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 NEW PERSPECTIVES

The Internet
10th Editi o n

COMPREHENSIVE

]essica Evans

Ralph Hooper
T he Univers ity of Alabama

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 丁he Internet, 10th Edition, Comp陀 hensive iii

BRIEF CONTENTS
M 。由Jle1 Browser Basics W回 1
UsÎng Web Browser Software

Module 2 Basic Commun • cation on the Internet: Email WEB 55

USÎng EmaÎI and SharÎng Files

Module 3 Searching the Web WEB 107

USÎng Search EngÎnes EffectÎveJy

Module 4 lnformation Resources on the Web WEB 149

FÎndÎng Specific Information On/ine

Module 5 User-Generated Content on the Internet WEB 199

EvaJuating Different Methods of Internet Communication

Module 6 Jnternet Security. . . . . . . . . .... ... .... ... ...•. ..... WEB 245
Managing Common SecurÎty Threats

Module 7 V川 reless Networking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 295

USÎng and Securing Wireless Networks and OevÎces

Module 8 Creating Effective Webpages .. . ........ . . . WEB 335

Creating HTML Documents and Understanding Browser Extensions

Module 9 ElectronÎc Commerce. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 379

Ooing Bυsiness on the Internet

Module 10 Introduction to Oata on the Internet WEB 415

Appendix A The Internet and World Wide Web WEBA1

Additional A且 ignments 1-4 ADD 1

Additional Assignments 5-8 ADD9

Index REF 1

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 New I'e rs pect仰 es Series

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Advanced Edge Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 39
INTERNET MODULES
Searching from Edge Address Bar. . . . . . . . . . . WEB 40
Module 1 Browser Ba sics Changing How Edge Searches the Web . . . . . . WEB 40
Using Web Browser 50仕 ware.......... .. . WEB 1
Edge Reading Ust and Reading View ........ WEB 42
Session 1.1 Visual Overview: Chrome, Customizing Edge .................. . .... WEB 42
Edge, and Firefox Browsers... . . . ....... .. .WEB 2 Using Edge to Annotate and Share Webpages . . WEB 44
Understanding the Internet and the Web . . . . . . . WEB 4 Advanced Firefox Features WEB 44
Working 阳 th Hypertext Markup language Customizing Firefox WEB45
and Hyperlinks .............. . . . WEB 5
Managing Downloads in Firefox. . . . . .. WEB 47
5tarting a Browser ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 5
Efficiently Searching on a Webpage in Firefox . WEB 48
Navigating Webpages . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . WEB 6
Entering a URl in the Address Bar. . . . . . WEB 6 Session 1.2 Ouick Check •..• . • . • . • . • . • . • .WEB SO
Clicking Unks . . . . . . . . . . WEB 8 Review Assignments. . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . , . . . . . . WEB 51

Na 川 gating Visited Webpages . . .. WEB 10 Case Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 52

Using the Page Tabs . . . . . . . .. WEB 10 Module 2 Basic Communication on the Internet: Email
Changing Your Home Page . . WEB 11 Using Email and Sharing Files . . , • • . . . • • . . • • WEB SS
Using Bookmarks and Favorites ... . . WEB 13
Session 2.1 Visual Overview: How Email
Deleting Bookmarks, Favorites, and Folders. .. WEB 16
Works • . , • • • • • • • • • • • • • • , • • • • • , • , • , • • • •WEB 56
N 酬 gating Webpages Using Browser History .. WEB 16
What Is Email and How Does It Work?.. .... .WEB 58
Managing Cookies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 18
Common Features of an Email Message WEB 59
Using Private Web Browsing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 21
T0 , Cc, and Bcc WEB60
Getting Help with Your Browser. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 22
From WEB60
Saving Webpage Content. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WE8 24
Subject...................... .. , . . ..... WEB60
Saving Webpages. ... .................... WEB 24
Attachments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 60
Saving an Image from a Webpage. . . . . . . . . . . WEB 24
Message Body and Signatures..... ....... .. .w EB 61
Copying Text from a Webpage . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 26
Internet Etiquette (Netiquette) . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 62
Printing a Webpage .. . . . . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . WEB 28
Email Apps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . WEB 64
Session 1.1 Ouick Check. . . . . . . . . .... . . .. .WEB 剖 Comrnon Features of Email Apps.. ............. WEB 65

Session 1.2 Visual Overview: Chrome, Sending Messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 65

Edge, and Firefox Browsers. . • . • . • • • • . • . . . WEB 32 Receiving and Storing Messages . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 65
Advanced Browser Features. . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 34 Printing a Message. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 65
Advanced Chrome Features. . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 34 Organizing Messages. . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . WEB 65
Getting the Most Out of the Chrome Omnibox. . WEB 34 Forwarding a Message WEB66
Using Chrome on Foreign language Websites . . .WEB 35 Replying to a Message WEB66
ccu
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ctu WEB 36 De leting a Message WEB 67

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WEB 38 Managing Your Contacts WEB 67

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，

WEB 38

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 丁he Internet, 10th Edition, Comp陀 hensive

Protecting Your Computer from Viruses WEB 68 Web到te Ownership and Objectivity WEB139
Dealing 时th Unsolicited Messages . . . . . . . . . WEB 69 Evaluating Accurac 肌 Relevance， Scope,
and Objectivity of Content WEB 139
Session 2.1 Ouick Check. • . • . • . • . . . . . . . . . . WEB 川
Form and Appearance WEB 140
Session 2.2 Visual Overview: Message Evaluating the Quality of a Webpage WEB 140
In Gmail . . . • . • . . . • . • . • . • . • . • . . . . • . . . . . WEB 72 Evaluating Wikipedia Resources WEB 142
Webmail Providers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 74 Search Engine Optimization WEB 143
Creating a Google Account . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 75
Sessi町、 3.2 Ouick Check ……........ .. WEB 144
Logging in to Your Gmail Account . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 79
Review Assignments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 145
Sending a Message Using Gmail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 81
Case Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 145
Receiving and Opening a Message . . . WEB 85
Opening and Saving an Attached File . . . . . . . . WEB 86 Module 4 Information Resources on the Web
Replying to and Forwarding Messages . . . . . . . WEB 87 Finding Specific Information Online . . . .. . . . WEB 149
Replying to an Email Message. . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 88
Session 4.1 Visual Overview: Types
Forwarding an Email Message. . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 88
。f Information on the Internet. • . • . . . . . . . •WEe 150
Labeling and Printing an Email Message . . . . . . WEB 90 Finding Current and Specific Information
Deleting a Message and a Label . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 91 。 n the Web WEB 152
Managing Your Google Contacts... .. WEB 93 Finding Recent Information . . . . . . . . . WEB 152
Adding a Contact to Google Contacts . . . . . . . WEB 93 Finding News on the Web ... ... WEB 154
Using Google Drive to Share Fi 陆 WEB96 Finding Up.to.Date Weather Information . . .. WEB 158
Signing Out of Your Google Account. . . . . . . . . . . WE8 100 Finding Employment on the Web . . .. WEB 160

SessÎon 2.2 Ouick Check • . •.• . •.. . . . . • . •WEB 101 Using the web for medical information
and advice WEB 163
Review Assignments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 102
Using the Web to Locate a Home WEB 165
Case Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 102
Finding Products and Services Online WEB 171

Module 3 Searching the Web Session 4.1 Ouick Check. . • . • . • . • . • . . . • . •WEe 171
Using Search Engines E他 ct/ve收 WEB 107
Session 4.2 Visual Overview: Webpage
Session 3.1 Visual Overview: How a Search
Citation Guidelines . . . . • . • . • . • . • . • . • . . . •WEe 172
Engine Works. • . • . • . . . . . • . • . • . • . . • . . . •WEe 108 Understanding Copyright..... .............. . WEB 174
Searching the Web.... .. ...... WEB 110
Determining Fair Use .. ......... . . . ...... .WEB 174
Understanding Search Engines WEB 110
Works in the Public Domain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 175
Understanding Search Engine Databases WEB 116
Understanding Plagiarism WEB177
Search Engine Features WEB 117
Citing Web Resources WEB 178
SessÎ町、 3.1 Ouick Check. • . • . • . • . . • . • . • . . WEe 131 Accessing Text-Based Resources Online WEB 179
Online References WEB 180
Session 3.2 Visual Overview: Evaluating
Periodical Databases WEB 182
a Website . . • . • . . . • . • . • . • . • . • . . . . • . . . . WEe 132
Logical Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 134 Online and Virtual Li braries WEB 184
Evaluating Web Research Resources ........... WEB 137 Government Sites WEB 186
Authorship, Expertise , and Object川ty. ..... WEB 138

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 New I'ers pect仰 e s Series

M 川 timedia on the Web WEB 188 Module 61nternet Security

Finding Graphic Images on the Web WEB 189 Managing Common Security Threats . . . . WEB 245
Finding Audio Files on the Web WEB 191 Session 6.1 Visual Overview: Physical and
Finding Video Files on the Web WEB 193 Logical Security . • . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . • . . . •WEB 246
Sessi 町、 4 . 2
Quick Check •.• . • . •.• . ••. . . . WEB 193 Security Basics ....... . . . . WEB 248
Review Assignments. . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 194 Using Encryption to Protect Against
5ecrecy Threats WEB 248
Case Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 195
Protecting Oata Integrity WEB 250
Module 5 User-Generated Content on the Internet Phishing Attacks WEB 251
Eνa/uating Di仔erent Methods of
Protecting Copyrighted Materials Us呵
Internet Commυnication. . . . .. . . . .. . ... . WEB 199
D啕 italWatermarks WEB 254
Session 5.1 Visual Overview: Pull Preventing Oenial-of-Service Attacks WEB 257
Technologies. ..... .. ..•.•.•.•.. .. ..•. .WEB 200 Recog 叫 zing and Preventing Identity Theft WEB 259
Push and Pull Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 202 Security Concerns for Social Network Users WEB 263
Web 2.0 WEB 202
Session 6.1 Quick Check. ............... .WEB 267
Email-Based Subscriptions WEB 203
Getting Information from Feeds WEB2日 4 5ession 6.2 Visual Overview: Enhancing
Podcasting WEB 207 Security . • . • . •.•.•.•.•.•• . •.•.•.•.•. .WEB 268
Mashups WEB 210 Web Cl ient 5ecurity . . . . . . . WEB 270
Active Content: Java and JavaScript WEB 270
Sessi 町、 5.1 Quick Check. • . • . • . • . • . • • . • . •WEB 2恬
Oetecting and Removing Malware WEB 274
Session 5.2 V附 ual Overview: Push Blocking Tracking Devices in Electronic
Technologi白 ...... ......... .......... . WEB2咀 Communications WEB 280
Internet Messaging. . . . . . . ........ . . WEB 218 Blocking Communication Using a Firewall WEB 281
Voice Over Internet Protocol WEB 220 Communication Channel Security WEB 2B2
Online 50cial Networks WEB 221 Oi9 此 al and Server Certificates WEB 284
Connecting with Friends ... . . . . . WEB 222 Trust Seals WEB 286
Advertising Revenues from Social Networks. . WEB 222 Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) and Transport
Online Business Networks WEB 223 Layer Secur比 y (TL5J WEB 286
Sharing Pictures on the Web WEB 225 Session 6.2 Quick Check •.•• . • . •••.• . • . .WEB 289
Sharing Videos on the Web . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 227 Review Assignments. . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 290
Blogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 229 Case Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 291
Microblogs .. . . . . . .. . .. . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . WEB 230
Consolidating Content Using a Module 7 Wireless Networking
Using and Secυring Wireless
50c 旧 I Hub. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 234
Networks and Devices WEB 295
Online Reputation Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 236
Protecting Your Reputation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 237 Session 7.1 Visual Overview: Wireless
Devices γimeline. • . • . • . . . . • . • . • . • . • . • . . WEB 296
5田剑。 n 5.2 Quick Check ..... . ......... . WEB 239
The Evolution of Wireless Networks. . . . . . WEB 298
Review Assignments. . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 240
Wireless Local Area Networking . . . . WEB 300
Case Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 241
Wi reless Mesh Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 306
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 丁he Internet, 10th Edition, Comp陀 hensive vii

Personal Area Networking WEB 307 Using Images in an HTML Document WEB 351
时 reless Wide Ärea Networking WEB 311 Using Anchors WEB 354
Using Wireless Devices to Access the Internet .. . WEB 313 Adding a Li nk to a Webpage WEB 355
The Internet of Things. ........ . . WEB 314 Using Cascading Style Sheets
and Inline Styles WEB 356
Session 7.1 Quick Check. • . • . • . • . . . . . . . . . WEB 317
Session 8.1 Quick Check. . • . • . • . • . • . . . . . . WEB 359
Session 7.2 Visual Overview: Wireless
Security Concerns. . • . • . • . • . • . • . . . . . . • . •WEB 318 Session 8.2 Visual Overview: Creating
Security Concerns for Using Wireless Networks .. WEB 320 a Website . .. .•.. .. . •••• . • . • . • . • . •.. . .WEB 360
Methods for Securing Wireless Networks . . . . . . . WEB 320 Evaluating Website Content. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 362
Wireless Encryption Methods WEB 320 Website Creation Software. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 363
Wired Equivalent Privacy WEB 320 Choosing Other Development Tool5 .......... . WEB 364
Wi-Fi Protected Access WEB 321 Programming with JavaScrip t. . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 365
MAC Address Filtering WEB 322 Choosing Image Editing and IIlustration
Programs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. WEB 368
Disabling the SSID Broadcast WEB 322
Choosing a Web Hosting Provider. . . . . . . WEB 369
Changing the Defa川 t Login WEB 323
Understand ing Types of Web Servers . . . . . .. WEB 369
Understanding Security Threats to WireJess
Devices . . . . . . ....... . . . . . WEB 324 Understanding the Site's File Size and
Transfer Requirements . . . . WEB 369
Security Concerns for Bluetooth-Enabled
Devices . . . . . . WEB 326 Evaluating Other Services Offered by a
Provider. . . . . ....... . . . WEB 370
Security Risks with Sma 内 phone Applications. . . .w EB 326
Publishing a Website . . . . ....... . . . . WEB 371
Methods for Securing Wireless Devices. .. WEB 327
Search Engine Submission
Sessi町、 7. 2Quick Check. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .WEB 330 and Optimization . . ....... . . . . WEB 372
Review Assignments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . WEB 331
Se臼 ion 8.2 Quick Check .. . _. _. _. _. . .. . .WEB 373
Case Problems . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . WEB 331
Review Assignments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 374
Case Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 375
Module 8 Creating Effedive Webpages
Creating HTML Documents and
Understanding Browser Extensions. . . . . . WE8 335 Module 9 Electronic Commerce
Doing Bυ siness on the Internet WEB 379
Session 8.1 Visual Overview: Understanding
Session 9.1 Visual Overview: Electronic
HTMl • . • . •••• . • . ..•. . . • . • . • . • . • .. • . .WEB 336
Commerce . • . • . •.• . •.. . ••.• . • . • . . . • . .WEB 380
Understanding Markup Languages WEB 338
Buying and Selling on the Web ............... WEB 382
Understanding Tags and Attributes WEB 339
Buying and Selling Goods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 382
Planning an HTML Document WEB 340
B"川 9 and Selling Subscriptions. . . . . . . . . .. WEB 389
Creating an HTML Document. . . . . . . . WEB 343
Buying and Selling Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 391
Creating the HTMl Document Structure. . . . . WEB 344
Paying for E-Commerce Purchases. . . . . . • . . . . . . WEB 400
Adding a Comment to an HTMl 口。 cument . . WEB 346
Consumer Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 401
Inserting and Formatting Headings. . . . . . . . . WEB 346
Transaction Security Concerns. . . . WEB 401
Inserting and Formatting a Paragraph. . . . . . . . . . WEB 348
p ，旧 cy Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 402
Creating a Li st. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 350

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J > New I'ers pect仰 e s

InternatÎonal E-Commerce lssues

Series

WEB 403 New Uses for Networks WEBA9

Cultural and Language lssues WEB 403 lnterconnecting the Networks WEBA9
Legallssues WEB 406 Network Use in Business WEB A10
Government and E-commerce WEB 407 Growth of the Internet WEB A11

So四町、 9.1 Quick Check. • . • . • . • . • • • • . . . . WES 刷O The Evolution of the Web WEB A12
RevÎew AssÎgnments. . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . WE8411 Origins of Hypertext WEB A12
Case Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . WEB 412 Evolution of Web Browsers . WEB A13
8usinesses That Provide Internet Access . . . . . . . . WE8 A15
Module 10 Introduction to Data 8and 叩 dth and Types of Connectivity WEB A16
。n the Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. WES 415 Md at' pw h AS n n --

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UnderstandÎng Data . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . WEB 418

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Computationa l Thinking WEB 422
Additional Research A目 ignment 3
Computational Thinking Tools WEB 423 Adνances in Holographic Imaging ADDS
Data Structures WEB 426
Interface and Implementation WEB 430 Additional Research Assignment 4
Evaluating and Credentialing Non-Pr，。而t
Investigating Data Policies of Social Organ;zations ADD7
Networking Websites WEB 432
Additional Research Assignment 5
Session 10.1 Quick Check ... . . . ... . ..... .WES 443 Web Accessibility. . . . . . . . . . . .ADD 9
RevÎew Assignments. . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . WEB 444
Case Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WE8 445 Additional Research Assignment 6
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Domain Names WEBA5
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Origins of the Internet WEBA7
Connectivity: Circuit Switching vs
Packet Switching WEBA7
Open Architecture Philosophy WEBA8

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 …LE1
OB)ECTIVE S
Session 1.1
• Oefine the terms associated
w ilh Ihe Inlern el and the World
叭lideWeb
• Oifferentiate bclween web
servers and web clients
• Identify the name of the
language used to create
webpages and understand how
It IS US时
• Identify thc shared features
of GoogJe Chrome, Microsoft
Edge, and Mozilla Firefox
• Ensure easy access 10
pce圳 ously visited websites
• EfficientJy naviga1e the web
• Identify and manage cookies
• Use the associa时 pnvate
bco附 ng mo由
• Use the Help features provided
by each browser
• Save and print webpages
Sessi o n 1.2
• Use Chrome's omnibox 10
comp!ele calculations and
converSlons
• Use Chrome to Iranslale
webpages from one language
10 anolher
• Customize }代:l ur Chrome
browser with extensions and
Ihemes
• Scroll and zoom webpages
easl 忖 and efficiently using
Chrome
• Use the Edge address bar 10
search
• Use Ihe Reading LÎsl and
Reading View in Edge
• Customize Edge by modifying
default settings for searching
and reading view
• Use Edge to make and share
web nOles
• Subscribe to RSS (eeds
• Sha 陀 webpages on social media
• Customize 叭。 ur Firefox
browser with Add-ons
• Use the Fire(ox Find feature
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Browser Basics
Using Web Browser Software
Case I Arden Valley Independent
Schoo/ District
口民 Susan Murphy, the recently selected superintendenl of the
Arder、、 alley lndependent School DistricI, has just returned frorn
thc National Education Association Leadership Summit in Chicago,
I lI inois. Among the many sessions she attended <1 1 the conference,
onese咽。 n in particular, entitled "Gaps in 5chool Acc叩table Use
Po licies," has molivaled her 10 do a revi 队，V of the Arden Va llcy
5chool district's acceptable use policies. You ilrc serving as an intern
in the superintenden t's office this semester and w ill help Dr. Murphy
wilh her rcview. Dr. Murphy is especially concerned about how the
5chool district handles intellectual properly (IP) righ lS. She believcs
that many of those involved in properly obtaining and citing these
rights , such as stuclents , teachers, and administrators , might n创 ha、 e
suff比 ient knowledge about the process. Dr. Murphy has created the
following list of questions to begin her review
1. How does U .5. copyright law define fair use as it applies to
school d islr回到
2. What can the school district do 10 help people make ethical
choices conccrnÎng IP rights?
3. What 1ypes of IP rights does the acceplable use policy 时时
10 cover?
4. Are there online tutorials that s阳 dents ， teachers, an(1
administrators can view 10 increase their know!edge of IP issues?
5 叭 hal are the legal implicalions for individuals and for the
school diSlrict if there is a breach of IP rights?
6. What legal steps can the school district take to protect itsel f
against a viola1ion of IP righ1s by a sludent or employee?
7. Does the current policy on the use of software by the district
adequateJy cover all possible instances of IP rights violations,
and does il spell out the consequences of these violations?
As a first step in finding out answers 10 her que剑 lons，口 r. Murphy
has asked you to c。可到 le a list of online references about copyright
ISSU 田 While you are stilllearning aboutlhe Inlernet , you agree 10
give it Nthe old co! lege tr机"
D汇 Murphy suggests beginning your sea 陀h with the website for Ihe
U n i 时 States Copyr旧 ht Offi四川 htln :l/w\Vw.rnnvri内t.e.ov.
To he!p Dr. Murphy 飞川 th her queslions, you will first need to learn
more about using a web browser ,
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SESSION 1.1 VISUAL OVERVIEW:

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 Module' B ro、~ser BasÎα I lnt e rn e t WEB3

CHROME , EDGE , AND FIREFOX BROWSERS

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」】
Internet I Module 1 Browser Basics

Understanding the Internet and the Web

Co叫)uters that are connecled 10 each other form a network . When networks
are connected 10 each otheιIhe system is called an inlerconnecled nelwork or
inlernel (with a lowercase "i"). Th e Inlernel (阳 th an uppe厅case "1") is a specific
inlerconnected network that connects computers all over the world using a common
sel of standards. Although it began as a compuler science projecI sponsored by the
U.S. militar弘 Ihe Inlernet today allows people and businesses all over the world 10
communicate with each other in a variety of ways
Th e pa 叫 of the Internet known as the World Wide Web (or the web) is a colleclion
of files that resideα、 cα11puters called web servers thal are connected 10 each other
Ihrough the Internet . Most of the 们 les on a computer, including a computer connec 时
to the Inlernet, are private; that 院 only the compule内 u sers can access those fîl臼
The web contains millions of files made publicly available by their rights holders or
owners. Anyone who has a computer connected to Ihe Internet can obtain access to
Ihese files.
when you use an Internet connection 10 log on to Ihe web, your computer becomes
a web client. A web browser is the software that allows your com 阳 ler 10 connecl
10 , locate , retrieve, and display web content. YOU can read Appendix A 10 learn more
about the hislory of the Internet and the web and the technologies behind their
叩 eration

Choosing a Browser
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There is a variety of web browsers available on the Internet. Some of the most popular
browsers are Google Chrome , M 町。soft Edge , and Mozilla Firefox. Microsoft Edge
HZ 同

comes pre- installed on computers running the Windows 10 operating system. You can
download and install the Chrome and Firefox browsers for free , enabling you to
choose the one y 。 υwant to use. AII web br。队 sers have similar features , but some
are more robust and others are more streamlined. To help evaluate and decide which
web browser is right for your needs , you should read browser reviews, explore product
pages , take tou /"S町 demos of the browsers , and try them

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g归伊。町F An algorithm is a step-by-step set of instrυctions that tells a computer what to do
旦 An algorithm meets the following conditions
1) The steps are ordered
2 2) The steps are unambiguous
3) The steps are executable
4) There exists halting criteria so that the number of steps is fìnite
A program , also called computer software or software , is the result of an algorithm ,
'"阶 hich the steps are encoded using a programming language such as C++ that has
been entered înto the computer.
Computer software can execute many problems or "tasks" at the same time
For example , a browser is a type of soft..咽 re that is able 10 manage a variety of tasks
such as displaying websites ，的 nding webs比es， searching for websites , etc
Web authors and browser de 臼 gners use the hypertext markup language (HTMυM
determine how content and tasks appear on a website

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 Module 1 Bro附 er BasÎCs I lnlernel WEB5

Working with Hypertext Markup Language and Hyperlinks

The public files on web servers are ordinary text files , much like the files created and
used by word-processing software 币o enable web bro 咽er software to read these fi!es ,
the lexl musl be formatted according to a generally accepled standard. The slandard
used on the web is Hypcrtex t M arkup language (HTMl). HTMl uses codes, or tags,
that tell the web browser software how to display the texl conlained in the texl fil e
For example, a web bro 、Iser can read the following line of co出
<b>A Rev 卫 ew of the 800k <孟 >Wind Instruments</i></b>
In this examp!e, the code recognizes the <b> and <Ib> tags as instructÎons to display
the entire line of texl in bold and the <i> and <l i> tags as inst阳 C l ions to display the text
enclosed by those tags in italic. A text file that contains HTMl tags is called an HTMl
documenl
HTMl provides a variety of text formatting tags that can be used to indicate
headings, paragraphs , bulleted lists, numbered lists, and other text enhancements in an
HTMl document. (You willlearn more about HTMl tags in Module 8.) The real power
of HTMllies in its anchor tag. Th e HTM l anchor tag enables web designers to link
HTMl documents to each other. Anchor tags in HTMl documents create hypertext
links, which are in5tructions that point 10 other HTMl documents 町 to another section
of the same document. Hypertext links are also called hyperlinks or links. An example
of the use of an anchor tag to create a link is illUSlrated by the following line of code
<a href:..http://www.cengage.com .. >Cengage Learn 且 ng</a>

When the code is placed in an HTMl documenl , Ihe browser displays the words
"Cengage learning." When the phrase is pointed at with the curso飞 the cursor changes
10 a hand shape, and when the phrase is clicked, the browser displays the URl: .bl!.u;Ll
旦旦旦&豆豆=且皿 Normally， links such as this one would appear underlined and in
blue font; dick on them and the color changes to indicate previous use. It is the code
autho 内 job 10 enter instructions for indicating how a link interacts 、圳 th the user. You
willlearn more about writing code in Modu!e 8
YOU can share linked HTMl documents on any computer anywhere in the world
a5 long as there is an Internet connection. When a web browser displays an HTMl
document, it is often referred to as a webpage

Starting a Browser
Thi s introduction assumes you have al least one of the following browsers installed
on your computer: Google Chrome , Mozilla Firefox , or Microsoft Ed ge 、 ou can
download and install Ch rome and firefox free from the Internet. Mîcrosoft Edge comes
installed 、圳 th 叭lindows 10 and replaces Internet Explorer (l E) as Microsoft's entry in
the browser market. Ifyou have all three browsers insta ll ed on your computer, you can
try all of the features discussed in this module. However, even if you have only one of
Ihe5e browsers available, you should still read about and study alt of the browsers, and
as you read the module, rnake frequent reference to the Visua ! Over川 ews. Typically,
your desktop wi!1 have a browser shortCUI icon , which you can double-click 10 launch
the browser.
when your browser opens， γou might noti ce simi larities and di fferences between
it and other browsers you have used in the past. Different browsers have their own
version of the address bar for o pening webpages , the back and forward buttons
for navigalîng among prevωus l y visited pages, the tabs for open webpages , and
the browser menu button. Users can customize Iheir browser features 10 suit their
persona I needs
Session 1.1 Visual Overviews for Chrome, Edge, and Fîrefox show possible
configurations that a user could set up. However, you might choose to customize your

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」】
Internet I Module 1 Browser Basics

browsers differently. Throughout this module you are encouraged to refer frequently to
the Visual Overview to review the basic concepts illustrated for each browser. We will
learn about the specifics for customizing Chrome, Edge, and Firefox in Ses剑。 n 1. 2

Navigating Webpages
币。 identifya particular 叭 ebpage's exact location on the Internet, web browsers rely
on an address called a Uniform Resource loca l阳 r or URl , which is the ad < Iress of a
specific webpage. Every webpage has a unique URl, simi lar to the mai !ing address for
a home or busine如 A URL is a four-part addressing schcme that ∞ mmunîcates the
following information to Ihe 叭 eb br例 SCI
• the protocol to use when transporting the file
• the domain name of the computer on which the 白 le resides
• the path for the folder or directory on the computer in which the file resides
• the name of the file
For example, in the URl htlm 叭 VW.lOCÆ刷 'rrlr.lrehooklrli[!itillmJ lJrli[! ita Imll-aurlubon.html
the Nhllp://" is the transfer protocol , which is the set of rules used 10 move files
between compute附 Th e two mosl common protocols used to transfer fil田 on the
Internet are H yper怡 xl Transfer Prolocol (HTTP) and File Transfer Prot旺 01 ( FT问
The second part of the URl, the domain name, is the "w 伽 4λ loc. gov" in the above
e 陆 mple; this references the location of the compu!er on which the webpage resides
The "www"indicales a connection 阳 Ihe web. Th e Nloc" represents the name of the
川 ebsite (Ubrary of Congress), and ".gov" identifies the website as a Uni 怆dS让ates
government site. The "/rr/rareb ο ok/digiralcoflr po 川 ion of the URl provide骂 the path
for the folder in which the webpage file is located, and the last po叫 on of the URl ,
"digitalcoll-audubo n. html," is the 白 lename

Entering a URl in the Address Bar

You can use the Address bar 10 enter a specific URl and go directly to Ihat webpage
For example, you can enter the compl配 U R l for a website, such as 且皿也出皿且乓L
to load that 驯 ebpage in the browser. YOU might notice that as you begin to type, a list
opens, displaying pages you have previously visited that begin with the letters you are
typin g; you can select a URl and pr白 s the Enter key to r，刨 urn 10 Ihat webpagβ B m、听 ecs
will try to complete partial URLs that you type in the Address bar. For example, if you
type npr.org, your browser \J圳 11 convert it 10 http://\叭叭.v.n 咒 org and load Ihe webpage at
that URl
Ifyoudon创 sec the URl you want in the Address bar list, you can enter a part 凶
U 民 l or a search wo 时; this will open the search engine. A search engine performs a
search based on the text you type in a search box- i n this case, the Address bar- and
displays the search results . You can click any Iì nk in the search results 10 go 10 ils
川 ebpage. You 、川 IIlearn more aboul search engines in Module 3

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 Module 1 B ro附 e r BasÎCs I lnlernel WEB7

Understanding Home Pages

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On the web , the term "home page" has two possible de币 nitions. The first definition
indÎCates the main webpage on a particular websi怡; all the pages on the site link back
DZ
to it. This webpage is the first page that opens when you 叭 sit a website. The 州 e name
H同
most commonly given t。如白 a webpage is index.htm l. The html file extension tells
the browser that this is an HTML~coded text file. The browser should interpret th 臼 type
。 f HTML file before displaying it
The second defini创。 n of a homeρage is the page that opens when you start your
、Neb browse r. One of the skills you willlearn in this module is how to customize your
t汗。wse r so that your home page can be whatever webpage you desire. In fact , you can
customize your browser to open 刚 th m川 tiple home pages, if you 1i ke , each in 阳。wo
tab. You might notice that the ∞ mputer y∞ use at the s由。 ol's libra 叩 automatically
。 pens to its main webpage

Dr. Murphy wants you 10 beg in you r research on copyri ght issues

To load the United States Copyright 0何ice home page:

•• 1. Open GoogJe Chrome

2. CI 比k
in the Address bar to select the URL, and then type htt但;11
些直坠豆豆但旦国肚4垒Y... This is the URL for the United States Copyright 0阶 ce
website
Trouble? The Address bar might display a list of suggested UR Ls as you
type; ignore these suggestions and continue typing

' 3. Press the Enter key. The home page of the United States Copyright 0俯 ce
website loads , as shown in Figure 1 ~ 1

United States Qffice

Search box

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」】
Internet I Module 1 Browser Basics

Written Communication: Th e Impo时'ance of Organization on a Website

Webs比es are a form of written communications media 割 milar to printed brochures ,
magazines , and newsletters. By visiting di仔éent websites , you can come up with your
。 wn ideas and plans for building one . Web designers des川 gn. plan , and organize
how a website willlook and function. They also make sure to reflect an organizatωn 驾
communications goals by 臼 refully displaying information so that visit町s to the site will
be able to access what they are looking for e忏icientl沪 For exam同 e. the U.S. Copyright
Office's home page includes links to information that it believes website visitors will be
seeking , such as the follo阳 09
• ABOUT US
• NEWS
• LAW AND PO Ll CY
• PUB Ll CATIONS
• CONTACT US
On the U.s. Copyright Office's website. each of these headings leads to a set
。f related topics. Another important point in organizing the website is that the
navigation tools should appear in the same place and in the same form on every
page. This consistent structure helps visitors to 飞he site famil 田 ize themselves w怕
its fun 口 ionality. The use of common color combinations and consistent headers and
graphics reinforces the message and validity of the website
叭Ihen writing , clearly organize thoughts and ideas around a theme 飞 hat conveys your
message while guiding readers to the most important information in a direct w坪 YOU can
accomplish this on a website by understanding what your site's vis阳 rs will be looking for
and structuring y。υr slte to organ 日e that information and make it easy to find

Clicking Li nks
Most sites provide helpful links that alloψusers to navigate from one webpage to
anothe r. So me of these web links take users to pages hosted on other websites, such
as the Congress.gov link at the bottom of the U .s.
Copyright Office home page, wh ich
directs your browser to the official website of the U .s, Congress 刊 e U.S. Copyright
。 ffice home page also provides a link to news and pres s 陀 lea ses that it has archived;
clicking the link takes yo u directly 10 an organized list of resources . Another type of
link typically found on a webpage 后 a mailto link , such as the U.S. Copyright Office
Webmaster 1i nk displa归 d on the botto 响吗ht o( the home page. Clicking Ihis link
opens an email a ddr，臼 sed to 10c. go以It is easy and efficient 10 navigate the web using
links. You will use links 10 open Ihe Copyright l aw webpage and then 10 go further into
the laws by selecting links 10 more detailed information

To use links to navigate the United States Copyright Offi ce

website :
t 1. On the United $tates Copyright Office home page. pαnt to the LAW AND
PO Ll CY link , as shown in Figυre 1-2. The pαnter changes to the shape of a
hand with a pointing index fingeιand a drop-down menu appears

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 Module 1 B ro附 er BasÎCs I lnlernel WEB9

drop-down menu
offers multiple
related hyperlinks
叫一…
时…

……

Þ 2_ Click the Copyright La w link. The Copyright Law of the United States
webpage opens in the browser window
Þ 3. On the Copyright La w webpage , click the HTML link for Chapter 1: Subject
Matter and Scope of Copyright. The Chapter 1 page opens in the browser
window as shown in Figure 1-3

FIgure - Chapter 1 I百""鸣耐l 2.ht la节咽.

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• 4 口 n the Chapter 1 webpage , click the 101. Oefinitions link. YOU are directed
to a location farther down the Chapter 1 webpage. This is an exam忡。 f ，
link applied to a named location on the same webpage rather than a link t。
an entirely different webpage

Dr. Murphy was righl; Ih is is a greal pl ace 10 slarl

copyright issues
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」】
Internet I Module 1 Browser Basics

Navigating Visited Webpages

The 8ack and Forward buttons on Ihe Navigation bar allow you to navigate among
the pages you have just visited. When you fjrst start a bro 崎 er session , these buttons
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Limnaea stagnalis, about 15,000 in Helix aspersa (that is, about
400,000 to the square inch), about 30,000 in Limax maximus, and as
many as 40,000 in Helix Ghiesbreghti, a large species from Mexico;
they are very numerous also in Nanina, Vitrina, Gadinia, and
Actaeon. But Umbrella stands far and away the first, as far as
number of teeth is concerned. In both U. mediterranea and U. indica
they entirely baffle calculation, possibly 750,000 may be somewhere
near the truth.
The teeth on the radula are almost invariably disposed in a kind of
pattern, exactly like the longitudinal rows of colour in a piece of
ribbon, down the centre of which runs a narrow stripe, and every
band of colour on one side is repeated in the same relative position
on the other side. The middle tooth of each row—the rows being
counted across the radula, not longitudinally—is called the central or
rachidian tooth; the teeth next adjacent on each side are known as
the laterals, while the outermost are styled uncini or marginals. As a
rule, the distinction between the laterals and marginals is fairly well
indicated, but in the Helicidae and some of the Nudibranchiata it is
not easy to perceive, and in these cases there is a very gradual
passage from one set to the other.
The central tooth is nearly always present. It is wanting in certain
groups of Opisthobranchiata, some of the carnivorous Pulmonata,
and in the Conidae and Terebridae, which have lost the laterals as
well. Voluta has lost both laterals and marginals in most of the
species, and the same is the case with Harpa. In Aeolis, Elysia, and
some other Nudibranchiata the radula consists of a single central
row. Other peculiarities will be described below in their proper order.
The extreme importance of a study of the radula depends upon
the fact, that in each species, and a fortiori in each genus and family,
the radula is characteristic. In closely allied species the differences
exhibited are naturally but slight, but in well-marked species the
differences are considerable. The radula, therefore, serves as a test
for the distinction of genera and species. For instance, in the four
known recent genera of the family Strombidae, viz. Strombus,
Pteroceras, Rostellaria, and Terebellum, the radula is of the same
general type throughout, but with distinct modifications for each
genus; and the same is true, though to a lesser extent, for all the
species hitherto examined in each of the genera. These facts are
true for all known genera, differences of the radula corresponding to
and emphasising those other differences which have caused genera
to be constituted. The radula therefore forms a basis of classification,
and it is found especially useful in this respect in dealing with the
largest class of all, the Gasteropoda, and particularly with the chief
section of this order, the Prosobranchiata. Thus we have—
Prosobranchiata Monotocardia (a) Toxoglossa
(b) Rachiglossa
(c) Taenioglossa
(d) Ptenoglossa
(e) Gymnoglossa

Diotocardia (f) Rhipidonlossa

(g) Docoglossa[324]
(a) Toxoglossa.—Only three families, Terebridae, Conidae, and
Cancellariidae, belong to this section. There is no central tooth, and
no laterals, the radula consisting simply of large marginals on each
side. In Conus these are of great size, with a blunt base which
contains a poison-gland (see p. 66), the contents of which are
carried to the point by a duct. The point is always singly and
sometimes doubly barbed (Fig. 116). When extracted, the teeth
resemble a small sheaf of arrows (Figs. 113, 115). A remarkable
form of radula, belonging to Spirotropis (a sub-genus of Drillia, one
of the Conidae), enables us to explain the true history of the radula
in the Toxoglossa. Here there are five teeth in a row, a central tooth,
and one lateral and one marginal on each side, the marginals being
very similar in shape to the characteristic shafts of the Conidae (Fig.
114). It is evident, then, that the great mass of the Toxoglossa have
lost both their central and lateral teeth, and that those which remain
are true uncini or marginals. Spirotropis appears to be the solitary
survival of a group retaining the primitive form of radula.
 Fig. 113.—Radula of Bela
turricula Mont. × 70.

Fig. 114.—Portion of radula of Spirotropis

carinata Phil., Norway. × 70.
 Fig. 115.—Eight teeth from
the radula of Terebra
caerulescens Lam. ×
60.
The arrangement of teeth in all these sections is expressed by a
formula applicable to each transverse row of the series. The central
tooth, if present, is represented by 1, and the laterals and marginals,
according to their number, on each side of the central figure. Thus
the typical formula of the Toxoglossa is 1.0.0.0.1, the middle 0
standing for the central tooth which is absent, and the 0 on each side
of it for the absent laterals; the 1 on each extreme represents the
one uncinus in each row. Thus the formula for Spirotropis, which has
also one lateral on each side and a rachidian or central tooth, is
1.1.1.1.1. Often the formula is given thus: where 30
and 42 stand for the average number of rows of teeth in Conus and
Spirotropis respectively; the same is sometimes expressed thus:
1.0.0.0.1 × 30; 1.1.1.1.1 × 42.
 Fig. 116.—A tooth from
the radula of Conus
imperialis L., S.
Pacific, × 50, showing
barb and poison duct.

Fig. 117.—Portion of the radula of Melongena

vespertilio Lam., Ceylon. × 30.
 Fig. 118.—Portion of the radula of Eburna japonica Sowb.,
China. × 30.

Fig. 119.—Portion of the radula of Murex regius Lam.,

Panama. × 60.
(b) The Rachiglossa comprise the 12 families Olividae, Harpidae,
Marginellidae, Volutidae, Mitridae, Fasciolariidae, Turbinellidae,
Buccinidae, Nassidae, Columbellidae, Muricidae, and
Coralliophilidae. Certainly most and probably all of these families are
or have been carnivorous, the Coralliophilidae being a degraded
group which have become parasitic on corals, and have lost their
teeth in consequence. The characteristics of the group are the
possession of a central tooth with from one cusp (Boreofusus) to
about fourteen (Bullia), and a single lateral more or less cuspidate,
the outer cusp of all being generally much the largest. Thus in
Melongena respertilio (Fig. 117) the central tooth is tricuspid, the
central cusp being the smallest, while the laterals are bicuspid; in
Eburna japonica (Fig. 118) the central tooth is 5-cusped, the two
outer cusps being much the smallest. The teeth, on the whole, are
sharp and hooked, with a broad base and formidable cutting edge. In
the Olividae, Turricula, Buccinopsis, and the Muricidae the laterals
are unicuspid and somewhat degraded (Fig. 119). In Mitra and the
Fasciolariidae they are very broad and finely equally toothed like a
comb (Figs. 120, 121). The whole group is destitute of marginals.

Fig. 120.—Portion of the radula of Imbricaria marmorata

Swains. × 80.

Fig. 121.—Three rows of teeth from the radula of Fasciolaria

trapezium Lam. × 40.
Fig. 122.—Six teeth from
the radula of
Cymbium diadema
Lam., Torres Strait. ×
25.
 Fig. 123.—Examples of
degraded forms of
radula: A, Cantharus
pagodus Reeve,
Panama (nascent end),
× 40; A´, same radula,
central and front portion;
B, Columbella varia
Sowb., Panama, × 50.

Fig. 124.—Three rows of the radula of Sistrum spectrum Reeve, Tonga, × 80.
The laterals to the right are not drawn in.
Several remarkable peculiarities occur. Harpa loses the radula
altogether in the adult. In the young it has lost only the laterals, and
consists of nothing but the central tooth. Marginella has no laterals;
the central tooth is small and comb-shaped, with blunt cusps. In
Voluta the laterals are generally lost, but in Volutomitra and one
species of Voluta[325] they are retained. The central tooth usually
has three strong cusps, and is very thick and coloured a deep red or
orange (Fig. 122); in the sub-genus Amoria it is unicuspid, in shape
rather like a spear-head with broadened wings; in Volutolyria it is of a
different type, with numerous unequal denticulations, something like
the laterals of Mitra or Fasciolaria. Of the Mitridae, Cylindromitra has
lost the laterals. Among the Buccinidae, Buccinopsis possesses a
curiously degraded radula, the central tooth having no cusps, but
being reduced to a thin basal plate, while the laterals are also
weakened. This degradation from the type is a remarkable feature
among radulae, and appears to be characteristic, sometimes of a
whole family, e.g. the Columbellidae (Fig. 123, B), sometimes of a
genus, sometimes again of a single species. Thus in Cantharus (a
sub-genus of Buccinum) the radula is typical in the great majority of
species, but in C. pagodus Reeve, a large and well-grown species, it
is most remarkably degraded, both in the central and lateral teeth
(Fig. 123, A). This circumstance is the more singular since C.
pagodus lives at Panama side by side with C. ringeus and C.
insignis, both of which have perfectly typical radulae. It is probable
that the nature of the food has something to do with the
phenomenon. Thus Sistrum spectrum Reeve was found to possess
a very aberrant radula, not of the common muricoid type, but with
very long reed-like laterals. This singularity was a standing puzzle to
the present writer, until he was fortunate enough to discover that S.
spectrum, unlike all other species of Sistrum, lives exclusively on a
branching coral.
The dental formula for the Rachiglossa is thus 1.1.1, except in
those cases where the laterals are absent, when it is 0.1.0.
Fig. 125.—Portion of the radula of Cassis sulcosa Born., × 40. The marginals to
the right are not fully drawn.
(c) The Taenioglossa comprise 46 families in all, of which the
most important are Tritonidae, Cassididae, Cypraeidae, Strombidae,
Cerithiidae, Turritellidae, Melaniidae, Littorinidae, Rissoidae,
Paludinidae, Ampullariidae, Cyclophoridae, Cyclostomatidae, and
Naticidae. The radula is characterised by a central tooth of very
variable form, the prevailing type being multicuspid, the central cusp
the largest, on a rather broad base; a single lateral, which is often a
broad plate, more or less cusped, and two uncini, rather narrow, with
single hooks, or slightly cusped. The accompanying figures of
Cassis, Vermetus, and Cypraea, and those of Littorina and
Cyclophorus given on pp. 20, 21, are good examples of typical
taenioglossate radulae.

Fig. 126.—Four rows of teeth from the radula of

Vermetus grandis Gray, Andamans. × 40.
In Homalogyra the radula is much degraded, the central tooth is
large and triangular on a broad base, the lateral is represented only
by a thin oblong plate, and the uncini are absent. In some species of
Jeffreysia the uncini are said to be absent, while present in others.
Lamellaria has lost both its uncini, but the radula of the allied
Velutina is quite typical. A peculiar feature in this group is the
tendency of the marginals to increase in number. A stage in this
direction is perhaps seen in Ovula, Pedicularia, and the
Cyclostomatidae. Here the outermost of the two marginals is by far
the larger and broader, and is strongly pectinated on its upper edge;
in the Cyclostomatidae the pectinations are rather superficial; in
Ovula (where both marginals are pectinated) they are decidedly
deeper; in Pedicularia they are deeper still, and make long slits in the
tooth, tending to subdivide it altogether. In Turritella the number of
marginals is said to vary from none (in T. acicula) to three (T.
triplicata), but the fact wants confirmation. Solarium is an aberrant
form, possessing simply a number of long uncini, which recall those
of Conus or Pleurotoma, and is therefore hard to classify; the allied
Torinia has a radula which appears allied to Ovula or Pedicularia. In
Triforis the teeth are identical throughout, very small, about 27 in a
row, tricuspid on a square base, cusps short.
The normal formula of the Taenioglossa is 2.1.1.1.2; in Lamellaria,
1.1.1; in Triforis, 13.1.13, or thereabouts.

Fig. 127.—Two rows of the radula of Cypraea tigris

L. × 30.
 Fig. 128.—Portion of the radula of Ianthina
communis Lam. × 40.
(d) Ptenoglossa.—This section consists of two families only, which
certainly appear remarkably dissimilar in general habits and
appearance, viz., the Ianthinidae and Scalariidae. In all probability
their approximation is only provisional. The radula, which in Ianthina
is very large, and in Scalaria very small, possesses an indefinite
number of long hooked teeth, of which the outermost are the largest.
The central tooth, if present (it does not occur in Ianthina), is the
smallest in the series, and thus recalls the arrangement in some of
the carnivorous Pulmonata (p. 232). In Ianthina the radula is formed
of two large divisions, with a gap between them down the middle.
The formula is ∞.1.∞ or ∞.O.∞ according as the central tooth in
Scalaria is or is not reckoned to exist.
(e) Gymnoglossa.—In the absence of both jaw and radula it is not
easy to classify the two families (Eulimidae and Pyramidellidae)
which are grouped under this section. Fischer regards them as
modified Ptenoglossa; one would think it more natural to
approximate them to the Taenioglossa.
 Fig. 129.—Portion of the radula of Margarita umbilicalis
Brod., Labrador. × 75 and 300.
(f) Rhipidoglossa.—This section consists of seventeen families,
the most important being the Helicinidae, Neritidae, Turbinidae,
Trochidae, Haliotidae, Pleurotomariidae, and Fissurellidae. The
radula is characterised by—
(1) The extraordinary development of the uncini, of which there
are so many that they are always reckoned as indefinitely numerous.
They are long, narrow, hooked, and often cusped at the top, and
crowded together like the ribs of a fan, those at the extreme edge not
being set straight in the row, but curving away backwards as they
become smaller; in Solariella alone, where there are from five to ten,
can they be counted.
 Fig. 130.—Portion of the radula of Nerita albicilla L., Andaman Is.,
with central tooth highly magnified: c, c, the capituliform tooth.
× 40.
(2) The varying number of the laterals. The average number of
these is five on each side; in some cases (Livona) there are as many
as nine, in some (Neritopsis) only three. The lateral next to the uncini
(which is specially large in the Neritidae, and is then known as the
capituliform tooth) is regarded by some authorities as the first
uncinus, by others as the sole representative of the laterals, the
teeth on the inner side of it being reckoned as multiplied central
teeth. According to this latter view, Livona will have as many as
seventeen central teeth. Taking five as the average number of
‘laterals,’ we shall have the following different ways of constituting
the rhipidoglossate formula, the first being that to which preference is
given, viz.:—
(1) ∞.5.1.5.∞, i.e. one central, five laterals, including the ‘last lateral’
tooth.
(2) (∞.1).4.1.4.(1.∞), regarding the ‘last lateral’ as first uncinus, but
specialising it by a number.
(3) ∞.1.(4.1.4).1.∞, regarding the ‘last lateral’ as the only lateral.
In the Neritidae and the derived fresh-water genera (Neritina,
Navicella) the first lateral, as well as the capituliform tooth, is very
large, and in shape rather like the blade bone of a shoulder of
mutton; the intervening laterals are very small. In Neritopsis (a
degraded form) the central tooth and first lateral are entirely wanting.
In the neritiform land-shells (Helicina, Proserpina) the first lateral is
no larger than the others, while the capituliform tooth is enormous.
Hydrocena is a very aberrant and apparently degraded form; the
laterals between the first and the capituliform tooth are all wanting. In
Haliotis, Scissurella, and Pleurotomaria the five laterals are of fairly
equal size; in Fissurella we again meet with a large capituliform
tooth, with very small laterals.
(g) The Docoglossa are in direct contrast with the Rhipidoglossa
in possessing few and strong teeth, instead of many and weak.
There are only three families, Acmaeidae, Patellidae, and Lepetidae.
In some of the Acmaeidae there are not more than two teeth in a
row, while in no species are there more than twelve. The radula is,
however, very long; there are as many as 180 rows in Patella
vulgata. The teeth are thick, generally of a very deep red horn colour,
rather opaque. The cartilage in which they are set is remarkably
thick, and in some species whose teeth are very few a considerable
portion of this cartilage is left quite bare.

Fig. 131.—Portion of the radula of

Patella cretacea Reeve, seen in
half profile. × 40.
 Although the teeth are so few, the arrangement is by no means
simple. The special feature of the group is the multiplication of
identical centrals. Of these there are two in Acmaea, and four, as a
rule, in Patella. Thus in these two genera there is seldom an
absolutely central tooth. Either laterals or marginals are liable to be
lost, but there are never more than two of either in Acmaea, and
never more than two laterals and three marginals in Patella. Thus
the formula varies from 0.0.(1 + 0 + 1).0.0 in Pectinodonta, 2.2.(1 + 0
+ 1).2.2 in Collisellina (both Acmaeidae), to 3.2.(1 + 0 + 1).2.3 in
Patinella, and 3.1.(2 + 0 + 2).1.3 in Patella proper. In the Lepetidae
there is an absolutely central tooth, which appears to be made up of
the coalescence of several teeth, no laterals, and about two
marginals; formula, 2.0.1.0.2.

Fig. 132.—Two rows of the radula of Pterotrachea

mutica Les., Naples. × 60.
The radula of the Heteropoda is quite characteristic, and shows
no sign of affinity with any other Prosobranchiate. The central tooth
is large, broad, tricuspid, and denticulated on a broad base; the
single lateral is strong, often bicuspid; the two marginals simple,
long, falciform; formula, 2.1.1.1.2 (Fig. 132).
 Fig. 133.—A, Portion of the radula of Chiton
(Acanthopleura) spiniger] Sowb., Andamans, × 30;
B, portion of the radula of Dentalium entalis L.,
Clyde, × 50.
Amphineura.—(a) Polyplacophora.—The radula of the
Chitonidae is quite unique. It resembles that of the Docoglossa in
being very long, and composed of thick and dark horn-coloured
teeth. The number of teeth, however, is considerably greater,
amounting almost invariably to seventeen in each row. There are
three rather small central teeth, the two outer of these being similar;
next comes a very large lateral (the major lateral), usually tricuspid,
which is followed by two much smaller laterals, which are scarcely
more than accessory plates; then a very large and arched marginal
(the major uncinus), at the outer side of which are three accessory
plates. Some consider there is only one central tooth, and count the
two small teeth on each side of it as laterals.
Thus the formula is either (3 + 1).(2 + 1).3.(1 + 2).(1 + 3) or (3 +
1).(2 + 1 + 1).1.(1 + 1 + 2).(1 + 3).
(b) Aplacophora.—Of this rather obscure order, Chaetoderma has
a single strong central tooth, Neomenia has no radula, Proneomenia
and Lepidomenia have about twenty falciform teeth, much larger at
one end of the radula than the other; formula, 0.1.0.
Opisthobranchiata.—The radula of the Opisthobranchiata is
exceedingly variable in shape, size, and number and character of
teeth. Not only do allied families differ greatly from one another, but
allied genera often possess radulae widely distinct in plan. Thus,
among the Polyceridae, Goniodoris has no central tooth, one large
lateral and one marginal (form. 1.1.0.1.1); Doridunculus the same,
with five marginals (form. 5.1.0.1.5); Lamellidoris one each of
median, laterals, and marginals (1.1.1.1.1); Idalia, Ancula, and
Thecacera the same as Goniodoris; Crimora several each of laterals
and marginals. Even species of the same genus may differ; thus the
formula for Aeolis papillosa is 0.1.0, but for Ae. Landsbergi 1.1.1; for
Philine aperta 1.0.1, but for Philine pruinosa 6.0.6.

Fig. 134.—Two teeth from the radula of Aeolis

papillosa L. × 55.
It must not be forgotten, however, that a simple repetition of the
same tooth, whether lateral or marginal, does not necessarily
constitute an important characteristic, nor does the presence or
absence of a central tooth. In most of the cases mentioned above,
the difference in the number of laterals and marginals is due to the
multiplication of identical forms, while the central tooth, when
present, is often a mere plate or narrow block without cusps, whose
presence or absence makes little difference to the character of the
radula as a whole.
There appear to be three well-marked types of radula among the
Opisthobranchiata.
(a) Radula with a single strong central tooth, rows few. This form
is characteristic of the Aeolididae, Fionidae, Glaucidae, Dotoidae,
Hermaeidae, Elysiidae (Fig. 135), and Limapontiidae. In the
Aeolididae it is sometimes accompanied by a single lateral. The
same type occurs in Oxynoe, and in Lobiger (= Lophocercus).
(b) Radula with the first lateral very strongly developed. This type
may take the form of (1) a single lateral, no central or marginals, e.g.
Onchidoris, Scaphander (Fig. 137, A), Philine (certain species),
Ringicula, or (2) first lateral strongly developed, and repeated in
succeeding laterals (2–6) on a smaller scale, e.g. Philine (certain
species). A few marginals are sometimes added, e.g. in Polycera,
Lamellidoris (where there is a degraded central tooth, Fig. 137, B),
Idalia, and Ancula.

Fig. 135.—Radula of
Elysia viridis Mont. ×
40. Type (a).