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Kingdoms, Empires, and Domains
Kingdoms, Empires, and
Domains
The History of High-Level Biological
Classification
M A R K A . R AG A N
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers
the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education
by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University
Press in the UK and certain other countries.
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780197643037.001.0001
[Blake, Milton. In: Maclagan & Russell (1907), at 25:17–21 and 35:18–25
(original pagination)]
Contents
Figures
23.1. Margoliash, Fitch, and Dickerson, statistical phylogenetic tree of cytochromes c. 434
23.2. Woese, universal phylogenetic tree determined from rRNA sequence comparison. 438
23.3. Woese, Kandler, and Wheelis, universal phylogenetic tree in rooted form. 438
Table
Animals, vegetables, minerals: for twenty-six centuries, these three great groups
have encompassed the scope of material bodies on earth. Philosophers, poets,
naturalists, even children recognize their members: things sensate but mortal;
living but insensate; and organized but nonliving. Homo sapiens, the one animal
capable of pride, sometimes accords himself a fourth.
Yet as many of us are aware—perhaps dimly from some long-ago biology
lecture—certain microscopic beings are motile like animals, yet pigmented like
plants. In 1866, citing little precedent, Ernst Haeckel established for these and other
simple creatures a third major group of living beings: the protists. Why did he take
this step where others had not? Or perhaps there had been other supernumerary
kingdoms of life, now—or even in Haeckel’s day—lost to the mists of time. And
this odd word zoophyte, tucked away at the back of the dictionary: are zoophytes
somehow both plant and animal? Are (some) protists zoophytes?
As a young scientist interested in the diversity of life, I read Haeckel’s Generelle
Morphologie and pondered these questions. Later, as a member, then President, of
the International Society for Evolutionary Protistology (ISEP), I had occasion to
investigate the history of Third Kingdoms of Life. I was scarcely prepared for what
I found. Plants and animals have not, in fact, been recognized as the highest-level
taxa of living beings since time immemorial. Zoophytes were first considered in-
termediate between plants and animals not in Eighteenth-century Europe, but in
Fourth-century Syria, and eventually found a place in a classification of animals
that was falsely attributed to Aristotle. The most-inclusive taxa began to be called
kingdoms only in 1604—first by alchemists, not botanists or zoologists. Since then,
more than fifty taxa at kingdom level or above been proposed by philosophers,
scholars, or naturalists including Linnæus. Haeckel’s Protista has itself been pro-
nounced dead more than once.
I invite you, dear reader, to join me on this eclectic tour of the history of the
idea that there is more to the living world than plants and animals. We shall
meet aboriginals and alchemists, philosophers and mystics, saints and heretics,
physicians and poets, soldiers and diplomats, sea-captains and stonemasons (well,
one stonemason), botanists, zoologists, Haeckel himself, and other protistologists.
Our story unfolds across twenty-three chapters, each describing a theme or histor-
ical episode. The narrative is broadly chronological, although certain chapters run
in parallel and are best read together. I rely heavily on primary texts and authorita-
tive translations, but draw on secondary literature where appropriate.
xvi Preface
the author’s world. Sometimes we glimpse the author’s personality: even on the
printed page, we do not mistake Tertullian for Augustine, nor Erasmus Darwin for
Gilbert White. Moreover, a printed work bears evidence of skill and craftsmanship:
of its author to be sure, but also of its illustrator, editor, printer, and bookbinder.
Institutions and individuals have preserved books through natural disasters, wars,
and periods of intolerance. For all these reasons—commitment to historicity, grat-
itude to our antecessors, respect for the printed word—I present texts as I find
them. My translations are literal rather than literary. Items in the reference list hew
closely to their original form, with minimal stylistic concessions for capitalization,
italicization, and forms of diacritical marks. Nor have I retrofit italics onto scien-
tific names or embedded titles. Even so, we shall often enough find ourselves in
contested areas of orthography, for which I accept full responsibility.
Mark Ragan
Brisbane, Australia
Acknowledgement: copyrighted material
The following illustrations and textual matter are presented with the written per-
mission of the copyright owners. Formal statements of license or permission are
presented in the captions (for Figures) and endnotes (for textual material).
Figure 9.1, from HR Turner, Science in medieval Islam (1995), page 193, by
permission of University of Texas Press. It builds on a hand-drawn figure
reproduced in U Weisser, Buch über das Geheimnis der Schöpfung und die
Darstellung der Natur (Buch der Ursachen) von Pseudo-Apollonius von Tyana
(Aleppo, 1979), at page 371 in the Arabic section, but was substantially
adapted by Michael Graham, and translated by Michele de Angelis, for the
University of Texas publication.
Figure 9.3, from the 1992 facsimile, edited by J Telle, of the anonymous Rosarium
Philosophorum (Frankfurt, 1550). Facsimile originally published by VCH
Verlagsgesellschaft mbH (Weinheim). Republished by permission of John
Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Figure 16.2, from WS Macleay, Horæ entomologicæ Part II (1821), at page 318,
as re-drawn by Michal De-Medonsa in A Novick, Journal of the History of
Biology (2016). Republished by permission of Springer Nature.
Figure 22.1, from RH Whittaker, Quarterly Review of Biology (1959), at page 217.
Republished by permission of University of Chicago Press.
Figure 22.2, from RH Whittaker, Science (1969), at page 157. Republished by
permission of American Association for the Advancement of Science.
Figure 22.3, from L Margulis, Evolution (1971), at page 244. Republished by per-
mission of John Wiley and Sons.
Figure 23.2, from CR Woese, Microbiological Reviews (1987), at page 231.
Republished by permission of American Society for Microbiology.
Epigraph introducing Chapter 2, from the poem “Yr awdil vraith” (“Diversified
song”) attributed to Gwion, son of Gwreang (floruit Sixth century ce),
from the late Sixteenth-century Peniardd manuscripts, as interpreted by
Robert Graves in The white goddess. A historical grammar of poetic myth.
London: Faber & Faber (1961), at page 154. Quoted by permission of Carcanet
Press Ltd.
Quotation from Surapala in Chapter 2, from the Vrikshayurveda by Surapala, as
translated by N Sadhale, Asian Agri-History Foundation Bulletin No. 1 (1998),
at page 58, by permission of Asian Agri-History Foundation.
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