University of Halabja

College of Science
Department of Physics
second stage

Thermodynamics Lab.
4th semester

2022-2023
1
 Experiment NO. (4)
(Gay Lussac’s Law)

Temperature dependency of the pressure of a gas at a constant volume and n.

Gay Lussac’s Law: is an experimental gas law that describes how the pressure of gas increases
as the temperature of gas increases at constant volume and n.

Apparatus:

Gas thermometer, Hand vacuum with pressure pump, Stand base V-shaped, Stand rod, Clamp
with jaw clamp, Hot plate, Beaker 400 ml, Digital thermometer, Temperature sensor NiCrNi,
Mobile-CASSY, NiCr-Ni Adapter S, NiCr-Ni temperature sensor.

Objects of the experiment:

1. Determination of the temperature dependency of the pressure of the gas at constant

volume and n.
2. Defining the absolute pressure scale by extrapolation towards low temperature

Principles

The state of a quantity of n moles of an ideal gas is completely described by the measurable
quantities of pressure, volume, and temperature. The relation between these three quantities is
given by the general gas law:

PV=n RT (I)
P: pressure
V: volume
T: Temperature
n: quantity of ideal gas in moles
R = 8.31 J K-1 mol-1 (universal gas constant)

If one of the quantities p, V, or T remains constant, then the other two quantities cannot be varied
independently of each other. At a constant volume V, for example, Gay Lussac’s relationship
states:

2
 P∝T (II)
This relationship is confirmed in this experiment by means of a gas thermometer. The gas
thermometer consists of a glass capillary. A certain quantity of air is enclosed by means of a
Mercury seal. At an outside pressure of p0, the enclosed air has a volume of V0.
Pumping off the air with a hand vacuum pump, an under-pressure ∆p with respect to the outside
pressure p0 is generated at the open end of the capillary so that the pressure there is p0 +∆p. The
mercury seal itself exerts a pressure pHg on the enclosed air :

Fig. 1: Schematic representation of the thermodynamic process

PHg = ρHg. g. hhg …….. (III)

ρHg = 13.6 g cm-3: density of mercury

g = 9.81 m s-2: acceleration of free fall

hhg = high of the mercury seal

Thus the total pressure of the enclosed air is given by

P = P0 + PHg +∆P …….. (IV)

3
The gas thermometer is placed in a water bath with a temperature of about ϑ ≈ 85° C which is
allowed gradually to cool (Figure. 1). By pumping off the air with a hand vacuum pump the
enclosed gas volume V0 is kept constant during the process of cooling.

Carrying out the experiment

3. Draw a table below to collect your experimental data:

ϑ (0C) ∆p (hpa) p (hpa)

75 - -

70 - -

until - -

35 -

2. Heat about 400 ml of distilled water in the beaker to a temperature of about 85°C by means of
the hot plate.

3. Carefully fill the large test tube with hot water. Due to the increasing temperature the initial gas
volume will increase.

4. While the heat bath (water in the test tube) cools down gradually at 75 0C Read off the height
h0 of the mercury seal. This value defines the enclosed volume V0.

5. At temperature 750C set under pressure ∆p at -60 mbar.

6. Read off under pressure at each temperature by increasing the under pressure ∆p by pumping
with the hand vacuum pump until the mercury seal reaches the initial height h0 ( i.e. thus the
volume, which is decreasing during the cooling process, is readjusted to perform each
measurement at a constant volume V0).

7. Calculate mercury pressure from eq. (III) pHg = PHg ⋅ g ⋅ hHg where

4
 PHg= 13.6 g cm-3 density of mercury

g = 9.81 m s-2 acceleration of free fall

hHg: high of the mercury seal (h0)

8. Calculate Pressure (p) at each under pressure from eq. (IV) if we know that P0 is 1011 hPa

P= p0 + pHg + ∆P

9. Plot graph between the pressure p (hpa) of the enclosed air column as a temperature (0C) function.
Extrapolating the straight line will meet the –X axis at a point like, that point is the absolute
temperature zero (ϑ = 0k).

The straight line is calculated by linear regression:

P= a + b ϑ

a = intercept = P (hpa)

b = slope = P /T (mm3/ oC)

ϑ = The absolute Temperature Zero (ϑ = -273 oC)

P = The Pressure of gas at absolute Temperature (P Close to zero)

5
Results
At a constant Volume and number of moles of gas, the pressure and temperature of an ideal gas
are directly proportional to each other.

Temperature is a measure of the kinetic energy of gas molecules. At a low temperature, the
molecules are moving more slowly and will hit the wall of a container less frequently. As
temperature increases, so does the motion of the molecules. They strike the walls of the container
more often, which is seen as an increase in pressure.

Questions:

1- Under what condition does the general gas law obey Gay Lussac’s Law?
2- Why pressure of gas increase as the temperature increases?
3- In an experiment to show the relationship between Temperature and pressure of the gas
(Gay Lussac’s Law), we got the following data.

T/oc Pressure/hpa T/oc Pressure/hpa

25 866 45 946

35 906 55 986

Show the relationship between T and the pressure of a gas by graph and discuss your
graph.

6
 Experiment NO. (5)
(Solar collector)
Determining the efficiency of a solar collector as a function of the throughput volume of
water.

Apparatus:

Solar collector, Flood light lamp 1000 W, with light shades, Water pump, Variable extra-low
voltage transformer, Cable, Mobile-CASSY, NiCr-Ni-Adapter, Temperature sensor NiCr-Ni,
Stop clock, 2 Stand base V-shape, 2 Stand rod, Universal clamp, Plastic beaker, 4 Silicone tube.

Objects of the experiment:

1. Receiving the temperature curve as a function of time of the forced circulation

2. Estimation of the efficiency
Theory:
Solar collector is the key component of active solar-heating systems. It gathers the solar radiation,
transform its radiation into heat, and then transfer that heat to a fluid (usually water). The solar
thermal energy can be used in solar water-heating systems, solar pool heaters, and solar space-
heating system. A solar collector absorbs radiation and heats itself and the through putting water .
The efficiency ƞ is the ratio of the heat energy absorbed by the water ∆Q and the radiant energy
∆E:
∆𝐐
ƞ=
∆𝐄
Where the radiant energy is

∆E= Ø. ∆t

With Ø: radiant power.

When the collector is warmer than the environment, it gives off energy by radiation, convection
and conduction of heat to the environment. Due to these losses, the efficiency decreases. A forced
circulation is generated in the experiment with the help of a pump. The absorbed thermal energy
of the whole system (collector, tubes and the reservoir) is distributed on the water, so that the

7
temperature of the solar collector becomes not as high. In the experiment the solar collector is used
without and with insulation. Here, the temporal temperature characteristic of the water in the
reservoir is measured.

Setup

a) Water cycle

Set up the experiment as shown in Fig. 1. Use fitting silicone tubing’s and connectors for the
connection of the tubing’s with the nozzles.

• Connect the water pump so, that it pumps the water from the bottom through the solar
collector, i.e., connect the output pump nozzle with the nozzle of the input chamber.
• Fix a temperature sensor directly at the output chamber of the solar collector with the help
of the rubber stopper with 1.5-mm bore. This temperature measurement point is also used
to prevent overheating of the solar collector. The water temperature must not exceed 60
°C
• Connect the nozzle of the output chamber with the input nozzle of the reservoir.
• Connect the output nozzle of the reservoir with the input of the water pump.
• Fill 1000 ml water into the reservoir.
• Lift the reservoir so that the water flows through the water pump into the solar collector
and flows back into the reservoir at its input. All tubing’s must always remain without
folding so that the water can flow without disturbance .
• Hang the reservoir on to the intended support rod .
• Switch on the power supply and run water pump with about 6 V observing the polarity .
• Make sure that the tubing system is now free of bubbles.

8
 Fig. 1: Set up

b) Measuring of temperature

• Hold the second temperature sensor with the help of universal clamp into the water of the
reservoir.
• Connect the temperature sensors to the NiCr-Ni-adapter and the Mobile-CASSY.

c) Radiation

• Set up the flood light lamp on a stand base approximately 50 cm in front of the solar
collector.
• Switch on the flood light lamp and align it so that the actual solar collector is illuminated.
If necessary adjust the light shades slightly, so that the plastic housing is not illuminated.
• Switch the Flood light lamp off and let cool down the solar collector.
Safety note
The water temperature must not exceed 60 °C!

9
Carrying out the experiment
a) Preparation
• Measure the temperature while running water cycle and wait until the temperatures do
not change .
Measurement
• Reduce the voltage at the water pump so (to about 3 V), that only a small throughput
speed is reached, i.e., only a small flow of water into the reservoir can be observed .
• Write down the temperature in the reservoir and observe the temperature in the output
chamber .
• Simultaneous switch on the flood light lamp and start the stop clock. Take a measuring
value every minute.
• Stop the measurement after 10 minutes .

Note: For longer measuring times note the maximum allowed temperature .

• Replace water to cold water. Make sure that the same amount of water is taken. The
experiments should be started with the same initial temperature as possible .
• Adjust voltage (to about 4 V) at the water pump, so that a medium water flow into the
reservoir can be observed
• Repeat the experiment .
• Repeat the experiment with a higher voltage (app. 6 V) ,i.e. with a large throughput
speed.
Time Throughput speed
Small Medium
Temperature
t/min T1 0C T2 0C
1
2
Until
10
Table 1: Temperature characteristic of water in the reservoir

10
 • Plot the graph from the table 1 between temperature of water in the reservoir (T1 0C) versus
time (t/min) the result of the graph is clearly shows that the temperature increase in the
investigated time period can still be considered linear.
• Find the slope of the graph and use that slope to calculate the absorbed heat energy of the water
by this equation.
𝐐 ∆𝐓
= 𝑪. 𝒎. … … . . (𝟑)
𝐭 𝐭
Where C= 4.2 KJ/kg. K is specific heat of water m= 1kg is mass of the water
∆𝐓 ∆𝐓
Slope= =
∆𝐭 𝐭

• For the estimate the efficiency of the whole system not that the lamp is operated within
electrical power 1000 watt.
• One part of this power leads to heating of the lamp, another part of the radiation doesn’t light
the solar collector and one part is reflected. Thus, the radiation power onto the solar collector is
significantly less than 1000 W.

Questions:
1. Why with increasing throughput speed the temperature increase faster?
2. What is the working principle of the solar collector?
3. What is the efficiency of solar collector?

11
 Experiment NO. (6)
(Converting mechanical energy into heat energy)
Converting mechanical energy into heat energy - Recording and evaluating measured values
manually.

Apparatus:

Copper-block calorimeter, Aluminium-block calorimeter, Large aluminium-block calorimeter,

Weight with hook 5 kg, Thermometer for calorimeters.

Objects of the experiment:

1. Observe the conversion of mechanical energy into heat energy.

2. Equivalence of mechanical and heat energy.
Theory:
From law of conservation of mechanical energy we have:
Work done on system = ∆PE+∆KE … (1)
Where KE is the kinetic energy and PE is potential energy. If there are frictional forces present,
we can divide up the total work done on the system into the work done by external forces and the
work done by friction:
External work + Friction Work = ∆PE +∆KE … (2)
Remember that Friction work is negative because the frictional force on a moving object always
points in the direction opposite to the direction of motion. There is another way to think about
friction. Instead of treating the friction as an external force that does work on the system, we can
expand our definition of the system to include the source of friction. Then we have to recognize
that the energy in the system may be converted from mechanical energy into other forms of energy,
such as heat or thermal energy. From this more general point of view, the law of conservation of
energy takes this form:
External Work = ∆PE+∆KE + ∆ (thermal energy) … (3)
Comparing Eq. (2) & (3) leads us to the conclusion that:
-Friction Work = ∆ (thermal energy) … (4)

12
Remember that friction work is negative, so both sides of this equation are positive. Equation (4)
says that the loss in mechanical energy due to friction equals the gain in thermal energy of the
system. Equation (4) is the relation you will test in this experiment.

Fig. 1: Setup of the experiment

A nylon rope (a) is wrapped around an aluminum drum (b) and is held by hand at one end. At the
other end of the band dangles a 5 kg mass (m). The aluminum drum is turned beneath the rope by
means of a crank (c) turned by a student, and the 5 kg mass remains stationary. As the drum turns
it rubs against the band, and the resulting friction generates heat, which causes the temperature of
the band and of the drum to rise. The rise in temperature is a measure of the heat

Energy generated. To test equation 4 we must calculate the friction work, measure the change in
heat energy, and see whether they are equal. We will now discuss how this can be done.

You may be wondering, “Where did the thermal energy come from?” it didn’t just appear
magically. Going back to equation 2 or 3, you can see that it comes from the external work that
you do by turning the crank. In fact, in this experiment the block starts and ends in the same place,
so ∆PE+ KE = 0 and the work you do should be exactly equal to the increase in thermal energy.
But it is hard to measure the work you do. It is much easier to measure the work done by friction
as we show below.

13
 Outer surface of drum

Direction of S
drum rotation

5 kg

Fig. 2: Diagram of F force and S distance.

Friction work is given by the equation

Friction work = -F. S … (5)

Where F is the force of friction, and S is the distance parallel to F over which the force of friction
acts. The work done by friction is negative because F always points in the direction opposite to the
direction of motion of the body. To see what F and S are, refer to Fig.2.

We see in Figure 2 that the 5 kg mass is being pulled down by gravity with a force mg, with m =
5 kg. Since the mass isn’t accelerating, the rope must be pulling up on it with the same force.

So the tension in the vertical part of the rope is equal to mg. the other end of the rope, however is
slack. How did that happen? The frictional force between the drum and the rope must exactly equal
mg, because that is the difference in tension of the vertical and horizontal sections of the rope.
That frictional force is distributed along the whole length of the rope that is wrapped around the
drum 4 or 5 times. The distance S is the total distance the outer edge of the drum moves against

14
the rope. That is equal to the circumference of the drum, d ˟ π, times the number of times the crank
is turned, n. so:

We have S = n ˟ d ˟ π. Putting all this together, we get:

Friction work = - (m ˟ g) (n ˟ d ˟ π) …. (6)

When heated is added to a system, it causes the temperature of the system to rise the heat energy
added, ∆H, is related to the temperature rise, ∆T, by the equation:

∆H= C M (∆T) ….. (7)

Where C is the specific heat capacity of the system and M is the mass of the system. To calculate
∆H you need to know C and you need to measure M and ∆T.

Although heat is just another form of energy, and can therefore be measured in joules, for historical
reasons it is just measured in terms of different units, called calories. One calories is defined as
the amount of heat needed to rise the temperature of one gram of water by one degree
Celsius. The conversion factor between calories and joules is:

1 calories = 4.18 joules …. (8)

In the present experiment, C is made up of contributions from to different components, the

aluminum drum and the nylon rope. We will neglect the heating of the rope. The heat capacity is
given by the product of the mass of the component times the specific heat capacity of the material
of which the component is composed. Water has a specific heat capacity of 1 cal/gm. 0C and
aluminum has a specific heat capacity of 0.215 cal/gm. 0C. The contribution of the drum is (0.215
cal/ gm. 0C) MD where MD is the mass of the drum. The nylon band has negligible heat capacity.
With these values, equation 6 takes the form:

∆H (in calories) = [0.215 MD] ∆T …… (9)

If all the mechanical work goes into heat, then using equation 8, gives us:

∆W = 4.18 ∆H …… (10)

“This is the relationship we will test in this experiment”.

15
Setup:

Fig 1 the aluminum calorimeter is used as the calorimeter body.

▪ The calorimeter body and friction band must not be soiled, if necessary clean with spirit.
▪ Before carrying out any measurement, fell a few drops of water into the bore for the
temperature probe.
▪ Setup the temperature probe in accordance with Fig.1 so that it is parallel to the axis of
rotation, and insert it as far as possible into the bore by moving the stand base.
▪ Ensure that the temperature probe doesn’t touch the walls of the bore.
▪ Ensure that the weight hangs down on the crank side (Fig.1)

Caring out the experiment:

1- The maximum degree of measurement accuracy is achieved if the temperature of the

calorimeter body before measurement is as far below the measurement temperature as it is
above it after measurement. Thus, cool down the calorimeter body in the refrigerator.
2- Using the thermocouple, determine the room temperature by inserting the probe into the
heat measurement hole of the drum. Record this in your spreadsheet.
3- Determine the mass of the aluminum drum and record it in your spreadsheet.
4- If we know that the diameter of the aluminum drum is 0.047 m, find the circumference of
the drum.
5- Then turn the crank clockwise to raise the 5 kg weight a little and keep it at a constant
height.
6- Stop turning when the desired final temperature is reached.
7- Calculate the temperature T2 and the temperature difference T2-T1
8- Calculate the number of cranks needed to raise the drum’s temperature.
9- Calculate ∆W (the friction work) and ∆H the change in heat energy in calories. Use eq. 10 to convert
from calories to joules. Compare the change in heat energy to the work done.
Questions:
1- State the first law for a closed system undergoing a cycle.
2- Define internal energy.
3- Why does friction work is negative?

16
 Experiment NO. (7)
(Boiling point elevation)

Aim of the experiment:

1- Measure the boiling point of pure water
2- Measure the increase in boiling point of water when add solute (the table salt NaCl).
3- Determine the boiling point elevation ∆Tb.

Apparatus:
Hot Plate, boiling beads, stand base V-shaped, Stand rod, Clamp with jaw clamp, Laboratory
balance, Beaker, 400 ml hard glass, Temperature sensor, NiCrNi, Mobile-CASSY, NiCr-Ni
Adapter , NiCr-Ni temperature sensor, Personal computer (PC) and table salt.

Theory:

The boiling point is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid equals the
external pressure surrounding the liquid. Therefore, the boiling point of a liquid depends on
atmospheric pressure. The boiling point becomes lower as the external pressure is reduced. As an
example, at sea level, the boiling point of water is 100 °C (212 °F), but at 2000 meters (6600 feet)
altitude the boiling point is 93.4 °C (200.1 °F).

Boiling differs from evaporation. Evaporation is a surface phenomenon that occurs at any
temperature in which molecules at the liquid edge escape as a vapor because there is not enough
liquid pressure on all sides to hold them. In contrast, boiling affects all molecules in the liquid, not
just ones on the surface. Because molecules within the liquid change to vapor, bubbles form.

The Boiling point is also known as saturation temperature. Sometimes the boiling point is
defined by the pressure at which the measurement was taken. In 1982, the IUPAC defined
the standard boiling point as the temperature of boiling under 1 bar of pressure. The normal
boiling point or atmospheric boiling point is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the
liquid equals the pressure at sea level (1 atmosphere).

17
Colligative properties are those properties of a solution that depend on the number of molecules
or ions dissolved in a solution, and not on the identity of the species in solution. Examples of these
properties are boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, and osmotic pressure. In this
experiment, you will study boiling point elevation using sodium chloride, NaCl. You may recall
from your notes that boiling point elevation is described by the equation:

∆Tb= i Kb Cm

Where ∆Tb is the boiling point elevation, i is the van’t Hoff factor, Kb is the boiling point constant
of the solvent, and Cm is the molality of the solution. The boiling point elevation, ∆Tb, is the
difference between the boiling point of the pure solvent and the boiling point of the solution. In
theory, a solution of NaCl has a van’t Hoff factor of 2, a solution of MgCl2 has a van’t Hoff factor
of 3, and a solution of a non-dissociating substance like sugar would have a van’t Hoff factor of 1.

Carrying out the experiment:

1- Draw a table as bellow to collect your experimental data

Tb solvent (H2O) Mass of known solute (NaCl) Tb solution (NaCl+H2O)

50 g

18
2- Add 200 ml of H2O into tube and then add some pieces of beads into tube

19
3- Measure the boiling point of the pure solvent (Tb solvent) by measuring the temperature every
5 sec and stop measurement when temperature reaches 110 oc.
4- Plot a graph between time in sec and temperature T(oc) of pure solvent
5- Determine the boiling point of pure solvent (Tb solvent) from a graph as bellow

(97.4 0C)
T 0C

T sec

6- Replace the water in the tube by a solution that made of 50g of NaCl that weighing by
electronic balance with 200 ml of D.W.
7- Measure the boiling point of solution (Tb solution) (NaCl+H2O) by measuring the
temperature every 5 sec and stop measurement when tempera rue reaches 110 oc.
8- Plot a graph between time in sec and temperature T(oc) of solution
9- Determine the boiling point of solution (Tb solution) from a graph as bellow

20
 T 0C (99 0C)

T sec

10- Measure the boiling point elevation ∆Tb by this equation

∆Tb = Tb solution- Tb solvent

∆Tb= i Kb Cm

mole of solute
m=
kg of solvent

mass of solute (g)

mole =
Molar mass of solute

mass of solute (g)

Molar mass of solute
m= mass of solvent (kg)

Results:

Adding non-volatile solute to a solvent will essentially dilute the solvent molecules, and this leads
to a decrease in vapor pressure. Therefore, a greater amount of heat must be supplied to the solution
for it to boil. This increase in the boiling point of the solution is the boiling point elevation. An
21
increase in the concentration of added solute is accompanied by a further decrease in the vapour
pressure of the solution and further elevation in the boiling point of the solution.

Questions:

1- What is the new boiling point (boiling point elevation) of an aqueous solution of 4.28884 m
of NaCl? The boiling point constant for water is 0.52 °C/m.
2- Why does the boiling point of water increase when a solute is added?
3- What Happens to a Boiling Temperature as Pressure Decreases or increase?
4- Why are boiling chips or beads used in the determination of boiling point?

22