Last Modified: 22/03/2016

FP2 Summary Sheet

Chapter 1 – Inequalities
 We can’t multiply an inequality by any expression involving a variable, unless we can guarantee
it is positive (e.g. 𝑥 2 + 1)
 Often case where we can multiply through by denominator(s) squared (which will be +ve), e.g.
𝑥2
< 𝑥 + 1 → 𝑥 2 (𝑥 − 2) < (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2)2
𝑥−2
 Try to avoid fully expanding where possible, e.g.
𝑥 2 (𝑥 − 2) < (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2)2 → 𝑥 2 (𝑥 − 2) − (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2)2 < 0
→ (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 2 − (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2)) < 0 …
 Do a quick check with a few values of 𝑥 (e.g. 0) in your solution range to see if the original
inequality is satisfied.
 From C1 you are used to solving quadratic inequalities, e.g.
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 3) < 0
The same principle applies for cubic and quartic inequalities. e.g.
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 1) < 0
‘Positive’ quartics start from the top. From sketch we can see
−3 < 𝑥 < −2 or −1 < 𝑥 < 1
 If solving by sketching, isolate any modulus on one side first.
Sketch each, find intersections (i.e. ‘critical values’), then read off solution.

Chapter 2 – Method of Differences

 Exam questions usually have two parts:
(a) Showing some expression is equivalent to one in the form 𝑓(𝑛) − 𝑓(𝑛 + 1)
(b) Use method of differences to simplify summation.
 As part of (a), you frequently have to express a fraction as partial fractions.
 Always write out at least the first two pairs, and the last pair, e.g.
𝑛
3 𝑛
1 1
∑ = Σ𝑟=1 −
(2𝑟 + 1)(2𝑟 + 3) 2𝑟 + 1 2𝑟 + 3
𝑟=1
1 1 1 1 1 1
= − + − +⋯+ −
3 5 5 7 2𝑛 + 1 2𝑛 + 3
1 1 𝑛
= − =
3 2𝑛 + 3 2𝑛 + 3
 Harder ones involve 𝑓(𝑛) − 𝑓(𝑛 + 2). Again write out lots of pairs to see cancelling pattern.
After cancelling you will either be left with the first term of each of the first two pairs and the
second item of the last two pairs, or the second item of the first two pairs and the first item of
the last two pairs.

www.drfrostmaths.com
Chapter 3 – Further Complex Numbers
Section A – De Moivre’s Theorem and its Applications

You must be able to convert very proficiently between the following 3 forms.
𝑦
𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 and 𝜃 = tan−1 (𝑥 ) if in the 1st or 4th quadrant (use a suitable diagram with trig otherwise,
remembering the principal argument is −𝜋 < 𝜃 < 𝜋)

Cartesian Form 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
Modulus-Argument Form 𝑟(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)
Exponential Form 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃

 When multiplying complex numbers: Multiply moduli, add arguments.

When dividing complex numbers: Divide moduli, subtract arguments.
 Note that cos(−𝜃) + 𝑖 sin(−𝜃) = cos 𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝜃

De Moivre’s Theorem: [𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)]𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 (cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃) (𝑛 can be fractional)

 Application 1: Roots of Unity

e.g. Solve 𝑧 4 = 2 + 2√3𝑖
𝜋 𝜋
Convert to modulus argument form so DeM’s can be used: 𝑧 4 = 4 (cos 3 + 𝑖 sin 3 )
𝜋 𝜋
Consider that cos/sin repeat every 2𝜋: 𝑧 4 = 4 (cos ( 3 + 2𝑘𝜋) + 𝑖 sin( 3 + 2𝑘𝜋))
𝜋 2𝑘𝜋 𝜋 2𝑘𝜋
Use De Movre’s: 𝑧 = √2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( + ) + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( + ))
12 4 12 4
If power of 𝑧 was 𝑛, plug in 𝑛 values of 𝑘 symmetrical about 0: (if 𝑛 is even number, have one
more negative number). Double check your arguments are in the range −𝜋 < 𝜃 < 𝜋
𝜋 𝜋 7𝜋 7𝜋
If 𝑘 = 0, 𝑧 = √2 (cos 12 + 𝑖 sin 12) If 𝑘 = 1, 𝑧 = √2 (cos 12 + 𝑖 sin 12 )
5𝜋 5𝜋
If 𝑘 = −1, 𝑧 = √2(cos (− 12 ) + 𝑖 sin (− 12 )) If 𝑘 = −2, …
 Application 2: Multiples of 𝜽  Powers of cos/sin
e.g. Put cos 3𝜃 in terms of powers of cos 𝜃
Use Binomial expansion on LHS of (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)3 = cos 3𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 3𝜃
Since cos 3𝜃 is the real part of the RHS, compare real parts LHS and RHS.
 Application 3: Powers of cos/sin  Multiples of 𝜽.
1 1
As per formula booklet: 𝑧 + 𝑧 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑧 𝑛 + 𝑧𝑛 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝜃
1 1
𝑧 − = 2𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑧 𝑛 − 𝑛 = 2𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜃
𝑧 𝑧
Start with one of left two of these and raise to appropriate power.
e.g. Express cos 5 𝜃 in the form 𝑎 cos 5𝜃 + 𝑏 cos 5𝜃 + 𝑐 cos 𝜃
1 5
Start with (2 cos 𝜃)5 = (𝑧 + 𝑧) . Expand RHS. Terms join in pairs inwards. Use right two
identities above.

www.drfrostmaths.com
Part B: Locus of Points

 To prove that you get a particular Cartesian equation for the first three diagrams above:
- Replace 𝑧 with 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
- Group real parts and imaginary parts if necessary (e.g. 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 − 2 = (𝑥 − 2) + 𝑖𝑦) then use
|𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 . Square both sides to get rid of √.
- If you know you’re going to get a circle, complete the square in usual C2 fashion.
𝑧−𝑧
 The last two examples, i.e. arg (𝑧−𝑧1 ) = 𝜃 specifically appear in specification (although have
2
𝑧
never appeared in an exam up to now). Use fact that arg (𝑧1 ) = arg(𝑧1 ) − arg(𝑧2 ).
2
𝜋
Quick non-thinkey way: If 𝜃 = 4 , plot 𝑧1 and 𝑧2 , connect as if opposite corners of square so
right-angle formed. This will be the centre of arc.
𝜋
If 𝜃 = 2 , centre of circle will be the midpoint of 𝑧1 and 𝑧2 . In both cases 𝑧1 and 𝑧2 lie on the
circle.
 You may be asked to sketch regions. Just use common sense here. As per GCSE, you can always
test a specific point on the Argand diagram and see if it’s inside or outside region based on
inequality.
 Transformations: Idea is that all possible points 𝑧 are transformed to another space.
o If you are given |𝑧| = 𝑘, then steps are:
1. Make 𝑧 the subject.
2. Apply |..| to both sides so that we can use given value of |𝑧|.
3. Manipulate, using |𝑧1 𝑧2 | = |𝑧1 ||𝑧2 | if necessary.
4. We may now have a loci equation we recognise from the diagrams earlier. We can
use usual approach of replacing 𝑤 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 (instead of 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 as we did earlier) to
get an equation for 𝑤 in terms of 𝑢 and 𝑣.
5𝑖𝑧+𝑖
o Example: If |𝑧| find effect of transformation 𝑤 = 𝑧+1
𝑖−𝑤
𝑧=
𝑤 − 5𝑖
𝑖−𝑤 |𝑖 − 𝑤|
|𝑧| = | | → 1=
𝑤 − 5𝑖 |𝑤 − 5𝑖|
|𝑤 − 5𝑖| = |𝑖 − 𝑤|
|𝑤 − 5𝑖| = |𝑤 − 𝑖|

www.drfrostmaths.com
 From earlier you should recognise this as perpendicular bisector of 5𝑖 and 𝑖. But we
could proceed with:
|𝑢 + 𝑣𝑖 − 5𝑖| = |𝑢 + 𝑣𝑖 − 𝑖|
|𝑢 + (𝑣 − 5)𝑖| = |𝑢 + (𝑣 − 1)𝑖|
√𝑢2 + (𝑣 − 5)2 = √𝑢2 + (𝑣 − 1)2
(𝑣 − 5)2 = (𝑣 − 1)2 → 𝑣 = 3
𝑖𝑧−2
o “𝑤 = . Show that if 𝑧 lies on the real axis then 𝑤 lies on the line 𝑙. Find the equation
1−𝑧
of 𝑙”. We can make 𝑧 the subject as before. We know that in 𝑥 + 𝑦𝑖, 𝑦 = 0.
𝑤+2
𝑧=
𝑤+𝑖
𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 + 2
𝑥=
𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 + 𝑖
You would then need to, as per FP1, do the division of by multiplying top and bottom by
the conjugate of the denominator, i.e. 𝑢 − 𝑖(𝑣 + 1). Comparing imaginary components,
1
we end up with 𝑣 = − 2 𝑢 − 1. (Note: no exam question this hard has ever appeared)
o While typically the strategy is to make 𝑧 the subject and find |𝑧| in order to make use of
some constraint involving the modulus, sometimes the constraint is different:
𝑧−2𝑖 𝜋
“𝑃 represents the complex number 𝑧 where 𝑎𝑟𝑔 ( 𝑧+2 ) = 2 . The transformation 𝑇 from
2(1+𝑖)
the 𝑧-plane to the 𝑤-plane is defined by 𝑤 = 𝑧+2
,𝑧 ≠ −2. Show that the locus of 𝑃 in
the 𝑧-plane is mapped to part of a straight line in the 𝑤-plane, and show this in an
Argand diagram.”
Strategy here is to make 𝑧 the subject in terms of 𝑤 in the transformation, then
substitute this 𝑧 into the first equation, noting that as the argument is 𝜋/2, the real part
must be 0.

Chapter 4 – 1st Order Differential Equations

 As per C4, if 𝑥 and 𝑦 are ‘separable’ into two expressions 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑦), then we can integrate
as follows:
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑦)
𝑑𝑥
1 𝑑𝑦 1
= 𝑓(𝑥) → ∫ 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑔(𝑦) 𝑑𝑥 𝑔(𝑦)
This may require some factorisation first.
 We have a ‘general solution’ if our equation involves a constant of integration. We can use
given conditions and sub in to find this constant; this gives us a ‘particular solution’. I personally
sub in at the earliest possible opportunity (i.e. right after integration, before further
manipulation).
𝑑𝑦
 𝑑𝑥
+ 𝑃𝑦 = 𝑄
where 𝑃 and 𝑄 are functions of 𝑥, then multiply by Integrating Factor (I.F. for short) 𝑒 ∫ 𝑃 𝑑𝑥 . LHS
𝑑
is now 𝑑𝑥 (𝑦 𝑒 ∫ 𝑃 𝑑𝑥 ), thus integrates to 𝑦 𝑒 ∫ 𝑃 𝑑𝑥 (i.e. we can just slap 𝑦 on Integrating Factor to
integrate).
𝑑𝑦
 If there’s anything on front of 𝑑𝑥 , just divide equation by it first and proceed as above.
 If given a substitution (involving say 𝑧), we can turn original differential equation in terms of 𝑦
and 𝑥 into one in terms of 𝑧 and 𝑥, hopefully in one of above forms.
𝑑𝑦
Step 1: Make 𝑦 the subject in substitution, so we have both 𝑦 and (via differentiation), .
𝑑𝑥
Step 2: Sub in to your differential equation.
Step 3: You should now have a simpler differential equation which can be solved.
Step 4: Sub back 𝑦 in at the end.
www.drfrostmaths.com
Chapter 5 – 2nd Order Differential Equations
 All exam questions will involve both a complementary function and a particular integral.
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
 If LHS is of form 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 2 + 𝑏 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, then auxiliary equation is 𝑎𝑚2 + 𝑏𝑚 + 𝑐 = 0. We get the
following complementary functions:
o Distinct roots 𝛼 and 𝛽 → 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑒 𝛼𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 𝛽𝑥
o Equal roots 𝛼 → 𝑦 = (𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥)𝑒 𝛼𝑥
o Imaginary roots: ±𝑞 → 𝑦= 𝐴 cos 𝑞𝑥 + 𝐵 sin 𝑞𝑥
o Complex roots 𝑝 ± 𝑖𝑞 → 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑝𝑥 (𝐴 cos 𝑞𝑥 + 𝐵 sin 𝑞𝑥)
 You will always have something also on the RHS. We need to find the particular integral, then
𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐶. 𝐹. +𝑃. 𝐼.
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
e.g. Find general solution of 𝑑𝑥 2 − 5 𝑑𝑥 + 6𝑦 = 𝟑
Complementary function is 𝐴𝑒 2 𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 3𝑥 . Since RHS is a constant, then let particular integral be
𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
𝑦 = 𝜆 (i.e. a constant) be particular integral. Just find 𝑑𝑥 and 𝑑𝑥 2 (i.e. both 0 in this case) and sub
1 1
into original differential equation. This will give you 𝜆 = 2. Thus 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 3𝑥 + 2
 Particular integral must not be part of complementary function.
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
−2 =𝟑
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
Auxiliary equation is 𝑚 − 2𝑚 = 0 thus complementary function is 𝐴𝑒 0𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 2𝑥 = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑒 2𝑥
2

Since this contains a constant term, we can’t use constant 𝜆 for particular integral. So use 𝜆𝑥
instead. In general, you can slap an 𝑥 on your P.I. in such a circumstance, whenever the RHS
overlaps with the complementary function.

 Summary table of particular integrals:

RHS Form of particular integral

𝑎 𝜆
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝜆 + 𝜇𝑥
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝜆 + 𝜇𝑥 + 𝜈𝑥 2
𝐴𝑒 𝑝𝑥 𝜆𝑒 𝑝𝑥
𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑥 𝜆 cos 𝜇𝑥 + 𝜇 sin 𝜔𝑥

Chapter 6 – Maclaurin/Taylor Series

 The point: It’s very useful to have a polynomial expression that approximates a function. For
example, some expressions are either difficult or even impossible to integrate. But polynomials
are very easily to integrate.
 For the continuous function 𝑓, then provided 𝑓(0), 𝑓 ′ (0), 𝑓 ′′ (0), … are finite, then:

𝑓 ′′ (0) 2 𝑓 ′′′ (0) 3 𝑓 (𝑟) (0) 𝑟

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑓 ′ (0)𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯+ 𝑥
2! 3! 𝑟!
is the Maclaurin expansion/series for 𝑓(𝑥).

 (Common errors: forgetting the division by factorials, or say dividing by 3 instead of 3!)
It should be noted that the expansion is only necessarily valid for 𝑥 = 0 (i.e. the original
function and polynomial will only necessarily look the same near where 𝑥 = 0). For some
functions however (known as ‘entire’ functions), such as sin(𝑥) and 𝑒 𝑥 , the Maclaurin
expansion is valid for all values of 𝑥.

www.drfrostmaths.com
  Standard functions all given in formula booklet:
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥𝑟
𝑒𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + 2!
+ 3!
+ 4!
+ ⋯+ 𝑟!
+⋯ (valid for all 𝑥)
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥𝑟
ln(1 + 𝑥) = 𝑥 − 2
+ 3
− ⋯ + (−1)𝑟−1 𝑟
+⋯ −1 < 𝑥 ≤ 1
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7 (−1)𝑟 𝑥 2𝑟+1
sin(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 3!
+ 5!
− 7!
+ ⋯+ (2𝑟+1)!
+⋯ (valid for all 𝑥)
𝑥2 𝑥4 (−1)𝑟 𝑥 2𝑟
cos(𝑥) = 1− + − ⋯+ +⋯ (valid for all 𝑥)
2! 4! 2𝑟!
𝑛(𝑛−1) 2
(1 + 𝑥)𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑥 +⋯ −1 < 𝑥 < 1
2!
√1+2𝑥 1
 For composite functions just substitute appropriately, e.g. ln ( ) = ln(1 + 2𝑥) −
1−3𝑥 2
ln(1 + (−3𝑥)). Just use expansion for ln(1 + 2𝑥) with 𝑥 replaced with 2𝑥 (being careful that
you do say (2𝑥)3 with brackets rather than 2𝑥 3 )

 Therefore a Taylor series for 𝑓: (given in formula booklet)

𝑓 ′′ (𝑎) 2 𝑓 (𝑟) (𝑎) 𝑟
𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑎)𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯+ 𝑥 +⋯
2! 𝑟!
And replacing 𝑥 by 𝑥 − 𝑎 we get a second useful form:
𝑓 ′′ (𝑎)
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑎) + (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + ⋯
2!
 We use the first one if we have a function in terms of 𝑥 + 𝑎 (e.g. sin(𝑥 + 𝜋)) but want the
expression as powers of 𝑥. Note that 𝑎 = 𝜋 here rather than – 𝜋 (i.e. the sign stays the same).
 We use the second one if we have a function in terms of 𝑥 (e.g. sin(𝑥)) but want in terms of
powers of 𝑥 − 𝑎. Note that the sign of 𝑎 this time changes, e.g. if we want as powers of 𝑥 + 1,
then 𝑎 = −1 (ensure you write out “𝑎 = −1” at the start).
 In both cases have a table with two columns, one with 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑓 ′ (𝑥), 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥), … and the other with
𝑓(𝑎), 𝑓 ′ (𝑎), 𝑓 ′′ (𝑎), …

 But by far the most common type of question is using a Taylor expansion to solve a differential
equation. Use:
𝑑𝑦 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )2 𝑑2 𝑦 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )3 𝑑 3 𝑦
𝑦 = 𝑦0 + (𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) ( ) + ( 2) + ( 3) + ⋯
𝑑𝑥 𝑥0 2! 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 3! 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
0 0
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
where 𝑥0 and 𝑦0 are the specific 𝑥 and 𝑦 values, (𝑑𝑥 ) means 𝑑𝑥 evaluated when 𝑥 = 𝑥0 and
𝑥0
𝑑2 𝑦
so on. Just differentiate the given differential equation (potentially ‘implicitly’) to find 𝑑𝑥 2 and
so on, e.g.

(a) involves differentiating (using product rule).

𝑑3 𝑦
(b) Involves finding 𝑑𝑥 3 by differentiating both sides with respect to 𝑥 again. Then just plug
everything into above formula.

www.drfrostmaths.com
Chapter 7 – Polar Coordinates
 Polar coordinates (𝑟, 𝜃) are just the modulus and argument you saw with complex numbers,
but applies more generally to normal (𝑥, 𝑦) coordinates rather than just complex numbers.
𝑦
𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 , 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 , 𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 = tan−1 ( )
𝑥
(last applies to 1st/4th quadrants only – use trig otherwise, remembering that 𝜃 will be negative
if rotating clockwise from the 𝑥-axis)
 Use above to get from Polar to cartesian form, e.g.
𝑟 = 2 + cos 2𝜃 → 𝑟 = 1 + 2 cos 2 𝜃
2 2
2𝑥 2
→ √𝑥 +𝑦 =1+ 2
𝑟
 Common shapes (all those listed in Edexcel specification):

 Area under curve:

1 𝛽
𝐴 = ∫ 𝑟 2 𝑑𝜃
2 𝛼
Example:

www.drfrostmaths.com
 1 2𝜋 9𝜋 9
𝐴 = ∫ (𝑎 + 3 cos 𝜃)2 𝑑𝜃 = ⋯ = 𝜋𝑎2 + = 𝜋 (𝑎2 + )
2 0 2 2
107 9
∴ = 𝑎2 + → 𝑎 = 7 (𝑎𝑠 𝑎 > 0)
2 2
 Area between two curves:
Just like C2, just find points of intersection to get bounds of integral (except
now we want 𝜃 instead of 𝑥), and subtract appropriate areas, in this
example below, the area under outer curve with a sector cut out.

𝜋 5𝜋
For part (a): 2 = 1.5 + sin 3𝜃 (and solve for 𝜃 to get two solutions, and )
18 18
5𝜋
1 1 5𝜋 𝜋
For part (b): [2 ∫𝜋18 1.5 + sin 3𝜃 𝑑𝜃 ] − 2 × 22 × ( 18 − 18). The area subtracted
18
1
is the sector area using 2 𝑟 2 𝜃.

 Equations of tangents and normal.

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
When parallel to initial line (𝜃 = 0) then 𝑑𝜃 = 0 , If perpendicular, 𝑑𝜃 = 0.
Start with either 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 or 𝑦 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 and sub 𝑟 in.

𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 = (1 + 2 cos 𝜃) sin 𝜃

𝑑𝑦
= cos 𝜃 + 2 cos 2𝜃 → 4 cos2 𝜃 + cos 𝜃 − 2 = 0
𝑑𝜃
Then sub possible values of cos 𝜃 back into 𝑟 (which represents length 𝑂𝑃)


𝑑𝑦
𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 = 𝑎 sin 2𝜃 sin 𝜃 =⋯=0
𝑑𝜃
… tan 𝜃 = √2 ∴ 𝜃 = 0.955
By constructing an appropriate right-angled triangle with 𝜃 as an angle and opposite and
√2 1
adjacent √2 and 1 respectively, then sin 𝜃 = and cos 𝜃 = .
√3 √3
2𝑎√3
(𝑟, 𝜃) = (𝑎 sin 2𝜃 , 𝜃) = (2𝑎 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 , 𝜃) = ( , 0.955)
3
Equation of tangent parallel to initial line has gradient 0 and passes through appropriate 𝑦:
4𝑎 4𝑎
𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 = → 𝐸𝑞𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒: 𝑦 =
3√3 3√3
But this is a Cartesian equation not a polar one. We somehow need to get 𝑦 in terms of 𝑟 and 𝜃
4𝑎
so in polar form. Since 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃: 𝑟 sin 𝜃 = 3
√3
Similarly use 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 for (b).
www.drfrostmaths.com