The characterization of prime numbers

Ihsan Rajamuda Nasution*

May 27, 2024

Abstract
The prime numbers have a pseudo-random structure. That struc-
ture is not simple. In this paper, we analyze the behavior of prime
numbers and diagnose the inner body of the prime numbers.

MSC: 11A41
Keywords: prime numbers, distribution of primes, critical line, structure of
primes

1 Introduction
The prime numbers do not have a definite pattern. So far, there is no ex-
act formula which can generate all prime numbers. However, behind the
irregularity of the prime numbers, it turns out that the distribution of prime
numbers can be estimated. Riemann [Rie59] showed that the location of
zeros on the critical line implies the distribution of prime numbers.
Next, we will show several quite important numbers patterns. The first
few triangular numbers are 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, . . .. Let tn denote the nth tri-
angular number. Then there is a combinatorial formula for the triangular
numbers; i.e.,  
n+1
tn = n ≥ 1,
2
where n+1


2
is the binomial coefficients [Bur02]. The first few Fibonacci
numbers are 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, . . .. Let Fn be the nth Fibonacci number.
* Faculty of Science and Technology, Indonesia Open University, Jl. Cabe Raya, Pondok
Cabe, Pamulang, Tangerang Selatan 15418 Banten, Indonesia. E-mail: 042066097@ecam-
pus.ut.ac.id

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Then there is a general formula for the Fibonacci numbers; i.e.,
√ √
(1 + 5)n − (1 − 5)n
Fn = √ ,
2n 5
where n is a positive integer [Wei03]. The first few Bernoulli numbers are
B0 = 1, B1 = −1/2, B2 = 1/6, B4 = −1/30, B6 = 1/42, B8 = −1/30, . . .. Let
Bn be the nth Bernoulli number. Then

Bn = (−1)n+1 nζ(1 − n),

where ζ(1 − n) is the Riemann zeta-function and n is a non-negative integer

[Wei03]. Let p(n) denote the total number of partitions of n, the values of
p(n) for n = 1, 2, . . ., are 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 15, 22, . . .. Then there is an asymp-
totic formula of p(n); i.e.,
√
eπ 2n/3
p(n) ∼ √ ,
4n 3
where n is a positive integer [Har99]. Finally, the pattern of natural numbers
is represented axiomatically in the following postulate

Postulate 1.1 (Peano Postulates). Given the number 0, the set N, and the
function σ. Then:

1. 0 ∈ N.

2. σ : N → N is a function from N to N.

3. 0 ̸∈ range(σ).

4. The function σ is one-to-one.

5. If I ⊂ N such that 0 ∈ I and σ(n) ∈ I whenever n ∈ I, then I = N.

Thus, we define 1 = σ(0), 2 = σ(1), 3 = σ(2), . . . [Eis96]. The problem

of finding pattern in the prime numbers is the long-standing open problem
in mathematics. Hence, our goal is to axiomatize the structure of prime
numbers and obtain the fundamental structure of prime numbers.

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2 The first axiomatic approach
In this section, we propose the simple characteristics of prime numbers. The
set of prime numbers obeys several postulates. These postulates hold for the
set of prime numbers and the set of composite numbers. Given the number
0,1, a prime number p, and the set N. Then
Postulate 2.1. p ̸= 0, 1.
Postulate 2.1 shows the existence of 0 and 1 implicitly. This postulate
says that any prime number p does not equal 0 and 1.
Postulate 2.2. p0 = 1.
Postulate 2.2 shows the connection between the prime number p and 1.
The unit 1 is generated by a prime number p over the number 0.
Postulate 2.3. 1 | p.
Postulate 2.3 expresses the divisibility of prime numbers over the unit 1.
Postulate 2.2 deduces Postulate 2.3; i.e., (p0 = 1) | p.
Postulate 2.4. (−1)p = ±1.
Postulate 2.4 shows that the number ±1 depends of the number −1 over
any prime number p. Postulate 2.1 deduces Postulate 2.4 by using 0 and 1;
i.e., given 0 and 1, then (0 − 1)p = (−1)p = ±1.
Postulate 2.5. p < p + 1.
Postulate 2.5 shows the ordered structure of prime numbers. Postulate 2.1
deduces Postulate 2.5; i.e., given 0 and 1, then p = p + 0 < p + 1 if and only
if p < p + 1. We see that p + 1 is the successor of p.
Postulate 2.6. 0p ∈ N.
First postulate of Peano Postulate (Postulate 1.1) says that 0 ∈ N. Pos-
tulate 2.6 can deduce first postulate of Peano Postulate; i.e., 0p = 0 ∈ N.

3 The second axiomatic approach

In this section, we try to solve the problem of prime number axiomatically.
We propose the basic characteristics of prime numbers. The prime numbers
stands on several postulates. But these postulates hold only for the set of
prime numbers not the set of composite numbers. Given the prime numbers
p, q and the set N. Then

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Postulate 3.1. 2 ≤ p.
Postulate 3.1 says that 2 is the least prime number. 2 is the only one even
prime number. 2 is also assumed as a generator of primes. For a composite
number k, 4 ≤ k.
Postulate 3.2. 4 ∤ p.
Postulate 3.2 holds generally for any prime number. Postulate 3.2 ex-
presses the indivisibility of prime numbers over the number 4. The number
4 is the least composite number which cannot divide any prime number. For
a composite number k, 4 | k or 4 ∤ k.
Definition 3.3. For an integer n > 1, where τ (n) denote the number of
positive divisors of n. The function χ(n) is defined by

0 if τ (n) = 2
χ(n) =
1 if τ (n) > 2.

Postulate 3.4. (−1)χ(p) = 1.

Postulate 3.4 shows the connection between −1 and the prime number p.
For a composite number k, (−1)χ(k) = −1. Hence, (−1)χ(n) = ±1 for n ≥ 2.
σ(n) denotes the sum of positive divisors of n. Then
Postulate 3.5. 3 ≤ σ(p).
Postulate 3.5 expresses that 3 is the lower bound of σ(p). Postulate 3.1
can deduce Postulate 3.5. Given 2 ≤ p. Then 2 + 1 ≤ p + 1 implies 3 ≤
σ(p). Postulate 3.5 is the one of basic patterns of the function σ(n). For a
composite number k, 7 ≤ σ(k).
Definition 3.6. Given an integer n > 1, let ∆(n) denote the number of
positive divisors of n besides 1 and n.
Postulate 3.7. ∆(p) = 0.
Postulate 3.7 shows that the zeros of the function ∆ are any prime num-
ber. If ∆(p) = 0, then ∆−1 (0) = p. For a composite number k, ∆(k) ̸= 0.
Postulate 3.8. If p, q ∈ N, then pq ∈ N.
Postulate 3.8 explains the closure property of multiplication over the
prime numbers p and q. By using induction, Postulate 3.8 can imply the
prime factorization of a positive integer. Also, Postulate 3.8 shows the exis-
tence of semiprimes.

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References
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[Eis96] M. Eisenberg. The Mathematical Method. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Upper

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[Har99] G. H. Hardy. Ramanujan: Twelve Lectures on Subjects Suggested by

His Life and Work. Chelsea, New York, 3rd edition, 1999.

[Rie59] B. Riemann. Ueber die Anzahl der Primzahlen unter einer gegebenen
Grösse. Monatsber. Akad. Berlin, pages 671–680, 1859.

[Wei03] E. W. Weisstein. CRC Concise Encyclopedia of Mathematics. Chap-

man & Hall/CRC, Boca Raton, FL, 2nd edition, 2003.