Internet and Web Technologies

Communications software consists of programs that

(1) help users establish a connection to another computer or network;

(2) manage the transmission of data, instructions, and information; and
(3) provide an interface for users to communicate with one another.

The first two are system software and the third is application software.
Examples of application software for communications: e-mail, FTP, Web
browser, newsgroup/message boards, chat rooms, instant messaging,
video conferencing, and VoIP.

Modem

Modem is short for "Modulator-Demodulator." It is a hardware component

that allows a computer or another device, such as a router or switch, to
connect to the Internet. It converts or "modulates" an analog signal from a
telephone or cable wire to digital data (1s and 0s) that a computer can
recognize. Similarly, it converts digital data from a computer or other device
into an analog signal that can be sent over standard telephone lines.

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Modem Configuration

Step 1

First, you need to plug the phone line splitter to your broadband line (which
is directly connected to your Internet Service Provider) to split or divide the
main line into two different lines so you can easily use both of your
telephone and modem.

Step 2

Then, Join the one end of the RJ-11 cable to the splitter/main line and the
other to the modem, and after that, you’ll need to do the same for your
telephone too.

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Step 3

Now, connect one end of the RJ-45 cable to the modem and the other one
into your computer and this will allow your computer to do data transferring
and receiving over the wires.

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If you still want to use the internet connection wireless, In that condition,
you can install an extra WiFi Router which you need to connect to the
modem, and then connect your computer to the router by the use of RJ-45
Cable as shown below.

Step 4

In order to configure your modem, first, you’ll need to find the gateway IP of
your modem to open the configuration page.

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Step 5

Now select the connection type and configure it by adding all the details
that your ISP gave you.

List of the common connection types used by the users:

● PPPoE: Select this option if your ISP requires you to use a PPPoE
(Point to Point Protocol over Ethernet) DSL providers typically use
this option. This method of connection requires you to enter a
Username and Password (provided by your Internet Service Provider)
to gain access to the Internet. The supported authentication protocols
are PAP and CHAP.
● Dynamic IP: If the ISP’s servers assign the router’s IP addressing
upon establishing a connection, select this option.
● Static IP: If your ISP has assigned a fixed IP address, select this
option. The ISP provides the value for the IP Address.

Then just save the setting and try to use the internet connection.

Step 6 – When you’ve done with the ADSL Setting, now you’ll need to
move on to the wireless router setting to add a password into your Wi-Fi
connection.

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Dial-Up Connection

A dial-up connection uses a standard phone line and analog modem to

access the Internet at data transfer rates (DTR) of up to 56 Kbps.

A dial-up connection is the least expensive way to access the Internet, but
it is also the slowest connection.

A dial-up connection is established when two or more communication

devices use a public switched telephone network (PSTN) to connect to an
Internet service provider (ISP).

Many remote areas depend on Internet dial-up connections because

broadband and cable are rare in remote areas with low population
numbers.

ISPs often provide free dial-up connections, a viable alternative for

budget-conscious subscribers.

Free services can sometimes be found, along with pay services like AOL,
MSN, Earthlink and other ISP companies.

Call an internet service provider to obtain your internet service. While you
are on the phone setting up your account the customer care person should

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then give you a username, phone number, and a password. This is so you
can log on securely.

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Dedicated Lines

A dedicated line is a type of always-on connection that is established

between two communications devices (unlike a dial-up line where the
connection is reestablished each time it is used). The quality and
consistency of the connection on a dedicated line are better than a dial-up
line because dedicated lines provide a constant connection.
Businesses often use dedicated lines to connect geographically distant
offices.

Five types of digital dedicated lines are

● ISDN lines,
● DSL,
● FTTP,
● T-carrier lines, and
● ATM.

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ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) is a set of standards for

digital transmission of data over standard copper telephone lines. ISDN
requires that both ends of the connection have an ISDN modem. The ISDN
modem at your location must be within about 3.5 miles of the telephone
company’s ISDN modem. Thus, ISDN may not be an option for rural
residents.

There are two types of ISDN networks — BRI (Basic Rate Interface) and
PRI (Primary Rate Interface).

● It offers multiple digital services that operate through the same

copper wire
● Digital signals broadcast through telephone lines.
● ISDN provides a higher data transfer rate.

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● Can connect devices and allow them to operate over a single line.
This includes credit card readers, fax machines, and other manifold
devices.

DSL, in full digital subscriber line, networking technology that provides

broadband (high-speed) Internet connections over conventional telephone
lines.
Here are some advantages of DSL:
● You can leave your Internet connection open and still use the phone
line for voice calls.
● The speed is much higher than a regular modem
● DSL doesn't necessarily require new wiring; it can use the phone line
you already have.
● The company that offers DSL will usually provide the modem as part
of the installation.

But there are disadvantages:

● A DSL connection works better when you are closer to the provider's
central office. The farther away you get from the central office, the
weaker the signal becomes.
● The connection is faster for receiving data than it is for sending data
over the Internet.
● The service is not available everywhere.

FTTP stands for Fiber to the Premises, uses fiber-optic cable to provide
extremely high-speed Internet access to a user's physical permanent
location. Two specific types of FTTP are FTTH (Fiber to the Home) and
FTTB (Fiber to the Building).

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T-carrier line is any of several types of long-distance digital telephone lines

that carry multiple signals over a single communications line. T-carrier lines
provide very fast data transfer rates. Only medium to large companies
usually can afford the investment in T-carrier lines because these lines are
so expensive.

The most popular T-carrier line is the T1 line. Businesses often use T1 lines
to connect to the Internet.

A T3 line is equal in speed to 28 T1 lines. T3 lines are quite expensive.

Main users of T3 lines include large companies, telephone companies, and
Internet access providers connecting to the Internet backbone.

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Protocol Options

TCP/IP Network Interface Layer Protocols: SLIP and PPP

● Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP): A very simple layer two protocol
that provides only basic framing for IP.
● Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP): A more complex, full-featured data link
layer protocol that provides framing as well as many additional
features that improve security and performance

Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP)

● Break an IP datagram into bytes.

● Send the END character (value “192”) after the last byte of the
datagram; in better implementations, send the END character before
the first byte as well.
● If any byte to be sent in the datagram is “192”, replace it with “219
220”.
● If any byte to be sent is “219”, replace it with “219 221”.

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Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) defines a complete method for robust data

link connectivity between units using serial lines or other physical layers. It
includes numerous capabilities and features, including error detection,
compression, authentication, encryption and much more.

Main PPP Components

● PPP Encapsulation Method: The primary job of PPP is to take
higher-layer messages such as IP datagrams and encapsulate them
for transmission over the underlying physical layer link. The PPP
frame has been specially designed to be small in size and contain
only simple fields, to maximize bandwidth efficiency and speed in
processing.
● The PPP Link Control Protocol (LCP) is responsible for setting up,
maintaining and terminating the link between devices. It is a flexible,
extensible protocol that allows many configuration parameters to be
exchanged to ensure that both devices agree on how the link will be
used.
● After the general link setup is completed with LCP, control is passed
to the PPP Network Control Protocol (NCP) specific to the layer three
protocol being carried on the PPP link.

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Link Dead Phase

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By design, the PPP link always begins and ends in this phase. This phase
represents the situation where there is no physical layer link established
between the two devices. It remains here until the physical layer link is set
up, at which point the link proceeds to the Link Establishment phase

Link Establishment Phase

The physical layer is now connected and LCP performs the basic setup of
the link. Device A sends an LCP configuration request message to device
B over the physical link, specifying the parameters it wishes to use. If
Device B agrees, it replies with an acknowledgement. If B doesn't agree, it
sends back a negative acknowledgment or rejection, telling device A what it
won't accept. Device A can then try a different configuration request with
new parameters that device B will hopefully accept.

Hopefully, A and B will eventually come to an agreement. If so, the status of

the link is considered LCP open, and will proceed to the Authentication
phase. If they cannot come to an agreement, the physical link is
terminated, and we go back to the Link Dead phase.

Authentication Phase

In many cases, a device may require authentication before it will permit

connection of another device. Authentication is not considered mandatory.
When it is used, the appropriate authentication protocol (CHAP or PAP) is
employed.

After successful authentication, the link proceeds to the Network-Layer

Protocol phase. If authentication is not successful, the link fails and
transitions to the Link Termination phase.

Network-Layer Protocol Phase

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Now, the specific configuration of the appropriate network layer protocol is
performed by invoking the appropriate NCP, such as IPCP, IPXCP and so
forth

After all necessary NCPs have been invoked, the link proceeds to the Link
Open state, even if none were successfully opened

Link Open Phase

In this state, the LCP link and one or more NCP links are open and
operational. Data can be passed for each NCP that has been successfully
set up.

The link can be terminated at any time by either device for a variety of
reasons

Link Termination Phase

The device terminating the link sends a special LCP termination frame, and
the other device acknowledges it. The link then goes back to the Link Dead
phase. In the case where the termination was by request and the physical
layer connection is still active, the PPP implementation is supposed to
specifically signal the physical layer to terminate the layer one connection.

Secure Shell (SSH)

SSH, also known as Secure Shell or Secure Socket Shell, is a network

protocol that gives users, particularly system administrators, a secure way
to access a computer over an unsecured network.

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Secure Shell provides strong password authentication and public key
authentication, as well as encrypted data communications between two
computers connecting over an open network, such as the internet.

In addition to providing strong encryption, SSH is widely used by network

administrators to manage systems and applications remotely, enabling
them to log in to another computer over a network, execute commands and
move files from one computer to another.

The most basic use of SSH is to connect to a remote host for a terminal
session. The form of that command is the following:

ssh UserName@SSHserver.example.com
This command will cause the client to attempt to connect to the server
named server.example.com, using the user ID UserName. If this is the first
time negotiating a connection between the local host and the server, the
user will be prompted with the remote host's public key fingerprint and
prompted to connect, despite there having been no prior connection:

The authenticity of host 'sample.ssh.com' cannot be established.

DSA key fingerprint is 01:23:45:67:89:ab:cd:ef:ff:fe:dc:ba:98:76:54:32:10.
Are you sure you want to continue connecting (yes/no)?
Answering yes to the prompt will cause the session to continue, and the
host key is stored in the local system's known_hosts file.

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