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MIGRATION,
MEMORY POLITICS AND TRANSITIONAL JUSTICE
DIASPORAS AND CITIZENSHIP
Europeanisation and
Memory Politics in the
Western Balkans
Edited by Ana Milošević · Tamara Trošt
Memory Politics and Transitional Justice
Series Editors
Jasna Dragovic-Soso
Goldsmiths University of London
London, UK
Jelena Subotic
Georgia State University
Atlanta, GA, USA
Tsveta Petrova
Columbia University
New York, NY, USA
The interdisciplinary fields of Memory Studies and Transitional Justice have
largely developed in parallel to one another despite both focusing on efforts
of societies to confront and (re—)appropriate their past. While scholars working
on memory have come mostly from historical, literary, sociological, or anthro-
pological traditions, transitional justice has attracted primarily scholarship from
political science and the law. This series bridges this divide: it promotes work that
combines a deep understanding of the contexts that have allowed for injustice to
occur with an analysis of how legacies of such injustice in political and historical
memory influence contemporary projects of redress, acknowledgment, or new
cycles of denial. The titles in the series are of interest not only to academics and
students but also practitioners in the related fields.
The Memory Politics and Transitional Justice series promotes critical dialogue
among different theoretical and methodological approaches and among scholar-
ship on different regions. The editors welcome submissions from a variety of disci-
plines—including political science, history, sociology, anthropology, and cultural
studies—that confront critical questions at the intersection of memory politics
and transitional justice in national, comparative, and global perspective.
Memory Politics and Transitional Justice Book Series (Palgrave)
Co-editors: Jasna Dragovic-Soso (Goldsmiths, University of London), Jelena
Subotic (Georgia State University), Tsveta Petrova (Columbia University)
Editorial Board
Paige Arthur, New York University Center on International Cooperation
Alejandro Baer, University of Minnesota
Orli Fridman, Singidunum University Belgrade
Carol Gluck, Columbia University
Katherine Hite, Vassar College
Alexander Karn, Colgate University
Jan Kubik, Rutgers University and School of Slavonic and East European Studies,
University College London
Bronwyn Leebaw, University of California, Riverside
Jan-Werner Mueller, Princeton University
Jeffrey Olick, University of Virginia
Kathy Powers, University of New Mexico
Joanna R. Quinn, Western University
Jeremy Sarkin, University of South Africa
Leslie Vinjamuri, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London
Sarah Wagner, George Washington University
Europeanisation
and Memory Politics
in the Western Balkans
Editors
Ana Milošević Tamara Trošt
Leuven Institute for Criminology School of Economics and Business
(LINC) University of Ljubljana
KU Leuven Ljubljana, Slovenia
Leuven, Belgium
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer
Nature Switzerland AG 2021
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights
of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc.
in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such
names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for
general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and informa-
tion in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither
the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with
respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been
made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps
and institutional affiliations.
This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Acknowledgements
v
vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
vii
viii PRAISE FOR EUROPEANISATION AND MEMORY POLITICS IN THE …
“This excellent and timely volume explores the processes and practices of
Europeanisation on cultures of memory, sites of memory, and memory
politics in South Eastern Europe. Through its interdisciplinary and
innovative approach, the volume addresses truly transnational memory
processes in the interplay between European institutions and memory
entrepreneurs in new or prospective member states. Crucially, the chapters
foreground the roles of local memory actors and elites in the promotion,
actualization and sometimes appropriation of ‘Europeanized memories’ in
the region, aspects that had received insufficient attention in the existing
literature. This is a stimulating read and an important contribution to the
research fields of memory politics, Europeanisation, and contemporary
South Eastern Europe alike.”
—Tea Sindbaek, Associate Professor at the Department of Cross-Cultural
and Regional Studies, University of Copenhagen, Denmark
“This book stands out for combining two fields that previously have not
been combined: literature on Europeanisation and literature on Memory
Politics. Especially the latter is still in its infancy and Milošević’s and
Trošt’s contribution adds an important dimension to a still underdevel-
oped research area. The combination of the two different sets of literature
is innovative and allows the different authors of this edited volume to ask
new questions that so far have not been addressed in a systematic way.”
—Aline Sierp, co-founder and Co-President, Memory Studies Association
& Assistant Professor, Maastricht University, The Netherlands
“In this groundbreaking volume, Milošević and Trošt explain how dealing
with the past is a functional prerequisite for EU membership. In the
Western Balkans there is still no common understanding of the roots,
consequences and outcome of not only the most recent ethnic wars led
throughout the territory of former Yugoslavia in the 1990s, but also with
regard to the Second World War and its aftermath. Theoretically innova-
tive and empirically rich, this book offers a comprehensive and compara-
tive study of how politicizing memory affects not only relations between
neighboring states in the region, but also their efforts vested in the EU
accession processes.”
—Marko Kmezić, Lecturer in Southeast European Studies at the
University of Graz, Austria, author of EU Rule of Law Promotion:
Judiciary Reform in the Western Balkans (Routledge, 2016), co-editor of
Stagnation and Drift in the Western Balkans (Peter Lang, 2013) and
The Europeanisation of the Western Balkans: A Failure of EU
Conditionality? (Palgrave, 2019)
xi
xii CONTENTS
12 Conclusion 285
Ana Milošević
Index 297
Notes on Contributors
xiii
xiv NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS
xvii
List of Tables
xix
CHAPTER 1
A. Milošević
Leuven Institute for Criminology (LINC), KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
e-mail: ana.milosevic@kuleuven.be
T. Trošt (B)
School of Economics and Business, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
e-mail: tamara.trost@ef.uni-lj.si
Race (foreign-born)—
Norwegian 3.8
Bohemian and Moravian 8.8
Croatian 59.5
South Italian 33.5
Magyar 53.6
Polish 48.4
Roumanian 77.9
Servian 92.8
209. Rept. Imm. Com., Imms. in Mfg. and Min., Abs., p. 147.
The average number of boarders per household, based on the
number of households keeping boarders, was as follows:
AVERAGE NUMBER OF BOARDERS PER HOUSEHOLD BASED ON THE NUMBER OF
HOUSEHOLDS KEEPING BOARDERS[210]
Nativity Number
Native-born white of native father 1.68
Native-born of foreign father 1.52
Foreign-born 3.53
Race (foreign-born)—
Bulgarian 8.29
Croatian 6.39
Roumanian 12.23
Servian 7.25
226. Rept. Imm. Com., Imms. in Mfg. and Min., Abs. p. 91.
There is a marked difference between races in this respect. The
lowest figures among the foreign-born were: Albanian, $8.07; Greek,
$8.41; Portuguese, $8.10; Syrian, $8.12; Turkish, $7.65. Some of the
foreign-born rank well above the natives, as, for instance:
Norwegian, $15.28; Scotch, $15.24; Scotch-Irish, $15.13; Swedish,
$15.36; Welsh, $22.02.
The average yearly earnings (approximate) of male employees 18
years of age or over were as follows:
229. Rept. Imm. Com., Imms. in Mfg. and Min., Abs., p. 139.
Thus there is a smaller proportion of families among the native-
born of foreign fathers who rely upon other members of the family
than the husband for part of the family income than of the native-
born of native father. It appears that the explanation of the
peculiarity which has been noticed must be either that only the more
prosperous of the native-born of foreign parentage are heads of
families, or that those families of this class which do receive income
from other sources than the husband receive a much greater total
amount than among the native-born of native father, so as to raise
the average. The former explanation seems the more probable, for
while 67.3 per cent of the male native-born white employees of native
fathers, 20 years of age or over, were married, only 56.5 per cent of
the native-born of foreign fathers of the same age were married.
Native-born employees of foreign parentage who are old enough to
be the heads of families are predominantly representatives of the old
immigration, and hence stand high on the wage scale. The very small
percentage of families among the foreign-born which derive their
entire income from the husband indicates the extent to which the
children of this class contribute to the family support, and also the
extent to which boarders are taken.
Figures from other sources corroborate, in general, the showing
made in the foregoing tables, with some differences in detail. The
Immigration Commission in one of its other reports, namely that on
Immigrants in Cities, gives the average approximate yearly earnings
of over 10,000 male wage workers 18 years of age or over as follows:
native-born white of native father, $595; native-born of foreign
father, $526; foreign-born, $385.[230] These figures are less,
throughout, than those presented in the foregoing tables, and seem
to indicate that the average of wages in cities is less than in the
general run of organized industries throughout the country. It is
probable that a census of city workers would include many in
insignificant industries, and in occupations which could hardly be
classed as industries, where the wage scale is low.
The earnings of agricultural laborers on the farms of western New
York range from $1.25 to $1.75 per day of ten hours. South Italian
families of four or five members, engaged in this kind of work,
average from $350 to $450 for the season, extending from April to
November. Poles, working as general farm laborers the year round,
earn from $18 to $20 per month.[231] Among the anthracite coal
miners of Pennsylvania, the average yearly wage of the contract
miners, who make up about twenty-five per cent of persons
employed about the mines, is estimated at about $600 per year,
while “adults in other classes of mine workers, who form over sixty
per cent of the labor force, do not receive an annual average wage of
$450.”[232] In the extensive array of wage figures given by Mr.
Streightoff, distinction is not made between natives and immigrants,
but the general showing harmonizes so well with what has already
been given as to obviate the necessity of going into this question in
further detail.[233] We are justified in setting down the average
earnings of wage-working adult male immigrants as from $350 to
$650 per year, and the average annual income of immigrant families
at from $500 to $900.
The figures given for individual immigrant incomes have been
confined to male workers, for the reasons that they are
representative, and are of primary importance in determining the
status of the immigrant family in this country. The wages of female
workers range on the average from 30 to 40 per cent below those of
males. Full comparisons are given in the volume of the Immigration
Commission Report on Immigrants in Manufacturing and Mining.
The next question which arises is, to what degree are these
incomes, of individuals and families, adequate to furnish proper
support to an average family of five persons? This problem involves
the determination of the minimum amount on which a family can
live in decency under existing conditions in America. Numerous