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Full download Pressure estimation of wave-in-deck loading using velocity fields obtained by particle image velocimetry Tien Trung Duong file pdf all chapter on 2024
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Ocean Engineering 257 (2022) 111581
Ocean Engineering
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/oceaneng
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: This study presents the application of a particle image velocimetry based pressure estimation method to
Wave-in-deck load reconstruct pressure distributions along a deck due to wave-in-deck loading. A series of experiments on wave-in-
Pressure distribution deck loading caused by focused waves were conducted in a two-dimensional wave tank to measure vertical force,
Focused waves
pressure distributions and the PIV velocity fields under the deck. Fluid pressure fields were reconstructed by
PIV-based pressure estimation
spatial integration of pressure gradients computed from Euler equation. The estimated pressures from PIV ve
Euler equation
locity data were compared and validated with the measured pressures by five pressure sensors under the deck. In
the material acceleration calculation based on the Eulerian and pseudo-Lagrangian approaches, a proper time
interval could be chosen to reduce errors in the pressure estimation results. The Eulerian approach provided less
errors for pressure time series estimation, but the pseudo-Lagrangian approach showed a better agreement at
maximum pressure. The estimated pressure fields and pressure distributions under the deck were studied to
understand the mechanism of loading phenomena. Finally, the effect of the vortex beneath the leading edge
during the water exit phase was discussed in relation to force and pressure measurements.
1. Introduction predict the time series of global wave force underneath a horizontal
deck, whereas an empirical correlation based on dimensional analysis
Decks of offshore structures are designed to withstand environmental was developed by Cuomo et al. (2007) to estimate the peak values of
loads induced by waves during their lifetime. However, offshore struc these forces. Baarholm (2009) compared vertical WID forces measured
tures could be damaged or even destroyed by wave-in-deck (WID) in 2D and three-dimensional (3D) model tests to reveal the effect of 3D
loading under extreme ocean conditions such as hurricanes, when the flow on loading characteristics. The results showed that 3D flow reduced
wave crest exceeds the deck height (Energo Engineering, 2010). Addi the magnitude of the upward force by 15%–30%. Schellin et al. (2011)
tionally, foundation subsidence or reservoir compaction also reduces performed computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations of WID
deck clearance (Broughton and Horn, 1987), which may increase the loading caused by freak waves on a three-leg jack-up platform. The
probability of WID occurrence. numerical results showed that impact loads caused by freak waves
Numerous studies have been conducted over the years to investigate exceeded those caused by Stokes waves. Scharnke et al. (2014) con
the nature of WID loading through experimental or numerical in ducted a series of experiments on a fixed jacket platform in regular and
vestigations. Pioneering studies on the prediction of WID loads were irregular wave conditions to measure WID loads and compared the
conducted by Kaplan (1992) and Isaacson and Bhat (1996). Murray et al. experimental results with a simplified prediction model proposed by API
(1997) measured wave forces acting on a jacket structure model with a (API, 2014). The simplified loading model was found to underestimate
horizontal deck in regular and irregular waves. They discovered no horizontal forces in both regular and irregular wave conditions.
significant difference between peak forces caused by regular and focused Abdussamie et al. (2017) measured global forces and local pressure of
waves with the same zero-crossing period and crest height. Baarholm extreme long-crested irregular waves on a 3D fixed box-shaped deck
and Faltinsen (2004) used two-dimensional (2D) potential flow to model. They concluded that the magnitude of the impact pressure varied
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: kjung@pusan.ac.kr (K.H. Jung).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2022.111581
Received 27 January 2022; Received in revised form 27 April 2022; Accepted 16 May 2022
0029-8018/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
T.T. Duong et al. Ocean Engineering 257 (2022) 111581
significantly among repeated runs of identical wave conditions, and and maximum pressures but larger downward force than those gener
waves induced larger pressures on the front half of the bottom plate than ated by a regular wave with an identical crest height and a zero
the rear section. Qin et al. (2017) used a fully coupled fluid-structure up-crossing period. Wen et al. (2021) numerically studied the hydro
interaction method to numerically study the hydroelastic effect on dynamic phenomena of a coastal bridge deck subjected to a combined
WID loading. The results showed that the hydroelastic effect caused load of regular waves and onshore wind. The results showed that the
oscillations in the force time series and a larger peak force value. Duong intensity of the wave impact was increased due to the distorted wave
et al. (2019) measured the vertical force and local pressures on a fixed profile under the wind action.
horizontal plate subjected to regular waves, and the velocity maps under PIV techniques have recently been widely used in many applications
the deck were also obtained using particle image velocimetry (PIV) in fluid mechanics as efficient and nonintrusive flow measurement
technique to study the effect of the deck on flow kinematics. A linear methods (Raffel et al., 2018). Several PIV-based pressure estimation
relationship was revealed between the vertical force and the square of methods have been developed to derive fluid pressure by integrating PIV
the maximum vertical velocity estimated from the linear wave theory. data and flow governing equations. These methods have the advantage
Sun et al. (2019) numerically studied the suction effect of WID loading of determining instantaneous pressures in an entire measurement field,
during the water exit phase using the smoothed particle hydrodynamics whereas traditional pressure probes could only measure the local surface
(SPH) method. They found that the negative suction force slightly pressure. Furthermore, the PIV-based pressure estimation enable the
decreased when reducing the deck clearance. Santo et al. (2020) con ability to dig further into the relation between the kinematic flow
ducted several experiments to investigate the effect of impact force on a characteristics and the surface loads. There are two strategies to esti
solid deck with and without an I-beam grillage subjected to focused mate pressure from PIV data: direct integration of pressure gradients and
waves. The impact force with the I-beam grillage contained more solving the Poisson equation for the pressure (van Oudheusden, 2013).
high-frequency spikes, and the peak force was three to four times larger To implement the first strategy, pressure gradients are computed from
than that of the pure deck. Fang et al. (2021) experimentally investi instantaneous PIV velocity data using either Navier–Stokes equation for
gated forces exerted on a coastal bridge with a box girder under actions viscous flow or Euler equation for incompressible inviscid flow. The
of focused waves. They found that a focused wave with a high peak pressure gradients are then spatially integrated from a boundary con
frequency induced significantly larger horizontal and vertical slamming dition to obtain instantaneous pressure data. Liu and Katz (2006) pro
forces than those generated by a focused wave with a smaller peak posed an omnidirectional virtual boundary integration scheme to
frequency. Duong et al. (2021) reported experimental results for WID estimate the pressure in a cavity turbulent shear flow. Panciroli and
loading caused by focused waves with PIV measurements of velocity Porfiri (2013) evaluated pressure fields on a symmetric rigid wedge
maps under the deck. The focused wave generated smaller upward force impacting a quiescent free surface and obtained a good match between
2
T.T. Duong et al. Ocean Engineering 257 (2022) 111581
3
T.T. Duong et al. Ocean Engineering 257 (2022) 111581
Table 2
Characteristics of regular wave components for focused wave generation.
Wave condition Wave component 1 Wave component 2
rate of 100 Hz. Then, the deck was installed to measure the force,
pressure, and velocity maps under the deck, and all measurement sys
tems were synchronized with the wavemaker.
4
T.T. Duong et al. Ocean Engineering 257 (2022) 111581
Table 3
Characteristics of focused waves.
Wave conditions FW1 FW2 FW3 FW4 FW5 FW6 FW7 FW8 FW9
Hc (m) 0.093 0.102 0.118 0.093 0.103 0.114 0.092 0.105 0.118
Ht (m) − 0.070 − 0.070 − 0.069 − 0.078 − 0.080 − 0.077 − 0.083 − 0.087 − 0.084
Hu (m) 0.163 0.172 0.187 0.171 0183 0.191 0.175 0.192 0.202
Hd (m) 0.147 0.160 0.182 0.146 0.160 0.175 0.132 0.149 0.165
Tr (s) 0.25 0.25 0.22 0.28 0.27 0.25 0.33 0.31 0.3
Tf (s) 0.22 0.21 0.22 0.22 0.21 0.21 0.23 0.21 0.19
Tzd (s) 1.11 1.10 1.10 1.19 1.17 1.15 1.41 1.35 1.26
Tzu (s) 1.10 1.11 1.11 1.19 1.16 1.16 1.31 1.25 1.22
lines L1 and L2, the unknown pressure at the rest of the fluid domain was
reconstructed using the pressure eroding scheme developed by Baur and
Köngeter (1999). The same process was performed with the different
selections of points A and B, and the final pressure field was obtained by
taking the average of all resulting pressure fields to reduce the effect of
the random error on the measured PIV data.
where P represents pressure; u and w represent the horizontal and ver where h represents the spatial resolution of the PIV measurement (5.95
tical velocity components of a fluid particle, respectively; and t, ρ, and g mm), δt represents the time separation between two successive PIV
represent time, the density of the fluid, and gravitational acceleration, frames (2 ms), and Δt = nδt is the time interval between the two PIV
respectively. Then, the pressure field could be reconstructed by spatial frames used in the acceleration calculation. Additionally, the forward
integration of computed pressure gradients from locations with known and backward finite difference schemes were adopted to calculate the
pressure data. Fig. 5 shows the process of spatial integration of pressure acceleration of fluid particles located at the free surface, at the edges of
gradients used in this study, which is similar to the process proposed by the FOV, and slightly under the deck.
Kim et al. (2020) and Lee et al. (2020a). First, from point A at the free For the pseudo-Lagrangian approach, the material acceleration of
surface, with atmospheric pressure, pressure data along the vertical line fluid particles was calculated using fluid path reconstruction using PIV
L1 was calculated by applying a simple forward integration. From point data (Novara and Scarano, 2013). With the assumption that the velocity
B located on line L1, the pressure gradient was then horizontally inte of a particle remains constant during time separation δt, the position of
grated to obtain pressure data on line L2. With known pressure data on an imaginary particle along the path at the i previous and subsequent
instants was estimated as
Fig. 6. Reconstruction of particle path using pseudo-Lagrangian approach from five instants (n = 4).
5
T.T. Duong et al. Ocean Engineering 257 (2022) 111581
where
( )/
s= ̃xp − x1 (x2 − x1 ), (8)
( )/
q = ̃zp − z1 (z2 − z1 ). (9)
The material derivative was then computed using the central finite
difference of the estimated velocity as
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
DV ( ) Ṽ p t + Δt − V ̃ p t − Δt ̃ p t + n δt − V
V ̃ p t − n δt
rp (t) = 2 2
= 2 2
, (10)
Dt Δt nδt
where Δt = nδt is the time interval between the beginning and end of
path reconstruction.
Fig. 8. PIV measurement uncertainty at the instant of maximum pressure at P1. Magnitudes of horizontal and vertical velocity errors with the deck (first row) and
without the deck (second row) and their PDF (third row).
6
T.T. Duong et al. Ocean Engineering 257 (2022) 111581
Fig. 9. Time histories of the measured and estimated pressure with varying n for the experimental condition FW1-A. First row: Eulerian approach (Lee et al., 2020a);
second row: pseudo-Lagrangian approach.
∂ut ∂wt FW1-A. The first row shows the magnitudes of the relative velocity error
∇ ⋅ Vt = + = 0. (12)
∂x ∂z with the presence of the deck, whereas the second row shows the
magnitudes of the relative velocity error of the incident wave without
Therefore, the divergence of the velocity error, which is typically
the deck, and the third row shows their probability density function
nonzero, could be estimated by taking the divergence of the measured
(PDF). The large velocity errors (>10%) in both cases are distributed
velocity, as shown in Eq. (13).
near the deck, the free surface, and the edges of the FOV, whereas, inside
∇ ⋅ εV = ∇⋅V. (13) the fluid domain, the relative velocity error is smaller than 2%. This
observation is a common feature in any PIV measurements (Raffel et al.,
The velocity error field could be estimated by computing the least-
2018). Most of the relative velocity errors are less than 5%, as shown in
squares solution to Eq. (13):
subfigures 8c1 and 8c2.
( )− 1
ε V = (∇⋅)T ∇2 (∇ ⋅ V),
̂ (14)
4.2. Assessment of PIV-based pressure estimation accuracy
where ∇ represents the divergence matrix and V represents the column
vector containing all components of the measured velocity. The diver
In the reconstruction of pressure using PIV data, the time interval Δt
gence matrix is constructed using the central finite difference scheme for
between the beginning and ending instants used in the acceleration
velocities inside the fluid domain and the backward and forward scheme
calculation significantly influences the resulting pressure. The time in
for velocities at the edges of the FOV, at the free surface, and slightly
terval should be sufficiently long to reduce precision errors, but trun
under the deck. Note that the velocity error estimated using this method
cation errors in finite difference schemes would increase with a longer
is also accompanied by the truncation error of finite difference schemes
time interval (van Oudheusden, 2013). A proper value of the time in
used in the construction of the divergence matrix.
terval Δt or the number of PIV frames used in the acceleration calcula
In this study, relative velocity errors εu,R and εw,R in horizontal and
tion must be determined to minimize the total error during pressure
vertical directions, respectively, are calculated as follows:
reconstruction (Jensen and Pedersen, 2004). Fig. 9 illustrates the time
εu,R =
εu
, (15) series of the estimated pressure and the measured pressure obtained at
wmax P1 for the experimental condition FW1-A with different time intervals.
εw The pressure was nondimensionalized by the term ρw2max . The first and
εw,R = , (16) second rows present the estimated pressure from the Eulerian (Lee et al.,
wmax
2020a) and pseudo-Lagrangian approaches, respectively. In both ap
where εu and εw are the horizontal and vertical components of velocity proaches, with a smaller time interval Δt = 0.004 s in subfigures 9a1
errors estimated from Eq. (14) and wmax (0.47 m/s) is the maximum and 9b1, the estimated pressure fluctuates significantly, which is
vertical particle velocity estimated from the linear wave theory for a attributed to a higher precision error. By contrast, with Δt = 0.020 s and
regular wave with an identical wave height and a zero up-crossing wave Δt = 0.040 s, the estimated pressure matches well with the measured
period as the focused wave condition. Fig. 8 shows the uncertainty of pressure, but the value of the maximum pressure estimated from PIV
PIV measurement at the instant maximum pressure at P1 for condition data decreases as the time interval increases.
The NRMSE between the estimated and measured pressures is used
7
T.T. Duong et al. Ocean Engineering 257 (2022) 111581
Fig. 10. NRMSE with varying Δt for the experimental condition FW1-A.
Fig. 11. Time histories of measured and estimated pressures using the Eulerian approach with Δt = 0.02 s (n = 5) for the experimental condition FW1-A (Lee
et al., 2020a).
8
T.T. Duong et al. Ocean Engineering 257 (2022) 111581
Fig. 12. Time histories of measured and estimated pressures using the pseudo-Lagrangian approach with Δt = 0.02 s (n = 5) for the experimental condition FW1-A.
Fig. 13. Horizontal component ax of material acceleration under each pressure sensor at the instants of maximum pressure occurrence for the experimental condition
FW1-A.
9
T.T. Duong et al. Ocean Engineering 257 (2022) 111581
Fig. 14. The vertical component az of the material acceleration under each pressure sensor at the instants of maximum pressure occurrence for the experimental
condition FW1-A.
10
T.T. Duong et al. Ocean Engineering 257 (2022) 111581
Fig. 15. Comparison of the measured and estimated maximum pressures at all pressure sensors for all experimental conditions. (a) Eulerian approach, (b) pseudo-
Lagrangian approach.
Fig. 16. Comparison of the measured and estimated maximum pressures at each pressure sensor for all experimental conditions.
the level z/D = − 0.1 for the vertical component. Additionally, the estimating maximum pressures than the Eulerian approach. Addition
pressure sensor P5 experienced the smallest effect of the deck on ac ally, pressure sensors near the trailing edge experience larger errors than
celeration, as shown in Figs. 13e and 14e. pressure sensors near the leading edge.
The mean relative error (MRE) in Eq. (18) was calculated to assess Figs. 15 and 16 compare maximum pressures estimated from PIV
the accuracy of the PIV-based method in the estimation of maximum data with the measured pressure obtained from all and each pressure,
pressures: respectively, for all experimental conditions. The scatter in maximum
⃒ ⃒ pressure estimation is large for both approaches. Most estimated values
⃒ ⃒
M ⃒Pj
from the Eulerian approach fall within the upper part region in Figs. 15a
j
1 ∑ max,e − Pmax,m ⃒
MRE = , (18)
M j=1 Pjmax,m and 16, indicating that the Eulerian approach underestimates the
maximum pressure with an average MRE of 44.4%. By contrast, the
where M represents the number of maximum pressures. Table 4 presents pseudo-Lagrangian approach shows better maximum pressure estima
the MRE obtained from two approaches for each pressure sensor. tion with estimated values falling around the straight line (Figs. 15b and
Overall, the pseudo-Lagrangian approach produces fewer errors in 16a–c) and smaller average MRE values of 33.7%. This would be
11
T.T. Duong et al. Ocean Engineering 257 (2022) 111581
Fig. 18. Pressure fields and overlaid velocity vectors at six predominant phases estimated from the pseudo-Lagrangian approach for the experimental condition
FW1-A.
12
T.T. Duong et al. Ocean Engineering 257 (2022) 111581
Fig. 19. Pressure distributions along the underside of the deck at six predominant phases for the experimental condition FW1-A.
pressure at the other phases was similar to that at phase (a). After the
occurrence of the maximum pressure, the measured and estimated
pressures decreased moderately to a negative value, creating a down
ward force acting under the deck at phase (f). The negative pressures at
this phase distributed along the entire length of the deck as shown in
Figs. 18f and 19f. This would attribute to the larger magnitude of the
downward force compared to that of the upward force. Then, as the
wave detached from the deck, the negative pressure increased steadily to
the atmospheric pressure, and the magnitude of the downward force
decreased.
The vertical force acting on the underside of the deck could be ob
tained by spatial integration of the estimated pressure distribution under
the deck using Eq. (19):
∫L
Fz (t) = Pe (x, c, t)dx, (19)
0
13
T.T. Duong et al. Ocean Engineering 257 (2022) 111581
Fig. 21. Time histories of the measured vertical force and pressures for the experimental condition FW3-A. (a) entire time series, (b) time series during the local
maximums in downward force and negative pressure.
Fig. 22. Comparison between the measured and estimated pressures during the local maximum in the downward force.
14
T.T. Duong et al. Ocean Engineering 257 (2022) 111581
et al. (2014), Duong et al. (2019), and Santo et al. (2020), which was
believed to be a common characteristic of the WID force (Santo et al.,
2020). The same observation was obtained in our experiments. Fig. 21
presents the time series of the measured force and pressures for the
experimental condition FW3-A (wmax = 0.53 m/s), and an enlarged view
of the local maximums in the downward force and the measured pres
sures is shown in subfigure 21b. All pressures measured at the pressure
sensors increased and reached a local peak at the same phase (0.4π),
especially the pressure measured using the pressure sensor P1, which
even increased significantly to a positive value. Then, all measured
pressures decreased to negative values as the wave continued receding
from the deck. Fig. 22 compares the estimated pressure from PIV data
with the measured pressures at all pressure sensors during the local
maximum duration. Both the Lagrangian and Eulerian approaches could
accurately estimate the increasing trend in the pressure time series.
The vorticity Ω at a point (i, j) in Fig. 23 was computed from a cir
culation Γi,j estimated around the eight neighboring velocities obtained
via the PIV measurement (Raffel et al., 2018):
Γi,j
Ωi,j = , (20)
4h2
where
1 [( ) ( )
Fig. 23. Path integration for the vorticity calculation at point (i, j). Γi,j = h ui− 1,j− 1 + 2ui,j− 1 + ui+1,j− 1 + wi+1,j− 1 + 2wi+1,j + wi+1,j+1
2
( ) ( )]
− ui+1,j+1 + 2ui,j+1 + ui− 1,j+1 − wi− 1,j+1 + 2wi− 1,j + wi− 1,j− 1 . (21)
estimation methods overestimate the downward force. Note that in the
water exit phase, the starting point A (Fig. 5) of the pressure gradient Figs. 24 and 25 show the vorticity fields and the pressure distribution
integration was near the trailing edge or/and the leading edge (Fig. 18f), under the deck, respectively, at four phases (a′ )–(d′ ), indicated by four
with a larger error distribution, as shown in Fig. 8. Therefore, the vertical dashed lines in Fig. 22. At phase (a′ ), a strong positive vortex
PIV-based estimation methods overestimate the negative pressure developed beneath the leading edge, as shown in Fig. 24a, and the
(Fig. 19f) as well as the downward force acting on the underside of the negative pressures were distributed along the underside of the deck
deck. (Fig. 25a) and began to increase (Fig. 22). A strong vortex around the
sharp corner of the deck was also obtained through SPH simulations by
Sun et al. (2019). Then, the fluid pressure reached a local maximum at
4.4. Effect of the vortex beneath the leading edge on the downward force phase (c′ ) in Fig. 22, and the distribution of positive pressures near the
and pressure distributions pressure sensor P1 is seen in Fig. 25c. After phase (c′ ), the pressure under
the deck decreased and became negative, as shown in Fig. 25d, and the
In the water exit process, a negative pressure region was created vortex dissipated with flow separation around the corner of the deck, as
under the deck, called the suction effect (Sun et al., 2019), resulting in a shown in Fig. 24c and d. It could be concluded that the local maximums
downward force acting on the deck. The magnitude of this downward in the downward force, as well as the pressures time series, were the
force could exceed the magnitude of the upward force developed in the result of the vortex that occurred beneath the leading edge when the
water entry process, as shown in Fig. 20, and endanger the structural wave receded from the deck.
safety of the offshore platforms. A local maximum in the downward
force was found in the experimental results proposed by Abdussamie
Fig. 24. Vorticity fields and overlaid velocity vectors at four phases (a′ )–(d′ ) during the local maximum in the downward force.
15
T.T. Duong et al. Ocean Engineering 257 (2022) 111581
Fig. 25. Pressure distributions along the underside of the deck at four phases (a′ )–(d′ ) during the local maximum in the downward force.
5. Conclusions 5. The pressure estimation method could accurately predict the local
maximums in the downward force and measured pressures during
In this study, PIV-based pressure estimation was used to obtain the water exit process. These local maximums would be the effect of
instantaneous fluid pressure fields of WID loading phenomena. Several the vortex beneath the leading edge on the fluid pressure.
experiments were conducted to measure the global force, local pres
sures, and PIV velocity maps under the deck subjected to focused waves. The PIV-based pressure estimation method would be a reliable
The Eulerian and pseudo-Lagrangian approaches were used to compute nonintrusive technique for determining instantaneous fluid pressures.
material acceleration and then pressure gradients from PIV data using With the advantage of determining pressure throughout the measure
Euler equation. Pressure gradients were subsequently integrated from a ment field, this method could be applied to many aspects of fluid me
boundary condition set at the free surface to reconstruct the pressure in chanics, especially in ocean engineering to estimate impulsive wave
the entire FOV. Pressure gradient integration was performed with loads on offshore structures using PIV measurements with sufficiently
different integration paths, and resulting pressure fields were averaged high speed and high resolution. This method provides the ability to
to reduce the effect of the random error in the measured PIV data. The investigate the relation between the flow kinematics and the induced
estimated pressures from PIV data were compared with the measured loads on the structures for a better insight in the nature of the loading.
pressures using five pressure sensors to validate the accuracy of the Additionally, the spatial distribution of the loads estimated from the PIV
pressure estimation method. The main conclusions are drawn as follows: data could be used to improve the design of the offshore structures under
hydrodynamic wave loads.
1. The error in pressure estimation was sensitive to the time interval Δt
used in material acceleration determination. Through a proper se CRediT authorship contribution statement
lection of Δt, e.g., Δt = 0.02 s (Δt/Tzu = 0.018) in this study, an
accurate estimation of pressure fields of WID loading could be Tien Trung Duong: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation,
achieved. Visualization, Writing – original draft. Kwang Hyo Jung: Conceptual
2. From the assessment of the NRMSE, the Eulerian approach produced ization, Methodology, Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Funding
a better estimation of the pressure time series than the pseudo- acquisition. Gang Nam Lee: Methodology, Investigation, Writing – re
Lagrangian approach. However, the pseudo-Lagrangian approach view & editing. Hyung Joon Kim: Writing – review & editing. Sung Boo
produced fewer errors in the estimation of the maximum pressure as Park: Writing – review & editing. Seongyun Shin: Writing – review &
well as the distribution of high pressures along the underside of the editing. Jaeyong Lee: Writing – review & editing, Supervision. Sung Bu
deck. Suh: Writing – review & editing, Supervision.
3. The position of the starting point of pressure gradient integration
significantly influenced the accuracy of pressure estimation. With Declaration of competing interest
the expansion of the wetted length along the deck, i.e., at the phase of
submergence of the entire deck, the position of the starting point The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
would be closer to the edges of the FOV, where more errors are interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
distributed. This resulted in more errors being accumulated during the work reported in this paper.
pressure gradient integration. Therefore, the distribution of errors in
the PIV data should be assessed, and the integration of pressure Acknowledgments
gradients across highly erroneous regions should be avoided.
4. The distributions of estimated pressures along the underside of the This work was supported by a 2-Year Research Grant of Pusan Na
deck agreed well with the measured pressures. During the water tional University.
entry process, a high-pressure region was created in the vicinity of
the intersection point between the free surface and the deck, and the
pressure was moderately reduced toward the leading edge.
16
T.T. Duong et al. Ocean Engineering 257 (2022) 111581
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17
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