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A Review On Post-Disaster Reconstruction Project: Issues And Challenges

Faced By International Non-Governmental Organisations (INGOs)
Conference Paper · June 2014

DOI: 10.13140/2.1.2615.6485
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A Review On Post-Disaster Reconstruction Project: Issues And
Challenges Faced By International Non-Governmental Organisations
(INGOs)
Dzulkarnaen Ismail1, AP Dr Taksiah A Majid2, Dr Ruhizal Roosli3 and Hj Norazam Ab Samah4
1&2
Faculty of Civil Engineering, 3Housing Building and Planning, 4Mercy Malaysia
Universiti Sains Malaysia
Penang, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
Natural disaster happened frequently around the world and caused great loss of lives and
properties. The rebuilding initiatives in the quake zone in China (2008), earthquake and
tsunami in Japan (2011), and recent typhoons in the Philippines (2013) reported billions of
damages. Regions affected by disaster are often required to increase their capacity for
reconstruction, with more experienced and skilled resources required to manage the projects.
Post-disaster reconstruction (PDR) is a complex and highly demanding process that involves
a number of different and well coordinated courses of action. Therefore, it is vital that these
complex activities are well planned. The objective of this research is to study the impact of
disaster and analyze the issues and challenges related to past project management practice
in PDR projects. The goal of this research is to improve project management practice in PDR
project specifically for International NGOs that participate in the phase of Post-Disaster
Reconstruction. The result of the review will provide the foundation on which such strategies
- on how to avoid project failures - can be developed in the future.
Keywords: Post-Disaster Reconstruction, Project Management
1. INTRODUCTION
In recent years, natural disasters happened frequently around the globe and
responsible not only for heavy loss of lives but also create a greater property loss. The
Sri Lanka flood (2003), Indian Ocean Tsunami (2004), earthquake in Bagh, Pakistan
(2005), China (2008), Indonesia (2009), Haiti (2010) and Japan (2011) and recent
typhoon in Philippines (2013), worth billions of reported damages. The average
reported losses rose from around $US50 billion a year in the 1980s to almost $US200
billion a year in the past decade, totaling $US3. 8 trillion from 1980 to 2012 (World
Bank, 2013). During the Kosovo conflict, a third of the province’s housing stock was
destroyed, while war in Sierre Leonne saw the destruction of an estimated 300,000
houses, leaving over a million people displaced (Barakat, 2003).
The post-disaster reconstruction (PDR) initiative is part of a sequence of four

identifiable post disaster periods: emergency, restoration, reconstruction, and
betterment construction. Post-disaster reconstruction projects often deals with
uncertainties (Hayles, 2010; Sun & Xu, 2011) complexity (Boano & García, 2011;
Bello, 2006; Ye & Okada, 2002) consider one of the most challenging tasks to be deal
with those involved in reconstruction of disaster-affected areas. Despite the aid
assistance from the agencies, government and NGO’s on the development after a
disaster, the amount of reconstruction projects that have been successfully completed
has remained low.
Citation: Ismail, D., Majid, T. A., Roosli, R., & Samah, N. A. (2014). A Review On Post-Disaster Reconstruction Project: Issues
And Challenges Faced By International Non-Governmental Organisations (INGOs). In Proceeding of International Post-
Graduate Seminar (IPGS 2014), “Engineering Challenges Towards Better Life and Humanity” (p. 72). Shah Alam:
Universiti Teknologi MARA.
As the incidents of natural disasters increase, it is crucial that NGOs and other
agencies involved in reconstruction to learn as much as possible from previous
projects they involved with; its successes and failures (Karunasena & Rameezdeen,
2010; Kumaran & Negi, 2006). Very few researches were carried out in PDR
focusing on project management (Steinfort & Walker, 2007) not alone the critical
success factors (CSFs) for post-disaster reconstruction (Belassi & Tukel, 1996;
Ophiyandri, Amaratunga, Pathirage, & Keraminiyage, 2013) which refer by (Wardak,
Coffey, & Trigunarsyah, 2012) as to remain poorly researched. The government,
nongovernmental and international organizations require to highlight the isues and
challenges of the PDR working environments and to find a concrete solution to
overcome the complexity and uncertainties of PDR.
2. THE IMPACTS OF DISASTER
According to the World Bank (2013), losses due to natural disasters are 20 times
greater in developing countries than in developed states. Disaster impacts may include
loss of life, injury, disease and other negative effects on human physical, mental and
social wellbeing, together with damage to property, destruction of assets (Lindell &
Prater, 2004), loss of services, social and economic disruption, and environmental
degradation (Asian Development Bank, 2005; UNISDR, 2009). Despite the efforts
made so far by various actors in disaster management, the damage and impacts by
disasters were very severe, referring to Sri Lanka flood (2003), Indian Ocean Tsunami
(2004), the earthquake in Bagh, Pakistan (2005), China (2008), Indonesia (2009),
Haiti (2010) and Japan (2011) and recent typhoon in Philippines (2013) worth billions
of reported damages.
Table 1: Estimated damage (US$ Billion) caused by reported natural disaster in

Southeast Asia from 2000 – 2013. Edited from CRED (2013)
Total
Country Total
Death Affected Homeless Damage
name Affected
(USD '000)
Cambodia 1,132 11,605,050 - 11,605,217 1,305,100
Indonesia 181,636 11,173,228 1,400,513 12,734,558 15,788,087
Laos 243 2,472,847 - 2,473,015 222,000
Malaysia 289 507,210 48,296 556,279 1,501,000
Myanmar 139,281 3,314,532 39,339 3,374,433 4,564,158
Philippines 23,317 102,802,003 410,670 103,383,325 16,701,564
Singapore 35 2,227 - 2,227 -
Thailand 10,757 58,616,036 57,138 58,682,568 43,329,613
Timor-Leste 27 13,571 - 13,571 -
Vietnam 4,164 27,381,272 899,535 28,285,730 7,975,437
Total 360,881 217,887,976 2,855,491 221,110,923 91,386,959
There are several main impacts of disasters underlined by various authors in their
study carried out on the recovery and reconstructions were discussed. There are:
2.1 Human Loss and IDPs
The official death toll in Aceh was estimated at close to 167,000 by the Department of
Social Affairs in mid-March 2005, and the number displaced was put at 811,000, of
whom 920 were in hospitals while approximately 477,000 were living in refugee
camps. In September 2005, almost 260,000 people still held IDP status (Canny, 2005;
Nazara & Resosudarmo, 2007).
2.2 Physical Impacts
Based on the conditions occurred on post-disaster period, the major issue is usually
defined as re-building the physical environment by emphasizing housing in the
recovery programs (Arslan & Ünlü, 2008). Nazara & Resosudarmo (2007) reveal that
the immediate physical impacts of the tsunami in Aceh were tremendous. The tsunami
wiped out practically all physical objects in many parts of Aceh’s western and
northern coastal areas, flattening hundreds of thousands of houses, infrastructure of all
kinds, and many other facilities. This physical recovery can be viewed as the sum of
all restoration and reconstruction activities that bring affected structures back to their
original condition (Baroudi & Rapp, 2010).
2.3 Economic Impacts
The impact of the decline in Aceh’s GDP on Indonesia’s overall economic

performance is expected to be small but an increase in poverty is probably the most
serious economic problem caused by the tsunami and earthquake (Nazara &
Resosudarmo, 2007). The level of economic and social development can significantly
impact on the recovery lifecycle as a whole (Baroudi & Rapp, 2010). As stated by
Alexander (2010), hazards like earthquakes or hurricanes produce large, immediate
economic losses, whereby hazards like landslides, which important to local level, had
produced many victims even though their economic impact has been very limited.
Slow on-set disasters, like drought, are also very important, but their economic
impacts are deferred over time (Cardona, Ordaz, Marulanda, & Barbat, 2008).
2.4 Impact on Built Environments
There are large uncertainties associated with the future performance of the built
environment due to changes in regional and local scale climatic conditions (Hayles,
2010). Barakat (2003) stated that disasters have a greater impact on the built
environment of developing countries than industrialised ones. Post-natural disaster
reconstruction is not only a good opportunity to transform the destructive area into a
sustainable community, but also an opportune moment to prepare for the next disaster
(Ye & Okada, 2002) in which this will explain the ways other countries can decrease
their vulnerability to disaster impacts and encourage recovery when disaster does
strike (Lindell & Prater, 2004). Past events have proven that obtaining adequate
funding, and high quality physical and technical assistance is a primary issue for
achieving a resilient post-disaster built environment (Chang, Wilkinson, Seville, &
Potangaroa, 2010).
3. POST-DISASTER RECONSTRUCTION (PDR) PROJECTS
Post-disaster reconstruction and rehabilitation is a complex issue with several

dimensions. Post-disaster reconstruction projects often deals with uncertainties
(Hayles, 2010; Sun & Xu, 2011) complexity (Bello, 2006; Boano & García, 2011;
Wardak et al., 2012; Ye & Okada, 2002) consider one of the most challenging tasks to
be deal with those involved in reconstruction of disaster-affected areas.
Reconstruction should be defined, planned, and implemented in stages (Roosli,

Vebry, Mydin, & Ismail, 2012). Yi & Yang (2014) suggested that Post Disaster
Reconstruction (PDR) require existing tools or new tools to be adapted, that if not
well planned and implemented, can create further vulnerabilities in a disaster-affected
community (Chang, Wilkinson, Potangaroa, & Seville, 2010b). Planning for
reconstruction from a disaster must be realistic and reflective. There are thus few data
on how effective such planning is in reducing the delays in reconstruction (D.
Alexander, 2004). Without a plan, it is impossible to predict or expect a successful
recovery (Ye & Okada, 2002).
4. ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN PDR
Therefore, it is vital for INGOs to investigate the issues and challenges and find a
concrete solution to overcome the complexity and uncertainties of PDR. The next
section will discussed in details the the issues and challenges during post-disaster
reconstruction project in 5 major event of a disaster in Aceh, Sri Lanka, China, Iran
and Haiti from the INGOs context (refer Table 2 & 3)
Table 2: Disaster reconstruction challenges in publication
No Disaster List of Authors

(ADB, 2005; Boen & Jigyasu, 2005; BRR, 2006;
Canny, 2005; Kennedy, Ashmore, Babister, &
1 Tsunami, Aceh, 2004
Kelman, 2008; Silva, 2010; Soelaksono, 2009;
Steinberg, 2007)
(Ibrahim, 2010; Karunasena & Rameezdeen,
2 Tsunami, Sri Lanka, 2004 2010; Lyons, 2009; Perera-Mubarak, 2012; J.
Shaw & Ahmed, 2010)
(Ghafory-Ashtiany & Hosseini, 2007; Kamani-
3 Earthquake, Bam, 2005
Fard, Ahmad, & Ossen, 2012; Kopaei, 2009)
(Chang, Wilkinson, Brunsdon, Seville, &
4 Earthquake, Wenchuan, 2008 Potangaroa, 2011; Caiyu Sun & Xu, 2011;
Chunling Sun & Bi, 2010; Yi-lin & Jin-e, 2010)
(Bornstein, Lizarralde, Gould, & Davidson,
5 Earthquake, Haiti, 2010 2013; GAO, 2011; Moloney, 2014; NAPA,
2006)
Table 3: List of issues and Challenges faced by NGOs during reconstruction activities
Shortage of technical staff*

Community Particpation*
Build back Better/Safer*
Incompetence of NGOs
political uncertainty
Land ownership*
Quality of work*
Disaster List of Sources
Time limitation
Planning issues
Cost overruns*
Security issues
Coordination*
Health issues
Assessment*
Corruption*
Resources*
Funding*
Policies*
Cultural
Delay*
(ADB, 2005; Boen & Jigyasu, 2005;
BRR, 2006; Canny, 2005; Kennedy et
Tsunami, Aceh, 2004 x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
al., 2008; Silva, 2010; Soelaksono,
2009; Steinberg, 2007)
(Ibrahim, 2010; Karunasena &
Rameezdeen, 2010; Lyons, 2009;
Tsunami, Sri Lanka, 2004 x x x x x x x x x x x
Perera-Mubarak, 2012; J. Shaw &
Ahmed, 2010)
(Ghafory-Ashtiany & Hosseini, 2007;
Earthquake, Bam, 2005 x x x x x x x Kamani-Fard et al., 2012; Kopaei,
2009)
(Chang, Wilkinson, Brunsdon, et al.,
2011; Caiyu Sun & Xu, 2011;
Earthquake, Wenchuan, 2008 x x x x x x x x
Chunling Sun & Bi, 2010; Yi-lin &
Jin-e, 2010)
(Bornstein et al., 2013; GAO, 2011;
Earthquake, Haiti, 2010 x x x x x x x x x x x
Moloney, 2014; NAPA, 2006)
*issues and challenges discussed in details in previous section(mark ≥3 times)
Citation: Ismail, D., Majid, T. A., Roosli, R., & Samah, N. A. (2014). A Review On Post-Disaster Reconstruction Project: Issues And Challenges Faced By International Non-Governmental
Organisations (INGOs). In Proceeding of International Post-Graduate Seminar (IPGS 2014), “Engineering Challenges Towards Better Life and Humanity” (p. 72). Shah Alam:
4.1 Delay
Delay can cause the time overruns either ahead of the targeted date specified in the
contract, or beyond the date for delivery of the project. A survey carried out by Iwai
& Tabuchi (2013) shows that close to 30 percent of the total 28,017 public housing
units for the evacuees of the March 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake and tsunami
had faced delays in project delivery. Amnesty International in the report stated that
four years after a massive earthquake hit Haiti, about 170,000 people made homeless
by the tragedy are still surviving in makeshift tent villages in dire weather and are at
threat of being pulled out of the tents (Moloney, 2014). Reconstruction of Aceh had
experienced delays and slow in progress (Boen, 2006; Steinberg, 2007; Nazara &
Resosudarmo, 2007) that the delay had greatly affected the region's economy and
recovery (Matsumaru, Nagami, & Takeya, 2012).
4.2 Resourcing Challenges
PDR is generally very chaotic and resources are in scarce supply (Davidson, Johnson,
Lizarralde, Dikmen, & Sliwinski, 2007). The contractors can be incapacitated in terms
of meeting the sudden surge of demand in labour increased and local natural resources
(e.g., building materials) (Randall & Jowett, 2010; Keraminiyage et al., 2008) which
lead to difficulty to follow work schedules (Iwai & Tabuchi, 2013). Therefore, the
need for better understanding of factors affecting resource availability and their
potential impacts on resourcing outcomes can be of crucial importance to effective
reconstruction performance (Chang, Wilkinson, Potangaroa, & Seville, 2011).
4.3 Challenges in community participation
It has been widely accepted that community participation is an important ingredient

for the successful delivery of post-disaster housing reconstruction projects (Davidson
et al., 2007; Wardak, Coffey, & Trigunarsyah, 2011). Affected communities have the
knowledge (R. Shaw & Goda, 2004) crucial for designing successful reconstruction
projects and they also have a very specific role to play (Ophiyandri et al., 2013) in all
stages of post-disaster housing reconstruction and their participation ultimately
determines project success (Wardak et al., 2011).
4.4 Poorly funded reconstruction
Facing large numbers of homeless after a major natural disaster, it is politically

desirable for a government to provide reconstruction funding for permanent housing
(Freeman, 2007). According to Hidayat & Egbu (2010), the most usual problems
found in beginning of reconstruction are funding for reconstruction. A case study
carried out by Oppong (2011) in Ghana for post-disaster reconstruction activities
reveals that inadequate funding is the primary challenge and the same situation faced
by PDR in Bam, Iran (Gharaati & Davidson, 2008) Sri Lanka (J. Shaw & Ahmed,
2010) Aceh (Silva, 2010) Tangshan, China and Hyogoken-Nanbu, Japan (Ye &
Okada, 2002).
4.5 Preliminary Assessment
Immediately after a disaster, a preliminary assessment (sometimes called rapid

assessment or situation assessment) is conducted to obtain an early but full assessment
of the geographical extent of damage, the number, categories, location, and
circumstances of the disaster-affected population (EPC, TCG, & LLC, 2004).
According to (Kennedy et al., 2008) many organizations did not conduct or did not
use environmental impact assessments nor did they consider long-term spatial, urban,
or regional planning in their settlement and shelter programmes where failing to
conduct proper assessments in new sites could increase exposure to other hazards.
4.6 Lack of Coordination
The task of reconstruction, as indicated by United Nations (2008) and Zuo,

Potangaroa, Wilkinson, & Rotimi (2009) demand a high level of coordination and a
careful managerial approach. A Review Of NGO Coordination In Aceh Post
Earthquake / Tsunami carried out by Canny (2005) found that many NGOs in the area
display a lack of coordination and as a result had created conflicting programs
amongst the NGOs (Soelaksono, 2009). As a results of poor coordination has led to
duplication of activities and the inefficient utilisation of funds (Nazara &
Resosudarmo, 2007), poor management capability (Hosseini & Izadkhah, 2008), and
create competition among the organizations (Wardak et al., 2011).
4.7 Corruption
Besides the challenges discussed in point 3.6.1 - 3.6.6, reconstruction projects can
also fall prey to fraud and corruption resulting in huge losses of project funding
(Hidayat & Egbu, 2010; Wardak et al., 2012) higher timber prices (Chang, Wilkinson,
Potangaroa, et al., 2010b) and affect the reconstruction of housing (Ahmed, 2011). In
the case of Aceh, Oxfam, the international NGOs has sent in five investigators,
including a former police officer, to unravel the skein of apparent corruption that has
led to losses in its Banda Aceh office and forced it to suspend construction (Jones,
2006). Silva (2010) added by referring to one case in Aceh where the head of the
village sold family ID cards to outsiders making them eligible to receive housing
assistance at the expense of the rest of the village.
4.8 Build back Better/Safer
The longer-term recovery and reconstruction process represents a significant

opportunity to ensure that communities are “built back safer” than they were prior to
the disaster (Randall & Jowett, 2010). As stated by (Kennedy et al., 2008) the phrase
‘build back better’ then refers to ‘build back to a less vulnerable state than before’.
Despite becoming a new post-disaster slogan (Boano & García, 2011) while others
seen as an opportunity (Ophiyandri et al., 2013) to ‘build back better’ has led to an
increase in the early estimates of the cost of reconstruction, and a reduction in the
additional resources available in the case of Aceh (BRR, 2006).
4.9 Policies
Policies and strategies in place is critical to ensure the availability of resources

required for long-term reconstruction efforts (Chang, Wilkinson, Potangaroa, &
Seville, 2010a) but not suited for rapid release of funds for disaster response and can
cause delays in reconstruction (Taylor, Seneviratne, Baldry, & Pathirage, 2013). The
responsibility for establishing and implementing reconstruction policies rests
primarily with the government (EPC et al., 2004).
4.10 Quality of Works
The lack of in-house-capacity of the NGOs eventually becomes a big problem which
results in quality concerns, fraud and costly implementation of reconstruction
(Soelaksono, 2009). It is crucial to improve the quality of structural design and
construction in earthquake-prone areas (EPC et al., 2004) because poor quality of
work is found to be a major reason for a higher level of destruction and deaths in
developing countries (Taylor et al., 2013). It become worse as some of the NGO have
no experience in reconstruction (Ophiyandri et al., 2013), the shortage of materials
(Caiyu Sun & Xu, 2011) lead to poor materials quality (Boen, 2006; Parker & Little,
2004) plus poor workmanship (Lyons, 2009) resulted in poor quality reconstruction
project delivery.
4.11 Land Issues
Looking to the future, the protection of land rights is a high priority (Nazara &
Resosudarmo, 2007). The changes the disaster made to the contours of the landscape
complicated identification of land ownership after the event (Ghafory-Ashtiany &
Hosseini, 2007; World Bank, 2004) and lost of land titles information had caused
delay in the reconstruction process (Ochiai & Shaw, 2009).
4.12 Cost overruns
Caiyu Sun & Xu (2011) pointed out that time delays and cost overruns are a
prominent issue in reconstruction areas (Haigh & Sutton, 2012). Poor scope definition
at the budget stage (Attalla, Hegazy, & Elbeltagi, 2004), late starts, delays in delivery
and inflation found as the most contributing factors to cost overruns of reconstruction
projects (Taylor et al., 2013) while improving the efficiency of resourcing process
(Chang, Wilkinson, Potangaroa, & Seville, 2012) may reduce the cost overruns.
4.13 Shortage of technical staff
Few humanitarian organisations have the technical capabilities within their own
organisation to manage construction (Silva, 2010). Caiyu Sun & Xu (2011) indicate
that the shortage of technical staff is still a very prominent issue for reconstruction
projects. USAID had difficulties securing staff particularly technical staff, the
expertise (contracting officers and engineers) who were willing to live and work in
the country after the earthquake which contributed to delays in their efforts (GAO,
2011).
CONCLUSION
The research specified that post-disaster reconstruction (PDR) projects are inherently
complex and therefore acquire project management approaches to bring about higher
levels of successful implementations. However, there had been many reports on PDR
problems in practice, making it necessary to systematically analyse the current PDR
research for future improvements (Yi & Yang, 2014). The issues and challenges for
INGOs participate in PDR project were discussed. The results of the review from
previous authors were then categorised it into thirteen main categories. These cover
issues of delay, resourcing, community participation, poorly funded reconstruction,
preliminary assessment, lack of coordination, corruption and Build back better/safer,
policies, quality of works, land issues, cost overruns and a shortage of technical staff.
This paper has provided a general review of PDR in the aspect of improving the
project performance by looking into the most common and fundamental problems
affecting project delivery performance of INGOs. It can serve as a platform for other
researchers to launch into this evolving new field.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge the Mercy Malaysia for their input and assistance
and the Disaster Research Nexus (DRN), Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) for
providing necessary research facilities and supervision.
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A Review On Post-Disaster Reconstruction Project: Issues And Challenges

Conference Paper · June 2014

Dzulkarnaen Ismail Taksiah A Majid

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Ruhizal Roosli Norazam Ab Samah

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Keywords: Post-Disaster Reconstruction, Project Management

The post-disaster reconstruction (PDR) initiative is part of a sequence of four

2. THE IMPACTS OF DISASTER

Table 1: Estimated damage (US$ Billion) caused by reported natural disaster in

2.1 Human Loss and IDPs

2.2 Physical Impacts

2.3 Economic Impacts

The impact of the decline in Aceh’s GDP on Indonesia’s overall economic

2.4 Impact on Built Environments

3. POST-DISASTER RECONSTRUCTION (PDR) PROJECTS

Post-disaster reconstruction and rehabilitation is a complex issue with several

Reconstruction should be defined, planned, and implemented in stages (Roosli,

4. ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN PDR

Table 2: Disaster reconstruction challenges in publication

No Disaster List of Authors

Shortage of technical staff*

Build back Better/Safer*

4.2 Resourcing Challenges

4.3 Challenges in community participation

It has been widely accepted that community participation is an important ingredient

4.4 Poorly funded reconstruction

Facing large numbers of homeless after a major natural disaster, it is politically

Immediately after a disaster, a preliminary assessment (sometimes called rapid

4.6 Lack of Coordination

The task of reconstruction, as indicated by United Nations (2008) and Zuo,

4.8 Build back Better/Safer

The longer-term recovery and reconstruction process represents a significant

Policies and strategies in place is critical to ensure the availability of resources

4.10 Quality of Works

4.11 Land Issues

4.12 Cost overruns

4.13 Shortage of technical staff

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