic table developed in which vertical columns are called groups and horizontal
lines are called periods. This periodic table predict the properties of elements.
6. Explain how shielding effect influence the periodic trends?
Ans) The more shielding electrons you have, the lower the ENC(Effective Nuclear Charge) , so the less
force there is holding onto the outer shell electrons.
If there is less force holding onto valence electrons, then they will be lost more easily, and likewise not
gained as easily.
39
Test Yourself:
(1) look at the given periodic table carefully and answer the following questions
Q) Identify and list down the solid, liquid and gases at room temperature from the given periodic table.
Ans)
Solid:
1. Li
2. Na
3. K
4. Rb
5. Cs
6. Fr
7. Be
8. Mg
9. Ca
10. Sr
11. Ba
12. Ra
13. Sc
14. Y
15. Ti
16. Zr
40
17. Hf
18. V
19. Nb
20. Ta
21. Cr
22. Mo
23. W
24. Mn
25. Tc
26. Re
27. Fe
28. Ru
29. Os
30. C0
31. Rh
32. Ir
33. Ni
34. Pd
35. Pt
36. Cu
37. Ag
38. Au
39. Zn
40. Cd
41. B
42. Al
43. Ga
44. In
45. Tl
46. C
47. Si
48. Ge
49. Sn
50. Pb
51. P
52. As
53. Sb
54. Bi
55. S
56. Se
57. Te
58. Po
59. I
41
60. At
61. La
62. Ce
63. Pr
64. Nd
65. Pm
66. Sm
67. Eu
68. Gd
69. Tb
70. Dy
71. Ho
72. Er
73. Tm
74. Yb
75. Lu
76. Ac
77. Th
78. Pa
79. U
80. Np
81. Pu
82. Am
83. Cm
84. Bk
85. Cf
86. Es
87. Fm
88. Md
89. No
90. Lr
Liquid:
1. Hg
2. Br
Gas:
1. H
2. He
3. N
4. O
5. F
42
6. Ne
7. Ar
8. Kr
9. Xe
10. Rn
Q) Identify and name the artificial elements from the periodic table gives above.
Ans) Artificial elements:

1. Rf
2. Db
3. Sg
4. Tc
5. Bh
6. Hs
7. Mt
8. Ds
9. Rg
10. Cn
11. Uut
12. Fl
13. Uup
14. Lv
15. Uus
16. Uuo
17. Np
18. Pu
19. Am
20. Cm
21. Bk
22. Cf
23. Es
24. Fm
25. Md
26. No
27. Lr
43
Q) Identify and list down the radioactive elements.

Ans)
radioactive elements:
1. Fr
2. Ra
3. Rf
4. Db
5. Sg
6. Tc
7. Bh
8. Hs
9. Mt
10. Ds
11. Rg
12. Cn
13. Nh
14. Fl
15. Mc
16. Po
17. Lv
18. At
19. Ts
20. Rn
21. Og
22. Pm
23. Ac
24. Th
25. Pa
26. U
27. Np
28. Pu
29. Am
30. Cm
31. Bk
32. Cf
33. Es
34. Fm
35. Md
36. No
37. Lr
44
Q) Identify alkali , alkaline , transition metals.
Ans) Alkali Metals: Red coloured elements (in the above periodic table).
Alkaline metals: Orange coloured elements (in the above periodic table).
Transition metals: Yellow coloured elements (in the above periodic table).
Q) Identify and list down metalloids , lanthanide and actinide.
Ans)
Metalloids: Yellow coloured elements (in the above periodic table).

1. B
2. Si
3. Ge
4. As
5. Sb
6. Te
7. Po
Lanthanide: Peach coloured elements (in the above periodic table).

1. La
2. Ce
3. Pr
4. Nd
5. Pm
6. Sm
7. Eu
8. Gd
9. Tb
10. Dy
11. Ho
12. Er
13. Tm
14. Yb
15. Lu
Actinide: Peach coloured elements (in the above periodic table).

1. Ac
2. Th
3. Pa
45
4. U
5. Np
6. Pu
7. Am
8. Cm
9. Bk
10. Cf
11. Es
12. Fm
13. Md
14. No
15. Lr
Q) What is trend of atomic radius in group?

Ans) The atomic radius of atoms generally increases from top to bottom within a group.
Q) Why do bigger size atoms have more shielding effects?
Ans) In bigger sized atoms, number of shells will be more, and they act as screens between the nucleus
and the outer most electron. Thus shielding effect increases.
Q) Which element have highest ionization energy and why?

Ans) Helium has the highest ionization energy because it’s shielding effect is weak.
46
Chapter 4 CHEMICAL BONDING

1. Draw dot and cross diagrams to show how different types of chemical bonds are formed when
fluorine reacts with
(a) Hydrogen (b) potassium
Ans)
(a) The Reaction between potassium and fluorine:

Formation of single covalent bond in hydrogen floride: Formation of single covalent bond in
hydrogen floride is given below
(b) The Reaction between potassium and fluorine:

Loss of one electron by Potassium: Potassium atom is a metal of IA group of the periodic table and
has only one electron in the outer most shell. The electron arrangement of potassium atom is 2, 8,8,1.
By losing one electron from the outer most shell, potassium forms cation (K+ ).
K ----------> K+ + e-
2, 8,8,1 2,8,8
Gain of one electron by fluorine: Whereas fluorine atom is non-metal of VIIA group and has seven
electrons in its outermost shell. The electron arrangement of fluorine atom is 2,7. Since fluorine atom
has seven electrons in its outermost shell, it needs one electron to complete octet. By gaining one
electron, fluorine atom now has eight electrons in its outermost shell and a fluorine ion is formed (F-).
F + e- ---------> F-
2,7 2,8
47
Formation of potassium floride: Thus K+ and F- ions are joint by ionic bond and form potassium
floride.
2. What is meant by octet and duplet rule?

Ans)
Octet rule: The octet rule states that atoms gain or lose electrons to attain an outer shell electron
configuration nearest that of a noble gas.
Duplet rule: The duplet rule states that having two electrons in the outer valence shell, rather than
eight, does not affect the stability of the individual atom.
3. Can you draw an ion which is formed by the atom losing three electrons?
Ans)
48
4. How oxygen forms an anion?

Ans) Oxygen is in group six in the periodic table so it has six electrons in its valence shell. This means
that it needs to gain two electrons to obey the octet rule ,so it gains two electrons and thus form anion.
5. What is the differentiate between lone pair and bond pair?

Ans)
Bond pair Lone pair

Bond pair is a pair of electrons that are in a bond. Lone pair is a pair of electrons that are not in a
bond.
Always in bond. Not in bonds but can form bonds by denoting the
lone pair.
The two electrons belong to two atoms. The two electrons belong to the same atom.
Created due to sharing of electrons by two Created due to absence of orbitals.
atoms.
6. Explain why table salt has a very high melting point.

Ans) Table salt has a very high melting point because it has strong electrostatic forces of attraction
between oppositely charged ions, which requires lots of energy to overcome the forces.
7. How is electronegative value determined the formation of chemical bond?

Ans) If the difference in electronegative value is less than 0.4, the bond is considered non polar
covalent. A difference in electronegative value larger than 0.4 and less than 1.7 creates a polar covalent
bond. A difference in electronegative value greater than 1.7 is likely to be ionic.
8. Why is to easy for magnesium atom to lose two electrons?

Ans) By losing these two electrons, magnesium ion assumes a more stable configuration similar to that
of neon, a stable and almost unreacted noble gas element.
9. Atoms of metallic elements can form ionic bond, but they are not very good to form covalent bonds.
Why?
Ans) This is due to the low ionization energies of the metals. It's easier for them to release few electrons
from the outer shell to obtain a noble gas configuration rather than consuming several ones.
49
10. How does an ion differ from an atom?

Ans)
Atom Ion
Atom is the smallest particle of an element. Ion is the smallest unit of ionic compound.
Atom can or can not exist independently and take Ion can not exist independently and surrounded
part in chemical reaction. by oppositely charged ions.
Atom is electrically neutral. Ion has negative or positive charge.
11. Describe dipole-dipole forces.
Ans) Dipole-Dipole Interaction: When partially negative portion of one of the polar molecules is
attracted to the partially positive portion of the second polar molecule, the electrostatic attraction is
created between two molecules. These attractive forces are called Dipole-Dipole interactions.
Example of Dipole-Dipole Interaction: Dipole-dipole interaction can be seen in hydrogen

chloride. Chlorine atoms are much more electro negatives than hydrogen atoms. A partial negative
charge is created on Chlorine and in turn a partial positive charge on hydrogen due to electronegative
difference.
When two molecules of hydrogen chloride come close to each other, the slightly negative end of one
molecule is attracted to the slightly positive end of another molecule. These attractive forces are simply
called dipole-dipole interaction as represented below:
50
12. Write uses of adhesive material.

Ans)
1. Adhesives are used in door and window manufacturing
2. joining of pipes and elbows.
3. It is uesd as surface protection films
4. It is uesd as masking tapes.
13. Why Intermolecular forces are weaker than intera molecular forces?
Ans) Because intermolecular forces are forces between different molecules while intera molecular
forces involve the actual sharing of electrons for covalent bonds.
14. Write characteristics of metallic bond.

Ans) Metallic bonding is a type of chemical bonding and is responsible for several characteristic
properties of metals such as their shiny lustre, their malleability, and their conductivities for heat and
electricity.
15. Covalent bonds are strong and hard to break but why most of the covalent compounds have low
melting and boiling points.
Ans) Because covalent bond is not a stronger bond, so compounds exhibiting covalent bonds have low
melting and boiling point than that of ionic bond.
16. Write down the characteristics of ionic compounds.

Ans) Properties or characteristics of ionic compounds:
1. Ionic compounds form crystals.
2. Ionic compounds tend to be hard and brittle.
3. Aqueous solutions of ionic compounds also conduct electricity.
4. Ionic compounds usually dissolve in polar solvent like water and are insoluble in non-polar solvents
like oil, petrol,kerosene oil etc.
17. Why ionic compounds are solid?

Ans) Ionic compounds are made up of oppositely charged ions which are held together by strong
electrostatic force of attraction. Due to this reason, they are solids.
51
18. How is hydrogen bonding affecting the physical properties of compounds?

Ans)
1. The compounds with hydrogen bonds have high melting and boiling points.
2. Those with hydrogen bonds are soluble in water.
3. They also have high viscosity.
4. They also have high surface tension.
19. Complete the chart:

Atomic Number Number of Number of Electronic Number of
protons electrons configuration valence electrons
11 11 11 2, 8, 1 1
12 12 12 2, 8, 2 2
13 13 13 2, 8, 3 3
14 14 14 2, 8, 4 4
15 15 15 2, 8, 5 5
16 16 16 2, 8, 6 6

1. Define ionic bond. Discuss the formation of sodium chloride (NaCl).
Ionic Bonds: The force of attraction that holds the oppositely charged ions together are called as
ionic bond or electrovalent bond.
The Reaction between Sodium and Chlorine:

Loss of one electron by sodium: Sodium atom is a metal of IA group of the periodic table and has
only one electron in the outer most shell. The electron arrangement of sodium atom is 2, 8, 1. By losing
one electron from the outer most shell, sodium forms cation (Na+ ).
Na ----------> Na+ + e-
2, 8,,1 2,8
Gain of one electron by chlorine: Whereas chlorine atom is non-metal of VIIA group and has seven
electrons in its outermost shell. The electron arrangement of chlorine atom is 2, 8, 7. Since chlorine
atom has seven electrons in its outermost shell, it needs one electron to complete octet. By gaining one
electron, chlorine atom now has eight electrons in its outermost shell and a chloride ion is formed (Cl - ).
Cl + e- ---------> Cl -
2,8,7 2,8,8
52
Formation of sodium chloride: Thus Na + and Cl - ions are joint by ionic bond and form sodium
chloride.
2. Explain element attain stability?

Ans) An element which does not have two or eight electrons in its valence shell is unstable. It attains
stability by losing, gaining or sharing electron to complete noble gas electronic configuration.
Example 1: Sodium has one valence electron while chlorine has seven valence electrons so sodium
losses one valance electron while chlorine gains this electron to complete noble gas electronic
configuration.Thus attain stability.
Example 2: Hydrogen has one valence electron while chlorine has seven valence electrons so they both
share their one valence electron to complete noble gas electronic configuration.Thus attain stability.
3. Describe the formation of a covalent bond between two nonmetallic atoms.

Explain single, double and triple covalent bond with examples.
Ans)
Covalent Bond: A covalent bond is formed by mutual sharing of electrons between two atoms.
Types of Covalent Bond: Depending on number of Bond pairs there are three types of covalent
bond.
1. Single Covalent Bond

2. Double Covalent Bond
3. Triple Covalent Bond
Single Covalent Bond (-): A covalent bond which is formed by the mutual sharing of one bond
pair is called a single covalent bond.
Representation: It is represented by a single short straight line.

Example:
53
Formation of Chlorine Molecule: When two chlorine atoms share their valence electrons, both
atoms achieve the electronic configuration of noble gas.
Double Covalent Bond (=): A covalent bond which is formed by the mutual sharing of two bond
pairs called a double covalent bond.
Representation: It is represented by two short straight lines.

Example:
Formation of Oxygen Molecule: Each oxygen atom will share two of its outer electrons with another
oxygen atom to form an oxygen molecule (O2 ).Thus, two pair of electrons are shared between the two
oxygen atoms to form a double covalent bond.
The structural formula of an oxygen molecule is written:
Triple Covalent Bond: A covalent bond which is formed by the mutual sharing of three bond pairs
is called a triple covalent bond.
Representation: It is represented by three short straight line.
54
Example:
Formation of Nitrogen Molecule: Two nitrogen atoms will share three electrons to form three
covalent bonds which is called triple covalent bond and formed a nitrogen molecules (N2).
The structural formula of a nitrogen molecule is:
4. How are electrons arranged in molecular compound? Draw electron dot and cross structures for the
following atoms.
(a) H2O (b) N2 (c) CH4 (d) C2H2 (e) Cl2 (f) H2
Ans) They are arranged through the chemical bonds.When two or more atoms combine it shares the
valence electrons then formation of molecular compounds takes place .
(a) H2O
55
(b) N2:
(c) CH4
(d) C2H2
56
(e) Cl2
(f) H2
5. Define metallic bond. How are metallic bonds are formed?
Ans) Metallic bond: This is the force that holds atoms together in a metallic substance.
Formation of Metallic bond: Metallic bonds are formed by the attraction between metal
ions and delocalized or "mobile" electrons.
57
6. What is coordinate covalent bond? Explain with two examples.
Ans) Coordinate Covalent Bond or Dative Covalent Bond: The type of bond in which
bond pair of electrons is contributed by one atom only, is called coordinate covalent or dative covalent
bond.
Example 1: Reaction between Ammonia and Hydrogen Chloride: When ammonia reacts with hydrogen
ions (H + ) in an aqueous solution of an acid, the hydrogen ion is attracted to the lone pair and a
coordinate covalent bond is formed.
Example 2: Formation of hydronium: When hydrogen chloride dissolves in water, hydrogen ion is
attracted to the lone pair of electrons which is available on oxygen and hydronium ion is formed as
shownbelow:
7. What do you understand about ionic character of covalent bond?
Ans) Ionic character of covalent bond: When covalent bond is formed between two dissimilar
atoms then both atoms get partial charges,this character of covalent bond is called ionic character of
covalent bond.
Charge: The atom with relatively less electronegativity gets partial positive charge while the atom with
relatively higher electronegativity gets partial negative charge.
Example: The covalent bond between hydrogen and chlorine has ionic character.
58
8. Differentiate the properties of polar and non-polar compounds.
Ans)
Non-polar covalent compounds Polar covalent compounds
Non-polar covalent compounds are generally Polar covalent compounds are soluble in water
insoluble in water.
Non-polar covalent compounds do not conduct Polar covalent compounds usually conduct
electricity in the solid, molten or aqueous electricity due to the formation of ions with
solution. water.
Non-polar covalent compounds are soluble in Polar covalent compounds insoluble in non-polar
non-polar solvent like petrol, benzene etc. solvent.
Few examples of non-polar covalent compounds Few examples of polar covalent compounds are
are CO2 , CH4 . H2SO4 , H2O.
9. Explain the importance of glues and epoxy resins in our society.
Ans) Importance of glues and epoxy resins in our society:
1. Due to adhesive properties epoxy resin is used for the repair and maintenance of
household objects.
2. Fragile items like glass, ceramic and china can be fixed quickly with an epoxy resin.
3. Glue is used to create a mixture for car tyre.
4. Glue is also used in forensics for getting fingerprints from surfaces.
Test Yourself:
Q) Why an atom form chemical bond?
Ans) So that an atom becomes stable.
Q) When atoms are considered to be unstable?
Ans) Atoms are considered to be unstable when they are unbonded.
59
Q) Why doesn't helium atom tend to gain electron?
Ans) Because it has two electrons in it’s valance shell which gives it stability.
Q) Where are valence electrons located, and why are they important?
Ans) Valence electrons are located in the outer most shell and they are important because they part in
chemical reactions.
Q) What is meant by bonding electrons?
Ans) Bond pair is a pair of electrons that are in a bond.
Q) Write the electronic configuration of Ne (atomic No. 10),Carbon (atomic No. 6) and sulphur (atomic
No. 16).
Ans)
Ne: 1s2,2s2,2p6.
Carbon: 1s2,2s2,2p2
Sulphur: 1s2,2s2,2p6,3s2,3p4
Q) Why, noble gases do not react with other element to form compounds?
Ans) Because they have stable electronic configuration.
Q) Find the number of valence electrons in the following atoms.
(a) Chlorine (b) Sodium
(c) Magnesium (d) Potassium
Ans)
(a) Chlorine: 7
(b) Sodium: 1
(c) Magnesium: 2
(d) Potassium: 1
60
Q) Magnesium is present in which group? How many electrons are in the outer shell of a magnesium
atom?
Ans) II A group.There are 2 electrons in the outer shell of a magnesium atom.
Q) What is the charge of a magnesium ion and what is its symbol?
Ans) The charge of a magnesium ion is 2+, Its symbol is Mg2+ .
Q) Why Fluoride ion is not considered as Neon atom?
Ans) The nucleus of a fluoride ion is the nucleus of a fluorine atom and has 9 protons – but the nucleus
of a neon atom has 10.
Q) Does an ionic bond have a dipole?
Ans) No.
Q) Why doesn't helium atom tend to gain electron?
Ans) Because it has two electrons in it’s valance shell which gives it stability.
Q) Describe the formation of anions for the following non-metals using dot cross structure.
(a) Sulphur(atomic No.16) (b) Oxygen (atomic No.8).
(a) Sulphur:
61
(b) Oxygen:
Q) Where are valence electrons located, and why are they important?
Ans) Valence electrons are located in the outer most shell and they are important because they part in
chemical reactions.
Q) Why, noble gases do not react with other element to form compounds?
Ans) Because they have stable electronic configuration.
62
Q) Write the formation of cations for the following metals atoms using dot cross structure.
(a) K (atomic No.19) (b) Al (atomic No.13)
Ans) (a) K:
Nu+
2,8,8,1
Lossing one eclectron
1+
Nu+
+
2,8,8 electron
63
(b) Al:
Nu+
2,8,3
Lossing three eclectrons
3+
Nu+
+ 3
2,8 electrons
64
Chapter 5: PHYSICAL STATES OF MATTER

Examples 5.1:
Q) The pressure of a sample gas is 3 atm and the volume is 5 liters. If the pressure is reduced to 2 atm,
what will be the new volume?
Data:
V1 = 5 liters
P1 = 3atm
P2 = 2atm
V2 =?
Solution:
P1V1 = P2V2
P1 V1
V2 =
P2
3 ×5
V2 =
2
15
V2 =
2
V2 = 7.5 liters
The volume will be 7.5 liters. The volume is increased by decreasing the pressure.
Examples 5.1:
Q) The 700 cm3 of a gas is enclosed in a container under a pressure of 650 mm of Hg. If the volume is
reduced to 350 cm3 , what will be the pressure then?
Data:
V1 = 700 cm3
P1 = 650 mm
V2 = 350 cm3
P2 = ?
65
Solution:
P1V1 = P2V2
P1 V1
P2 =
V2
650 ×700
P2 =
350
P2 = 1300 mm of Hg.
Thus pressure is increased by decreasing volume.
Examples 5.3:
Q) A 600 ml sample of gas is heated from 27 °C to 77 °C at constant pressure. What is the final volume?
Data:
T1 = 27 oC = 27+273 K = 300 K
T2 = 77 oC = 77+273 K = 350 K
V1 = 600ml
V2 = ?
Solution:
By using the equation
V1 V2
=
T1 T2
V1 T2
V2 =
T1
By putting the values in equation

600 ×350
V2 =
300
V2 = 700 ml
The Volume will become 700 ml, which shows increase in volume with raising the temperature.
66
Examples 5.4:
Q) A sample of Hydrogen gas has a volume of 350 cm3 at 40 oC. If gas is allowed to expand up to 700 cm3
at constant pressure. Find out its final temperature?
Data:
T1 = 40 oC = 40+273 K = 313 K
V1= 350 cm3
V2= 700 cm3
T2 = ?
Solution:
By using the Charle’s law equation
V1 V2
=
T1 T2
V2 × T1
T2=
V1
By putting the values

700 × 313
T2=
350
T2 = 626 K
The expansion in volume is due to increase in temperature.
67

1. Define the allotropy with examples?
Ans) Allotropy: The existence of an element in more than one crystalline forms is known as
allotropy.These forms of the element are called allotropes or allotropic forms.
Example:
1. Diamond: In diamond carbon atoms are bonded together in four-cornered lattice arrangement.
Allotropy of Diamond
2. Graphite: In graphite the carbon atoms are bonded together in sheets of a six-sided lattice
Allotropy of Graphite
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3. Graphene: Graphene contains single sheets of graphite.
Allotropy of Graphene
4. Fullerenes: In fullerence the carbon atoms are bonded together in spheres,cylinders or egg-
shaped formations.
Allotropy of Fullerenes
2. What is Effusion, explain with the examples?

Ans)
Effusion: The Effusion is escaping of gas molecules through a tiny hole into a space with lesser
pressure.
Example 1: Leakage of air through tyre pin hole.

Example 2: Leakage of helium through gas balloons.
3. Define the following:
Boiling Point, Melting Point, Freezing Point
Ans) Boiling Point: The temperature at which vapour pressure of a liquid become equal to
atmospheric pressure is called boiling point of the liquid.
69
Melting Point: The temperature at which a solid starts melting and coexist in equilibrium with liquid
state is called melting point.
Freezing Point: The temperature at which the vapour pressure of a liquid state becomes equal to
the vapour pressure of its solid state is known as Freezing Point of a liquid.
4. What is density, how the density of liquid is affected by temperature and pressure?
Ans) Density: The Density is degree of compactness or closeness of a molecules.
1. Temperature: Liquids are less affected by the temperature as by increasing temperature

liquids increase their volume which decrease density
2. Pressure: Liquids are slightly affected by pressure .Increase in pressure on liquids increases the
density.
5. Explain plasma with the daily life examples?
Ans) Plasma State: It is a state of matter in which an ionized substance becomes highly electrically
conductive to the point that long-range electric and magnetic fields dominate its behaviour.
Some examples of daily life are as follow:

1. The lightning makes plasma naturally.
2. The plasma lamps and globes are popular in children's toys and room decoration.
6. Justify that atoms of Bose Einstein condensate are super unexcited and super cooled?
Ans) Since this state is obtained near absolute zero where there is no energy therefore atoms of Bose
Einstein condensate are super unexcited and super cooled.
7. How kinetic molecular theory differentiates states of matter?

Ans) The kinetic molecular theory of matter states that: Matter is made up of particles that are
constantly moving. All particles have energy, but the energy varies depending on the temperature the
sample of matter is in. This in turn determines whether the substance exists in the solid, liquid, or
gaseous state.

1. Discuss the property of evaporation in liquids? Which factors affects the evaporation process?
Ans)
Evaporation: The process by which liquid changes to a gas phase is called evaporation.
Example: Clothes dry under the sun due to evaporation.
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Factors affecting Evaporation:

1. Surface Area: The evaporation is a surface based process. Greater the surface area greater is
evaporation.For example water left in bowl evaporate slowly than water left in a large tub.
2. Temperature: The rate of evaporation increases with the increase in temperature. Because
temperature increases the kinetic molecular energy which overcome the intermolecular forces
and makes evaporation rapidly. For example clothes dry quickly in a sunny day than a cloudy
day.
3. Intermolecular Forces: The rate of evaporation increases with less intermolecular forces .If
intermolecular forces are stronger evaporation is lesser. For example perfume have lesser
intermolecular forces than water therefore it evaporates quickly.
2. Describe the Boyl's law with example?
Ans) Boyle's Law:
Introduction: This law was proposed by Robert Boyle.

Statement: "The volume of a given mass of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure, at constant
temperature. "
Mathematical Representation of Boyle's Law:

According to Boyle's law
1
V∝
P
Or
K
V=
P
where K= is the constant
The product of pressure and volume of a fixed mass of a gas is constant at a constant temperature
At initial stage
P1V1 = K
At final stage
P2V2 = K
Comparing above equations we get
P1V1 = P2V2
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Example:
Graph:
3. Differentiate between amorphous and Crystalline Solids?
Amorphous Solids Crystalline Solids

They don't have definite geometrical shape. They have characteristic geometrical shape.
They melt over a wide range of temperatures. They have sharp melting point.
Amorphous solids are isotropic. Crystalline solids are anisotropic.
Amorphous solids are unsymmetrical. Crystalline solids are symmetrical.
72
4. Define and explain the Charles' law of gases?
Ans) Charles's Law:
Introduction: This law was proposed by J.Charles .

Statement: "the volume of a given mass of a gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature if
the pressure is kept constant".
Mathematical Representation of Charles's Law:

According to Charles law:
V∝T
V = KT
V
=K
T
Where K is proportionality constant. According to Charles law if volume is divided by temperature, the
answer is a constant.
At initial stage
V1
=K
T1
At final stage
V2
=K
T2
Comparing above equations we get

V1 V2
=
T1 T2
Example:
73
Graph:
5. Describe the process of diffusion in liquids? State the factors which influence it?
Ans) Diffusion: The diffusion is spreading out of the liquid molecules throughout the vessel. The
liquids diffuse less rapidly than gasees.
Example: When few drops of ink are dropped in water filled flask, the molecules move around and
after a while spread in whole of flask.
Factors Affecting Diffusion:

1. Inter molecular forces: Liquids have weaker intermolecular forces than solid due to this
diffuses faster than solid but less rapidly than gases.
2. Size of molecules: diffusion depends upon size of molecules small size molecules diffuse
rapidly than bigger one. For example diffusion is slow in water than alcohol.
3. Shape of molecules: Molecules with irregular shape diffuse slowly while regular shaped
molecules diffuse faster.
4. Temperature: Diffusion increases by increasing in temperature because at high temperature
intermolecular forces become weak.
74
6. How boiling point is affected by different factors?

Ans)
Factors Affecting Boiling Point:
1. Atmospheric pressure: The boiling point is directly proportional to atmospheric pressure. For
example working of pressure cooker.
2. Nature of liquid: The boiling point depends upon nature of liquid as polar liquids have high
boiling points then non-polar liquids. For example boiling point of water (polar liquid) is greater
than ethyle alcohol (nonpolar liquid).
3. Intermolecular forces: It is directly proportional to boiling point. For example boiling point of
water is greater than boiling point of acetic acid.
7. Define vapour pressure and justify that it is visible in a close system only?
Ans) Vapour pressure: The pressure exerted by vapours in equilibrium with its pure liquid at a particular
temperature is called Vapour Pressure.Vopor pressure is maximum add equalibrium.
Yes vapour pressure is visible in a closed system only otherwise, they escape forever, i.e. evaporation.
SECTION- D: NUMERICALS:
1. Convert the following units:
(A)100 oC to K (b) 150 oC to K
(c) 780K to oC (d) 170 K to oC
Ans)
(A)100 oC to K:
K = oC + 273
K = 100 + 273
K = 373
(b) 150 oC to K
K = oC + 273
K = 150 + 273
K = 423
75
(c) 780K to oC
K = oC + 273
780 = oC + 273
o
C = 780 – 273
o
C = 507
(d) 170 K to oC
K = oC + 273
170 = oC + 273
o
C = 170 – 273
o
C = -103
2. It is desired to increase the volume of a fixed amount of gas from 90.5 to 120 cm3 while holding the
pressure constant. What would be the final temperature if initial temperature is 33 oC.
Ans)
Data:
T1 = 33 oC = 33+273 K = 306 K
V1= 90.5 cm3
V2= 120 cm3
T2 = ?
Solution:
V1 V2
=
T1 T2
V2 × T1
T2=
V1
120× 306
T2=
90.5
T2= 405.746 K
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3. A 78ml sample of gas is heated from 35°C to 80°C at constant pressure. What is the final volume?
Ans)
Data:
T1 = 35 oC = 35+273 K = 308 K
T2 = 80 oC = 80+273 K = 353 K
V1 = 78ml
V2 = ?
Solution:
By using the equation
V1 V2
=
T1 T2
V1 T2
V2 =
T1
By putting the values in equation

78 × 353
V2 =
308
V2 = 89.396 ml
4. A gas occupies a volume of 40.0 dm3 at standard temperature (0 oC) and pressure (1 atm), when
pressure is increases up to 3 atm unchanged temperature what would be the new volume?
Ans)
Data:
V1 = 40.0 dm3
P1 = 1 atm
P2 = 3 atm
V2 =?
Solution:
P1V1 = P2V2
P1 V1
V2 =
P2
77
1 ×40
V2 =
3
40
V2 =
3
V2 = 13.333 dm3
5. The 800 cm3 of a gas is enclosed in a container under a pressure of 750 mm. If the volume is reduced
to 250 cm3 , what will be the pressure?
Ans)
Data:
V1 = 800 cm3
P1 = 750 mm
V2 = 250 cm3
P2 = ?
Solution:
P1V1 = P2V2
P1 V1
P2 =
V2
750 ×800
P2 =
250
P2 = 2400 mm.
6. The pressure of a sample gas is 8 atm and the volume is 15 liters. If the pressure is reduced to 6 atm,
what is the volume?
Ans)
Data:
V1 = 15 liters
P1 = 8 atm
P2 = 6 atm
V2 =?
78
Solution:
P1V1 = P2V2
P1 V1
V2 =
P2
8 ×15
V2 =
6
120
V2 =
6
V2 = 20 liters
Test Yourself:
Q) Why gases diffuses rapidly, Explain?
Ans) The gas diffuses very fast because the particles have a higher intermolecular space and kinetic
energy, which is very high in the vapour state.
Q) Why density of gases increases on cooling?

Ans) Cooling of gases causes molecules to slow down and get slightly closer together, occupying a
smaller volume that results in an increase in density.
Q) Explain that Effusion depends on mean free path.

Ans) For process of effusion the diameter of hole must be smaller than the molecule's mean free path.
Q) Which variables are kept constant in Boyle's law?
Ans) Temperature(T) and number of molecules(n) are kept constant in Boyle's law.
Q) When a gas is allowed to expand, what will be the effect on its temperature?
Ans) According to Chale’s law it’s temperature increases if pressure remains constant.
Q) What is absolute zero?
Ans) It is the temperature at which an ideal gas would have zero volume.
Q) Can you reduce temperature of a gas by increasing its volume?
Ans) Yes we can do it by expansion process.
79
Q) Why increase in temperature causes increase in the process of evaporation?

Ans) Although water can evaporate at low temperatures, the rate of evaporation increases as the
temperature increases. This makes sense because at higher temperatures, more molecules are moving
faster; therefore, it is more likely for a molecule to have enough energy to break away from the liquid to
become a gas.
Q) Why rate of diffusion in liquids is less than gases? Prove with the help of examples.
Ans) Rate of diffusion in liquids is less than gases. This is because the particles in liquids move slowly as
compared to the particles in gases.
Example: Diffusion of ink in water is slower than diffusion of petrol vapour in air.
Q) How equilibrium state involved in vapour pressure of liquids in close system?
Ans) Evaporated molecules start gathering over the liquid surface. Initially the vapour condense slowly
to return to liquid .After sometimes condensation process increases and a stage reaches when the rate
of evaporation become equal to rate of condensation. At that stage the number of molecules evaporate
will be equal to the number of molecules condensate (coming back) to liquid . At this point where
pressure exerted by the vapour is called vapour pressure.In this way equalibrium attain.
Q) Explain how evaporation caused a cooling effect?
Ans) Evaporation causes cooling : When evaporation occurs, the molecules of water with
greater Kinetic energy escape from its surface. So the molecules of water with lower Kinetic energy are
left behind. This results in a decrease in the temperature of water. Hence, evaporation causes cooling.
Q) How boiling point of a substance is affected by atmospheric pressure?

Ans) The boiling point is directly proportional to atmospheric pressure.
Example: Working of pressure cooker.
80
Chapter 6: SOLUTIONS
Dilution of solution:
Example 6.1:
Q) How do you prepare 100ml of 0.40M MgSO4 from a stock solution of 2.0M MgSO4 ?
Data:
M1 = 2.0M MgSO4
M2 = 0.40M MgSO4
V2 = 100ml
V1 = ?
Solution:
Concentrated Solution = Dilute Solution
M1 V1 =M2 V2
2 x V1 = 0.40 x 100
0.40 × 100
V1 =
2
V1 = 20ml
Transfer 20cm3 of 2 M MgSO4 to a 100cm3 measuring flask and dilute it by adding water up to the
marks. It is 0.40M solution of MgSO4.
Example 6.2:
Q) How would you prepare 500 cm3 of 0.20 M NaOH (aq) from a stock solution of 1.5 M NaOH?
Data:
M1 = 1.5M NaOH
M2 = 0.2M NaOH
V2 = 500cm3
V1 = ?
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Solution:
Concentrated Solution =Dilute Solution
M1 V1 =M2 V2
1.5 x V1 = 0.20 x 500

0.20 × 500
V1 =
1.5
V1 = 66.67cm3
Take 66.67 cm3 of concentrated NaOH and placed in a measuring flask and dilute it by adding water up
to the mark. It will become 0.2M solution of NaOH.
Concentration Units:
Example 6.3 (Percent by Mass):
Q) Calculate the percentage concentration (m/m) of the solution obtained by dissolving 15g salt in 110g
water.
Data:
Mass of salt = 15 g
Mass of water = 110 g
Mass % of salt =?
Total mass of solution = 15 g salt + 110 g water = 125 g
Solution:
Mass of solute (g)
Percent (mass/mass) = Mass of Solution (g) x100
15
= x100 =12%
125
Thus the concentration of a solution is 12% by mass.
82
Example 6.4 (Percent by Volume)

Q) Calculate the volume/volume percent of solution obtained by mixing 25cm3 of ethanol in water to
produce 150cm3 of the solution.
Data:
Volume of solute = 25cm3
Volume of solution = 150cm3
Volume/volume percent =?
Solution:
V Volume of Solute (cm3 )
Percent of solution = x 100
V Volume of Solution (cm3 )
25
= x 100
150
= 16.7%
Thus the concentration of a solution is 16.7% by volume
Problems based on Molarity of a solution:

Example 6.5:
Q) 20 gram of salt is dissolved in 500cm3 of a solution. Calculate the molarity of that solution.
Data:
Mass of solute = 20g
Molar mass of NaCl = 23 + 35.5 = 58.5g/mol
Molarity (M) = ?
Formula:
Mass of solute 1000
Molarity = x
Molar mass of solute (g) Volume of solution (cm3 )
Solution:
20g 1000
Molarity = x
58 .5g / mol 500
Molarity = 0.683 mole / dm3
83
Example 6.6:
Q) What is the mass of oxalic acid present in 100 cm3 of 2 molar solution?
Data:
Molarity = 2 mol/dm3
Volume in cm3 = 100
Molar mass of oxalic acid (C2 H2 O4 ) = (12 x 2 ) + ( 2 x 1)+ (16 x 4 )
= 24+2+64 =90g/mol
Mass of solute = ?
Formula:
Mass of solute 1000
Molarity = x
Solution:
Mass of solute 1000
2= x
90 100
2 ×90 × 100
Mass of solute =
1000
= 18gm
Example 6.7:
Q) A sample of sulphuric acid has the molarity 20M. How many cm3 of solution should you use to
prepare 500 cm3 of 0.5M H2SO4 ?
Data:
M1 = Molarity of given H2SO4 = 20M
M2 = Molarity of required H2SO4 = 0.5M
V2 = Volume required in H2SO4 on = 500 cm3
V1 = volume of concentrated solution needs to be diluted =?
84
Solution:
M1 V1 =M2 V2
M2 × V2 0.5 × 500
V1 = =
M1 20
V1 = 12.5 cm3
12.5cm3 of 20M is used to make 500cm3 aqueous solution to form 0.5M H2 SO4 .
Section B: Short Questions:

1. Explain the solute-solvent interaction to prepare sodium chloride solution.
Ans) The solvent molecules first pull apart the solute ions and then surround them. In this way, solute
dissolves and solution forms. and water molecules are so strong that they pull these ions from their
positions in the crystal and thus NaCl dissolves.
2. Differentiate between the saturated and unsaturated solution?

Ans)
Saturated solution Unsaturated solution

In saturated solution max imum amount of solute In unsaturated solution more amount of solute
that can be dissolved at particular temperature. that can be di s sol v ed at parti cular
temperature.
The solution has high concentrations than The solution has low concentration than
unsaturated solution. saturated solution
There is no formation of precipitation at the There is also no precipitation at the bottom of
bottom of container. container.
A solution having 20.9 gram of sodium sulphate A solution having amount of salt less than 20.9
per 100cm3 of water at 20 oC is the example of gram per 100cm3 of water at 20 oC is the example
saturated solutions. of unsaturated solution.
3. Define solution and explain the major components of solution?
Ans) Solution: A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances to form a single
phase.
Major components of solution:

There are two major components of solution.
1. Solute
2. Solvent
85
Solute: The component of solution which is always present in smaller amount is called the solute.
Example: Example of a solute is sugar in water.
Solvent: The component of the solution which is present in larger amount is called solvent. Example:
The example of solvent is water in which sugar is dissolved.
4. What do you mean by mass/volume percent ?
Mass by volume percent (%m/v): It is the mass of the solute in grams dissolved per 100cm of
the solution.
Example: 5%m/v sugar solution means that 5 grams of sugar in 100cm3 of the solution.
5. Define with example one molar solution.
Ans) A 1 molar (M) solution will contain 1.0 gram molar weight of a substance dissolved in water to
make 1 liter of final solution.
Example: A 1M solution of NaCl contains 58.44 g.

6. Why does colloidal show Tyndall effect?
Ans) Colloids have particles in them which scatter the passed light, they show tyndall effect.
7. Define the terms

i. Dilution
ii. Concentration
iii. Solubility
iv. Molarity
Ans)
i. Dilution: Dilution is the process of decreasing the concentration of a solute in a solution.

ii. Concentration: The concentration of a solution is a measure of the amount of solute that has
been dissolved in a given amount of solvent or solution.
iii. Solubility: Solubility is defined as the maximum quantity of solute that can be dissolved in 100
grams of solvent to prepare saturated solution at a particular temperature.
iv. Molarity: Molarity is defined as the number of moles of solute dissolved in one dm3 of the
solution.
86
8. Polar and ionic solutes dissolve in polar solvent only. Why?

Ans) Polar solvents will dissolve only polar and ionic solutes because of the attraction of the opposite
charges on the solvent and solute particles.
9. Why does Polar solute not dissolve in nonpolar solvent?

Ans) Nonpolar solvents will not dissolve polar and ionic solutes because of lack of attraction of the
opposite charges on the solvent and solute particles.
10. How are solutions beneficial for community?

Ans)
1. The food assimilation process in our bodies also occurs in solution.
2. Brass and steel are also solution.
3. Silver and tin amalgams are widely used to make dental filling.
4. The majority of chemical processes are reactions that occur in solution.
11. Why salt dissolves in water?

Ans) Because salt is ionic solute while water is polar solvent and polar solvent will dissolve ionic solute.
12. Air is a solution containing oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen and other gases. Which one of the gas is
called solvent and why?
Ans) Nitrogen is solvent because solvent is one which is greater in quantity and we know that nitrogen
is greater in quantity in air than other gases.
13. Why gasoline does not dissolve in water?

Ans) Because gasoline is non polar solute while water is polar solvent and polar solvent will not dissolve
non polar solute.
Section C: Detailed Questions:

1. Describe how to prepare dilute solution from concentrated solution.
Ans) A dilute solution can be prepared by adding more solvent to a more concentrated solution , which
reduces the concentration of the solute.
Example: A concentrated solution of salt and water can be dilted by more adding water.
87
2. Define the term solubility. How does nature of solute and solvent determine the extent of
dissolution?
Ans)
Solubility: Solubility is defined as the maximum quantity of solute that can be dissolved in 100 grams
of solvent to prepare saturated solution at a particular temperature.
Strong solute-solvent attractions equate to greater solubility while weak solute-solvent attractions
equate to lesser solubility. In turn, polar solutes tend to dissolve best in polar solvents while non-polar
solutes tend to dissolve best in non-polar solvents.
3. Why the solubility of a salt increases with the increase in temperature?

Ans) If we increase temperature of solvent, the average kinetic energies of its molecules increases.
Hence, the solvent is able to dislodge more particles from the surface of the salt. Thus, increasing the
temperature increases the solubility of salt.
4. Explain the attraction of Na+ and Cl- ions for water molecule.
Ans) The negative end of water molecules is attracted to sodium ions and the positive end of water
molecules is attracted to chlorine ions. In this case, solute-solvent attractions are more in comparison
with solute-solute interaction, therefore solution of sodium chloride is formed.
88
5. Explain the solubility with reference to “like dissolve like” principle.

Ans) The general principle of solubility is “Like dissolves like”. Its mean that two substances with similar
intermolecular forces are likely to be soluble in one another.
● Ionic and polar solute dissolved in polar solvents.For example,sugar and alcohol are polar and
dissolved in water because water is also polar.
● Nonpolar solute dissolved in non-polar solvents.Such as oil and paints are non-polar, they are
dissolved in ether as both are non-polar.
● Nonpolar compounds are not soluble in polar solvents(water).For example, oil, petrol are non-
polar, they are not dissolved in water because water is polar.
6. What is the difference between solution, colloids and suspension?

Ans)
Section D: Numerical:
1. What is the molarity of the solution prepared by dissolving 1.25 g of HCl gas into enough water to
make 30 cm3 of solution?
Data:
Mass of solute = 1.25g
Molar mass of HCl = 1 + 35.5 = 36.5g/mol
Molarity (M) = ?
89
Formula:
Mass of solute 1000
Molarity = x
Solution:
1.25 1000
Molarity = x
36.5 30
2. A solution of potassium chloride was prepared by dissolving 2.5 g of potassium chloride (KCl) in water
and making the volume up to 100 cm3 . Find the concentration of solution in mol/ dm3 .
Data:
Mass of solute = 2.5g
Molar mass of KCl = 39 + 35.5 =74.5g/mol
Molarity (M) = ?
Formula:
Mass of solute 1000
Molarity = x
Solution:
2.5 1000
Molarity = x
74.5 100
3. A flask contains 0.25 M NaOH solution. What mass of NaOH is present per dm3 of solution?
Data:
Molarity = 0.25 M
Volume in cm3 = 1 x 1000 = 1000
Molar mass of NaOH = 23 + 16 + 1
=40 g/mol
Mass of solute = ?
90
Formula:
Mass of solute 1000
Molarity = x
Solution:
Mass of solute 1000
0.25 = x
40 1000
Mass of solute = 10 gm
4. What volume of 0.5M acid is needed to neutralize 200ml of 4M base?

M1 = Molarity of given acid = 0.5M
M2 = Molarity of given base = 4M
V2 = Volume of given base = 200ml
V1 = volume of acid=?
Solution:
M1 V1 =M2 V2
M2 × V2 4 × 200
V1 = =
M1 0.5
V1 = 1600 ml.
5. A mineral water bottle contains 28 mg of calcium in 100 cm3 of solution. What is the concentration in
g/dm3 ?
Data:
Mass of solute = 28 mg = 28 x 10-3 g.
Volume of solution in dm3 = 100 /1000 = 0.1 dm3
6. A solution of 20cm3 of alcohol is dissolved in 80cm3 of water. Calculate the concentration (v/v) of this
solution.
Data:
Volume of solute = 20cm3
Volume of solution = 20 cm3+ 80 cm3 = 100 cm3 .
Volume/volume percent =?
91
Solution:
V Volume of Solute (cm3 )
Concentration of solution = x 100
V Volume of Solution (cm3 )
20
=
100
= 0.2
7. How much sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is required to prepare 400 cm3 of 0.3M solution?
Data:
Molarity = 0.3 M
Volume in cm3 = 400 cm3
=40 g/mol
Mass of solute = ?
Formula:
Mass of solute 1000
Molarity = x
Solution:
Mass of solute 1000
0.3 = x
40 400
Mass of solute = 4.8 gm
Test Yourself:
Q) Why solutions are important for us?
Ans)
1. The food assimilation process in our bodies also occurs in solution.
2. Brass and steel are also solution.
3. Silver and tin amalgams are widely used to make dental filling.
4. The majority of chemical processes are reactions that occur in solution.
Q) Why solution called mixture?

Ans) All solutions are mixtures because it is two or more substances mixed together.
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Q) How is solution formed?

Ans) When one substance dissolves into another, a solution is formed.
Q) What is aqueous solution?
Ans) Aqueous Solution: An aqueous solution is formed by dissolving a substance in water.
Q) Write any two examples of solute and solvent.
Ans)
Examples of solute:
1. Salt
2. Sugar
Examples of solute:
1. Water
2. Nitrogen
Q) Air is solution of general gases like nitrogen, carbon dioxide, oxygen and inert gases, why nitrogen is
called solvent?
Ans) Because solvent is one which is greater in quantity and we know that nitrogen is greater in
quantity in air than other gases.
Q) Consider two beakers A and B. Each one having 20ml of water. Add 10 g of sodium thiosulphate in
beaker A and 20 g in beaker B and stir carefully. Answer the following questions:
Which beaker's solution is saturated?
Ans) Beaker B is saturated.

How can be supersaturated solution prepared from above experiment?
Ans) By heating beaker B.
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Compare the term saturated and unsaturated solution.
Ans)
Saturated solution Unsaturated solution

In saturated solution max imum amount of solute In unsaturated solution more amount of solute
that can be dissolved at particular temperature. that can be di s sol v ed at parti cular
temperature.
The solution has high concentrations than The solution has low concentration than
unsaturated solution. saturated solution
There is no formation of precipitation at the There is also no precipitation at the bottom of
bottom of container. container.
A solution having 20.9 gram of sodium sulphate A solution having amount of salt less than 20.9
per 100cm3 of water at 20 oC is the example of gram per 100cm3 of water at 20 oC is the example
saturated solutions. of unsaturated solution.
Which beaker’s solution is unsaturated solution?
Ans) Beaker A solution is unsaturated.

How is unsaturated solution prepared?
Ans) By adding less amount of solute in solvent that that added in solvent in case of saturated solution.
Q) 10M HNO3 solution is available in laboratory. How would you prepare 500 cm3 of 0.1M solution?
Data:
M1 = 10M HNO3
M2 = 0.1M HNO3
V2 = 500 cm3
V1 = ?
Solution:
Concentrated Solution =Dilute Solution
M1 V1 =M2 V2
10 x V1 = 0.1 x 500
0.1 × 500
V1 =
10
V1 = 5 cm3Take 5 cm3 of concentrated HNO3 and placed in a measuring flask and dilute it by adding
water up to the mark. It will become 0.1M solution of HNO3.
94
Q) Define concentration.
Ans) Concentration: The concentration of a solution is a measure of the amount of solute that has been
dissolved in a given amount of solvent or solution.
Q) Brass contains 20% zinc and 80% copper. Identify state of solute and solvent in this solution? Also
write the type of solution.
Ans)
State of solute: Solid

State of solvent: Solid
Type of solution: Alloy

Q) Write the difference between diluted and concentrated solution.
Ans)
Dilute solution Concentrated solution

Dilute solution contains a relatively small amount Concentrated solution contains a relatively large
of a solute in a large amount of solvent. amount of solute in a small amount of solvent.
Tap water is an example of dilute solution. Syrup is a typical example of a concentrated
solution
Q) Which one of the solution is more diluted; 2M or 3M?

Ans) 2M is more diluted.
Q) A solution of NaOH has concentration 1.2M, calculate the mass of NaOH in g/dm3 in this solution.
Ans)
Molarity = 1.2 M
=40 g/mol
Number of moles of solute n m
Molarity (M) = = =
volume of solution in dm3 V MV
m
1.2 =
40 × V
m
= 48 g/dm3
V
95
Q) Determine the percentage concentration of the solution obtained by dissolving 10g sugar in 140g
water.
Ans)
Data:
Mass of sugar = 10 g
Mass of water = 140 g
Mass % of sugar =?
Total mass of solution = 10 g salt + 140 g water = 150 g
Solution:
Mass of solute (g)
Percent (mass/mass) = x100
Mass of Solution (g)
10
= x 100 =6.667%
150
Q) A student asked to prepare 10%(m/m) solution of sugar. How much solvent will be required to
prepare this solution?
Ans) Amount of solvent = 90 g

Q) Explain the general principle for solubility, “like dissolves like”?
Ans) Its mean that two substances with similar intermolecular forces are likely to be soluble in one
another.
 Ionic and polar solute dissolved in polar solvents.For example,sugar and alcohol are polar and
dissolved in water because water is also polar.
 Nonpolar solute dissolved in non-polar solvents.Such as oil and paints are non-polar, they are
dissolved in ether as both are non-polar.
 Nonpolar compounds are not soluble in polar solvents(water).For example, oil, petrol are non-
polar, they are not dissolved in water because water is polar.
Q) Why solute dissolve in solvent?

Ans) In case of polar or ionic solute and polar solvent due to solute solvent interaction solute dissolves
in solvent. On the other hand,LDFs are temporary forces formed when the electrons across two nearby
atoms are unevenly distributed, resulting in a fleeting dipole-to-dipole attraction between the nearby
atoms. These temporary attractive forces account for the dissolution of non-polar solutes in non-polar
solvents.
96
Q) Why benzene does not dissolve in water?

Ans) Benzene is nonpolar solute while water is polar solvent ad thus benzene does not dissolve in
water.
Q) Suppose solute-solute forces are weaker than those of solute-solvent forces. Will solution be
formed?
Ans) Yes solution will be formed.

Q) What is the main reason that solute did not dissolve in water?
Ans) Many substances do not dissolve in water and that is because they are non-polar and do not
interact well with water molecules.
97
Chapter 7: ELECTROCHEMISTRY:
1. Define oxidation,reduction reactions with examples.
Ans) Oxidation reaction: Oxidation reaction involves.

1. Oxidation may involve introduction of oxygen.
C + O2 —> CO2 (addition of oxygen)
2. Removal of Hydrogen from a chemical substance.
N2H4 + O2 —> N2 +2H2O (removal of Hydrogen from Hydrazine)
3. The electrochemical reaction in which atom, molecule or ion loses electron and its oxidation
number increases
Cu —> Cu++ +2e-
Reduction reaction: Reduction reaction involves.

1. Reduction may involve addition of Hydrogen.
CuO + C —> Cu + CO (reduction of copper oxide)
2. Removal of oxygen from a chemical substance.
3. The electrochemical reaction in which atoms, molecule or ion accepts electron and its oxidation
number decreases.
S + 2e - —> S 2- (reduction reaction)
2. Why ionic compounds conduct electricity in molten or in aqueous solutions only?

Ans) This is because when an ionic compound dissolves in water, the ions are free to move in aqueous
solution.
98
3. What is electrolytic cell?Explain with diagram.

Ans)
Electrolytic cells: The type of cell which uses electricity for a non spontaneous reaction to occur is
called electrolytic cell.
Construction: An electrolytic cell consists of electrolyte in a vessel, electrodes and a battery.
Electrolytic cell
Working: Electrons from battery enter through cathode at which positive ions are reduced by
accepting electrons. At anode negative ions loses electrons and undergoes oxidation. It means at
cathode reduction occurs and oxidation takes place at anode.
Reactions:
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4. Define oxiding and reducing agent with examples.

Ans) Oxidizing agents: Oxidation occurs due to oxidizing agent.Oxidizing agents are substances that
accept electrons.
Reducing agents: Reducing agent is responsible for reduction.Reducing agents are substances
which lose electrons.
Example:
Zn + Cl2 —> ZnCl2
Zinc undergoes oxidation by losing electrons and it acts as reducing agent while chlorine undergoes
reduction by accepting electrons and acts as oxidizing agent.
5. Examine the following chemical equations and identity.

(i) Oxidizing agent
(ii) Reducing agent
(iii) Substance undergoes oxidation
(iv) Substance undergoes reduction
1. Zn + Cl2 —> ZnCl2

2. Br2 + H2S —> 2HBr + S
3. 2Ca + O2 —> 2CaO
4. 2Li + S —> Li2S
Ans)
Zn + Cl2 —> ZnCl2

Oxidizing agent: Cl
Reducing agent: Zn
Substance undergoes oxidation: Zn
Substance undergoes reduction: Cl
100
Br2 + H2S —> 2HBr + S

Oxidizing agent: Br2
Reducing agent: H2S
Substance undergoes oxidation: H2S
Substance undergoes reduction: Br2
2Ca + O2 —> 2CaO

Oxidizing agent: O2
Reducing agent: Ca
Substance undergoes oxidation: Ca
Substance undergoes reduction: O2
2Li + S —> Li2S

Oxidizing agent: S
Reducing agent: Li
Substance undergoes oxidation: Li
Substance undergoes reduction: S
Q) Identify the Alloy
Components Alloy
Cu-Zn Brass
Cu-Al-Mg-Ni Duralumin
Cu-Zn-Sn Bronze
101

1. Describe the dry cell with diagram.
Ans) Electrolytic cells: The type of cell which uses electricity for a non spontaneous reaction to
occur is called electrolytic cell.
Construction: An electrolytic cell consists of electrolyte in a vessel, electrodes and a battery.
Electrolytic cell
Working: Electrons from battery enter through cathode at which positive ions are reduced by
accepting electrons. At anode negative ions loses electrons and undergoes oxidation. It means at
cathode reduction occurs and oxidation takes place at anode.
Reactions:
102
2. What is battery?How lead storage battery works?
Ans) Batteries: A battery consists of group of galvanic cells connected in a series.
Working of Lead storage battery: Lead storage battery is an example of secondary cell in
which chemical changes can be reversed. It has several voltaic cells connected in series .It contain lead
plates which serve as anode and lead oxide (PbO2 ) which acts as cathode. These electrodes are
immersed in electrolytic solution of dilute sulphuric acid (H2SO4). Chemical changes during charging and
discharging processes can be shown as
3. Explain process of electrolysis in electrolytic cell.
Ans) Electrolysis: In electrolysis current passes through an electrolyte, due to this migration of
positive and negative ions towards cathode and anode takes place. As a result ions are discharged at
their respective electrodes.These all happen in electrolytic cell.
Example: A source of direct current is connected to a pair of electrodes inserted in molten sodium
chloride.Na+ inos flow towards negative and Cl- ions positive electrode.Then they discharge there.
Electrolytic cell
103
4. What is alloy? Explain its classification with examples.
Ans) Alloy: Alloy is the mixture of metal with metal or metal with non metal.
Classification of alloy:
Stainless Steel Alloys: Stainless steel is an alloy comprised of iron and carbon.
Example: Stainless steel is famous for its use in kitchen appliances, cookware, and cutlery.
Aluminum Alloys: On its own, aluminum isn’t the strongest metal—but when you add elements
such as iron, copper, or zinc, you increase its strength and durability.
Example: Aluminum alloys are common in mechanical engineering and aerospace manufacturing.
Bronze Alloys: Bronze contains copper and other additives.

Example: Bronze’s dull color is recognizable in medals, sculptures, and musical instruments.
Nickel Alloys: These alloys are often combinations of nickel and iron, copper, molybdenum, or
chromium.
Example: They are used to make marine piping systems, pressure valves and pump shafts.
5. What is rusting?How it can be prevented.
Ans) Rusting of Iron: Iron undergoes redox reaction in presence of air or water to form iron (III) oxide
(Fe2O3 .nH O) called rusting of iron.
Prevention from rusting:

1. Alloying: Formation of alloy prevents metal from rusting by reducing its ability of oxidation.
Example: Iron (Fe) can be changed into stainless steel by mixing with chromium (Cr) and Nickel
(Ni). Thus iron (Fe) is prevented from corrosion.
2. Metallic Coating (Electroplating): Iron can be protected from rusting by coating its surface
with other metal like tin (Sn) or zinc (Zn).
Example: Iron can be electroplated with chromium (Cr), Nickel (Ni) and silver (Ag).
3. Cathodic Protection: The active metal like magnesium (Mg) or aluminum (Al) is used as Anode
and connected with iron (Fe). These active metals itself oxidizes and prevent other metal from
corrosion.
Example: It is applied to protect underground iron pipe tanks and oil rigs etc from rusting by
making these materials as cathode.
104
4. Coating with paint: An iron is commonly coated with paint to protect it from corrosion. Paint
prevents the reaction of iron with oxygen and moisture.
6. What is electroplating?How steel object can be electroplated with Tin,Zinc and Silver?
Ans)
Electroplating: The process of deposition of metal at the surface of other metal through electrolysis
is called electroplating.
Tin Plating: Here tin is plated on a steel object.

Construction: Steel spoon can be tin plated by using acidified tin sulphate as electrolyte. Tin (Sn) metal
is used as anode and steel object is used as cathode.
Working: When current passes through electrolyte tin ions (Sn +2 ) deposits at cathode as tin (Sn) metal.
Tin (Sn) electrode is then changes into tin ion (Sn +2 ).
Chemical reactions:
Cell diagram:
Tin Plating
105
Zinc Plating: Here zinc is plated on a steel object.

Construction: Potassium zinc cyanide is used as electrolyte to produce zinc ions(Zn +2 ). Zinc (Zn) metal
serves as anode and steel object is used as cathode.
Working: During electrolysis Zn +2 deposits at cathode and Zinc (Zn) anode is then changes into zinc ion
(Zn +2 ).
Chemical reactions:
Cell diagram:
Zinc Plating
Silver Plating: Here silver is plated on a steel object.

Construction: Silver cyanide is used as electrolyte to produce silver ions(Ag+ ). Silver (Ag) metal serves
as anode and steel object is used as cathode.
Working: During electrolysis Ag+ deposits at cathode and silver(Ag) anode is then changes into silver
ion (Ag + ).
106
Chemical reactions:
Cell diagram:
7. State and explain Faraday first and second law of electrolysis.

Ans)
Faraday's First law of Electrolysis:

Statement: It states that the amount of any substance that is deposited or liberated at an electrode
during electrolysis is directly proportional to the quantity of electricity passed through the electrolyte.
Mathematical form:
WαAxt
W = Zat
Where;
W= Weight of the substance deposited or liberated at electrode.
A= Current in Ampere
t= Time in second
Z = Electrochemical equivalent.
107
Faraday's Second law of Electrolysis:

Statement: The amount of different substances deposited or liberated due to passage of the same
quantity of current through different electrolytes are proportional to their chemical equivalent masses.
Example: By passing one ampere current more amount of silver is liberated than aluminium because
silver has high chemical equivalent than aluminium.
Test Yourself:
Q) Identify the oxidizing and reducing agents from the following.
1. Al 2. Na 3. H2S 4. H2SO4 5. KMnO4 6. Zn
Ans)
Al: Reducing agent

Na: Reducing agent
H2S: Reducing agent
H2SO4: Oxidizing agent
KMnO4: Oxidizing agent
Zn: Reducing agent
Q) Identify the oxidizing and reducing agents for the following reaction.
H2 + Cl2 2HCl
Ans)
H2: Reducing agent

Cl2: Oxidizing agent
Q) Define electrolyte?
Ans) Electrolyte: An electrolyte consists of free moving ions and conduct electricity.
108
Q) What are strong electrolytes?
Ans) Strong electrolyte:
Acid: HCl and HNO3

Bases: KOH and NaOH
Salts: KI and NaCl.
Q) What are non-electrolytes?
Ans)
Non electrolytes: The substances which are unable to conduct electricity in molten state or in
aqueous solution form are called non electrolytes.
Example: Benzene and Glucose are non- electrolytes.

Q) Identify strong and weak electrolytes from the following.
1. HCl(aq), 2. KI(aq), 3. NaOH(aq),4. H2S(aq), 5. CH3COOH(aq), 6. NH4OH(aq)
Ans)
HCl(aq): Strong electrolyte.

KI(aq): Strong electrolyte.
NaOH(aq): Strong electrolyte.
H2S(aq): Weak electrolyte.
CH3COOH(aq): Weak electrolyte.
NH4OH(aq): Weak electrolyte.
109
Q)
Ans) i. Sketch electrolytic cell for electrolysis of molten potassium chloride.
Battery
Anode
Cathode
Electrolyte
K+ + Cl-
Electrolytic cell
ii. Identify cathode and anode, oxidation, reduction reaction, movement of electron from the following
sketch of electrolytic cell.
Ans)
Cathode: Negative electrode is cathode.

Anode: Positive electrode is anode.
Oxidation reaction: Oxidation occurs at anode.
Reduction reaction: Reduction occurs at cathode.
Movement of electron: Electrons move from positive electrode to negative electrode.
Q) What is corrosion of metal?
Ans) Corrosion: Metals react with oxygen in presence of moisture and can form harmful metal oxide.
These metal oxide layers are porous and expose metal for further reaction with oxygen to form harmful
metal oxide. It is called Corrosion of metal.
110
Q) Name the methods which are used to protect metal from corrosion.
Ans)
1. Alloying
2. Metallic Coating (Electroplating)
3. Cathodic Protection
4. Coating with paint
Q) How cathodic protection prevent metal from corrosion?

Ans) The active metal like magnesium (Mg) or aluminum (Al) is used as Anode and connected with iron
(Fe). These active metals itself oxidizes and prevent other metal from corrosion.
111
Chapter 8 CHEMICAL REACTIVITY:

1. Identify the elements as Metals, Non-metals and Metalloids from the following elements:
Elements Metals Non-Metals Metalloids

C, Ca, Sb, S, Sr, Si, K, P, Ca, Sr, K, Ba C, S, Si, P Sb, Ge
Ba, Ge
2. What are Alkali metals? Write names and symbols of alkali metals?
Ans) Alkali metals: The elements of group (IA) of periodic table are called alkali metals.
Names and symbols of alkali metals:

Name Symbol
Lithium Li
Sodium Na
Rubidium Rb
Potassium K
Francium Fr
Caesium Cs
3. What are Alkaline Earth Metals? Write names and symbols of Alkaline earth metals?
Ans) Alkaline Earth Metals: The elements of group (IIA) of periodic table are called Alkaline Earth
Metals.
Names and symbols of Alkaline Earth Metals:

Name Symbol
Beryllium Be
Magnesium Mg
Calcium Ca
Strontium Sr
Barium Ba
Radium Ra
112
4. What are Halogens? Write names and symbols of Halogens?
Ans) Halogens: The elements of group (VIIA) of periodic table are called Halogens.
Names and symbols of Halogens:

Name Symbol
Fluorine F
Chlorine Cl
Bromine Br
Iodine I
Astatine At
Tennessine Ts
5. Write names and symbols of any three metalloids.

Ans)
Names and symbols of three metalloids:

Name Symbol
Boron B
Silicon Si
Germanium Ge
6. Define following with examples:

1. Cation 2. Anion
Ans)
Cation: Cations are positively charged ions. They are formed when a metal loses its electrons.
Example:
1. Calcium (Ca2+)
2. Potassium (K+)
Anion: Anions are negatively charged ions. They are formed when non-metal gains the electrons.
Example:
1. Iodide (I–)
2. Chlorine (Cl–)
113
7. Explain why alkali metals do not exists free in nature?

Ans) Because they have only one electron in valence subshell,therefore, they lose easily, owing to their
low ionization energies. Therefore, alkali metals are highly reactive chemically & do not exist free in
nature.
8. Explain inertness of noble metals.
Ans) Inertness of Noble Metal: Noble metals are less electropositive so they are difficult to
oxidize. Therefore they show no reaction with atmospheric gases and resist corrosion.
9. Write names and symbols of some noble metals

Ans)
Names and symbols of some noble metals:

Name Symbol
Palladium Pd
Platinum Pt
Gold Au
Silver Ag
10. Explain electronegative character of non-metals.
Ans) Electronegative Characteristics of non-metals: A Non-metal has the property to

accept electron easily and form Anion. It is called electronegative character.
x + e- → x -
 Electronegative character increases across the period because atomic size decreases and
nuclear charge density increases.
Example: Halogens accept electrons easily due to their high electronegative character.
Cl + e- —> Cl-

1. Explain importance of Silver.
Ans) Importance of Silver:

1. It is used in Jewelry, decorative items and Silver tableware.
2. It is used to make mirror.
3. Silver Nitrate (AgNO3 ) or Lunar caustic is used in detection of Halogen.
4. Light sensitive material AgBr and AgI are used in Photographic films.
114
2. Explain importance of Gold.
Ans) Importance of Gold:

1. It is used in Jewellery.
2. Gold is used in Electronic components.
3. It is used in dentistry.
4. Gold coated polyester films are used in space vehicles to reflect infrared radiation and stabilize
the temperature of space vehicle.
3. Explain the experiment to test Cl- and I- Ions.

Ans)
4. Explain Electropositive character of metals.
Ans) Electropositive Character of metals: Metals are highly electro positive, due to this
property they easily lose their valance shell electrons.
Al —> Al 3+ +3e -
 Electro positive character of metals increases down the group with increasing atomic size.
Example: The nucleus force on valence shell of Alkali metals is very weak so they can lose their valence
electron easily. Hence they are highly reactive, highly electro positive, powerful reducing agents and
cannot exist free in nature. Alkali earth metals lose one electron and form monovalent cation,e.g.Li +
and Na +.
115
5. Explain the position of Magnesium in periodic table and its importance.
Ans) Magnesium (Mg):
Position: It is 8th most abundant element found in earth's crust. Magnesium belongs to II-A group and
3rd period of periodic table.
Importance:
1. It is used in flares and photographic flash bulbs.
2. It is used for manufacturing of Mobile Phones, Laptop and Tablet Computers.
3. It is used in vehicles.
4. It is used in tenis rackets and handles of archery bows.
6. Explain the position of Sodium in periodic table and its importance.
Ans) Sodium (Na):
Position: It is sixth most abundant element and constitutes 2.87% of earth's crust. It belongs to IA
group, 3rd period of periodic table.
Properties:
1. Sodium is silvery white alkali metal.
2. It melts at 97.8 oC and boils at 881.4 oC.
3. It is soft and can be cut with Knife.
4. It violently reacts with H2O water and form Sodium Hydroxide and Hydrogen gas.
2Na + 2H2O —> 2NaOH + H2
7. Arrange the following Halogen Acids in increasing order of their Acidic strength:
HBr, HCl, HI, HF
Ans) Halogen Acids in increasing order of their Acidic strength are following:
HF < HCl < HBr < HI
8. Explain Electronegative character of non-metals.
Ans) Electronegative Characteristics of non-metals: A Non-metal has the property to

accept electron easily and form Anion. It is called electronegative character.
x + e- → x -
 Electronegative character increases across the period because atomic size decreases and
nuclear charge density increases.
116
Example: Halogens accept electrons easily due to their high electronegative character.
Cl + e- —> Cl-
9. Differentiate between sodium and iron as soft and hard metal.

Ans)
Sodium Iron
It is a soft metal of group IA. It is a hard metal VIIIB.
It has large atomic size. It has smaller ionic radii.
It has low value (0.5) on moh scale. It has high value (4.5) on moh scale.
It can be cut easily with knife. It is hammered to form sheets and wires.
10. Discuss the reactivity of Halogens.

Ans) Comparison of Reactivity of the Halogen:
1. Oxidising agent: Halogens act as oxidizing agent, because they easily accept electron.
Example:
2Na + Cl2 —> 2NaCl
Power of Halogens as oxidizing agent decreases in the following order.
F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2
2. Displacement: More reactive Halogen can displace less reactive Halogen form a solution of its
salt.
Example:
2KI + Cl2 —> 2KCl + I2
Chlorine is more reactive Halogen than Iodine so Chlorine displaces Iodine.
3.
2KCl + F2 —> 2KF + Cl2
2KBr + F2 —> 2KF + Br2
4. Formation of halogen acid: Reaction of Hydrogen with Halogen forms Halogen acid.
 The Acidic strength of Halogen Acid decreases in this order,HI > HBr > HCl > HF
117
Test Yourself:
Q) Which metal is found in liquid state?
Ans) Mercury (Hg)
Q) Identify the alkaline earth metals from the following elements.
Bi, Br, Ba, B, Se, Si, Sb, Sr
Ans) Alkaline earth metals:

Sr , Ba .
Q) Write few properties of metals.
Ans) Properties of metals:

1. Metals are usually malleable and ductile.
2. They are conductor of electricity and heat.
3. Melting and boiling points of metal are usually high as the atoms in metals are packed tightly.
4. Metals have high densities.
Q) Write some properties of non-metals.
Ans) Properties of Non-metals:

1. Non-metals cannot be hammered into thin sheets.
2. Non-metals are not ductile.
3. Non-metals are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
4. Non-metals have low tensile strength
Q) Write uses of baking soda, bleach and sodium nitrate.
Ans) Uses of Baking soda:

1. Used in Baking Powder.
2. Used in Health Salt.
3. Used in Beverages.
Uses of Bleach:
1. Used to Keep Duvets & Sheets White and Bright.
2. Helps Flowers Last Longer.
3. Remove Stains from White Clothing.
4. Sanitize Plastic Toys.
118
Uses of Sodium nitrate:

1. Used as fertilizer.
2. Used in Dynamite.
Q) Enlist the uses of magnesium.

Ans)
Uses of magnesium:
1. It is used in flares and photographic flash bulbs.
2. It is used for manufacturing of Mobile Phones, Laptop and Tablet Computers.
3. It is used in vehicles.
4. It is used in tenis rackets and handles of archery bows.
Q) Write uses of Slaked lime , Gypsum and calcium tungstate.

Ans)
Uses of Slaked lime:

1. Used in water treatment to reduce acidity.
2. Used as soil conditioner.
3. Used in steel industry to remove impurities from Iron ore
Uses of Gypsum:
1. Used as component in construction of buildings.
2. Used medically in plaster for setting broken bones.
Uses of Calcium tungstate:

1. Used in Luminous paints.
Q) Define Soft metals with examples.
Ans) Soft metal: The metals which are scratched easily are called soft metals.
Example: Alkali metals like; Sodium(Na) and Potassium (K).

Q) Define hard metals with examples.
Ans) Hard metals: Metals which show strong resistance towards scratching are called hard metals.
Example: Nickle (Ni) and Iron (Fe).
119
Q) Write melting point, boiling point, density and moh values of sodium and iron.
Ans)
Sodium:
Melting point: 98 oC
Boiling point: 890 oC
Density: 0.971 g/cm3
moh values: It has low value (0.5) on moh scale.
Iron:
Melting point: 1535 oC
Boiling point: 2450 oC
Density: 7.87 g/cm3
moh values: It has low value (4.5) on moh scale.
Q) Write names and symbols of few noble metals?
Ans)
Names and symbols of some noble metals:

Name Symbol
Palladium Pd
Platinum Pt
Gold Au
Silver Ag
Q) Why helmets of astronauts are coated with thin film of gold?
Ans) The helmet of Astronaut is coated with thin film of gold which reflect intense Solar radiation and
protect eyes and skin of astronaut.
Q) Why glass surface are coated with gold?

Ans) Glass surface coated with gold will reflect solar radiations outward and keep the Buildings cool in
summer. It also reflects internal heat inward and keeps the Building warm in winter.
Q) Why gold is used in jewelry?

Ans) It is used in Jewellery because it has very high luster, yellow colour and tarnish resistance.
120
Q) Why platinum is used as catalytic converter in vehicles?

Ans) Because it helps the complete combustion of Hydrocarbons and reduces the emission of air
pollutants.
Q) Describe the properties of non-metals.
Ans) Properties of Non-metals:

1. Non-metals cannot be hammered into thin sheets.
2. Non-metals are not ductile.
3. Non-metals are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
4. Non-metals have low tensile strength
Q) Identify the VIIIA group elements from the following:

N, Na, Ni, Ne, Ar, At, He.
Ans)
VIIIA group elements:

Ne, Ar, He .
Q) Write names and symbols of Non metals of VA group elements.

Ans)
Names and symbols of Non metals of VA group elements:

Name Symbol
Nitrogen N
Phosphorus P
Q) Which group contain non metals in gaseous state only?

Ans) VIIIA group.
121

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New Chemistry Notes Class 9 ME English Center

Chapter 1 FUNDAMENTALS OF CHEMISTRY

As we know atomic number Z is number of protons due to this

Atomic mass is A = Z+n

Example 1.3: Calculate the molecular mass of HNO3

Atomic mass of N = 14 a.m.u

Atomic mass of O = 16 a.m.u

Molecular mass = 1(At. Mass of H) +1(At. Mass of N) +3(At. Mass of O)

Example 1.4: Calculate the Formula mass of Al2 (SO4)3

Atomic mass of S = 32 a.m.u

Atomic mass of O = 16 a.m.u

Formula unit = Al3 (SO4)2

Formula mass of Al3 (SO4)2 = 2(26.98) + 3(32) +12(16)

Example 1.5: Calculate the number of moles in 40g of Na.

Molecular m ass of Na = 23 a.m.u

Example 1.6: What is the mass of 4 moles of CO2?

Formula mass of CO2 = 44 gm

Mass of CO2 = number of moles of CO2 × formula mass of CO2

1g atomic weight of Calcium = 40gm

40g of Calcium contains =6.02x1023 atoms of Calcium

By using the formula

6.02 x 1024 x 9.2

Weight of C6H12O6 = 8gm

= 0.04 x 6.02 x1023

=2.40 x1022 molecules of glucose

Molar mass of H2SO4 = 98 gm

= 0.602 x1023 = 6.02 x1022

2CO (g) + O2 (g) --------------> 2CO2 (g)

x1 = 0.450 moles x2 liters = ?

2 moles of CO 2 moles of CO2

22.4l x2 22.4l × 0.450moles

SECTION- B: SHORT QUESTIONS:

Physical Chemistry Analytical Chemistry:

2. Write down the classification of molecule?

Ans) Types of Molecules: There are six types of molecules.

3. Tri atomic Molecule

4. Poly atomic Molecule

Mono atomic Molecule: Molecules consist of one atom.

Di atomic Molecule: Molecules consist of two atoms.

Tri atomic Molecule: Molecules consist of three atoms.

Poly atomic Molecule: Molecules consist of many atoms.

Homo atomic Molecule: Molecules consist of same type of atoms.

Hetero Molecule: Molecules consist of different type of atoms.

(b) Molecule and Molecular ion

(c) Compound and Mixture

(a) Atom and Ion:

(b) Molecule and Molecular ion:

(c) Compound and Mixture:

4. Define the following terms:

(b) Gram molecular mass

(c) Gram formula mass

2. 1gram atom of carbon = 12.00g = 1 mole of carbon atom

2. 1gram molecule of water (H20) = 18.00g = 1 mole of water

2. 1gram formula mass of CaCO3 = 100g = 1 mole of calcium carbonate.

6. What is Free Radical?

Ans) Free Radicals:

SECTION- C: DETAILED QUESTIONS:

Ans) Chemical species: A chemical species is a chemical substance or ensemble composed of

Importance of Chemistry in daily life:

 Cooking, eating and digestion of food are purely camical processes.

3. Explain in detail empirical and molecular formula?

Example: Empirical formula of benzene is CH.

Example: Molecular formula of benzene is C6H6.

4. Explain the steps for balancing the equation?