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PALGRAVE STUDIES IN
EUROPEAN POLITICAL SOCIOLOGY
Transnational Solidarity
in Times of Crises
Citizen Organisations and
Collective Learning in Europe
Edited by
Christian Lahusen · Ulrike Zschache · Maria Kousis
Palgrave Studies in European Political Sociology
Series Editors
Carlo Ruzza
School of International Studies
University of Trento
Trento, Italy
Hans-Jörg Trenz
Department of Media, Cognition & Communication
University of Copenhagen
Copenhagen, Denmark
Palgrave Studies in European Political Sociology addresses contemporary
themes in the field of Political Sociology. Over recent years, attention has
turned increasingly to processes of Europeanization and globalization
and the social and political spaces that are opened by them. These
processes comprise both institutional-constitutional change and new
dynamics of social transnationalism. Europeanization and globalization
are also about changing power relations as they affect people’s lives, social
networks and forms of mobility.
The Palgrave Studies in European Political Sociology series addresses
linkages between regulation, institution building and the full range of
societal repercussions at local, regional, national, European and global
level, and will sharpen understanding of changing patterns of attitudes
and behaviours of individuals and groups, the political use of new rights
and opportunities by citizens, new conflict lines and coalitions, societal
interactions and networking, and shifting loyalties and solidarity within
and across the European space.
We welcome proposals from across the spectrum of Political Sociology
and Political Science, on dimensions of citizenship; political attitudes
and values; political communication and public spheres; states, commu-
nities, governance structure and political institutions; forms of political
participation; populism and the radical right; and democracy and
democratization.
Transnational
Solidarity in Times
of Crises
Citizen Organisations and Collective
Learning in Europe
Editors
Christian Lahusen Ulrike Zschache
University of Siegen University of Siegen
Siegen, Nordrhein-Westfalen, Germany Siegen, Nordrhein-Westfalen, Germany
Maria Kousis
University of Crete Research Center for the
Humanities, the Social and Education
Sciences (UCRC)
Rethymno, Greece
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2021. This book is an open access publication.
Open Access This book is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing,
adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate
credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence and
indicate if changes were made.
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licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the book’s
Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the
permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
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the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
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This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Acknowledgements
Results presented in this book have been obtained through the project
‘European paths to transnational solidarity at times of crisis: Conditions,
forms, role-models and policy responses’ (TransSOL). This project was
funded by the European Commission under the Horizon 2020 research
and innovation programme (grant agreement No. 649435). The
TransSOL consortium was coordinated by the University of Siegen
(Germany), and comprised the Université de Genève (Switzerland), the
Fondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques (France), Glasgow
Caledonian University (United Kingdom), the Panepistimio Kritis
(Greece), the University of Florence (Italy), the University of Warsaw
(Poland), the University of Copenhagen (Denmark), the University of
Sheffield (United Kingdom) and European Alternatives Ltd. (Germany
and United Kingdom). We thank all members of the TransSOL research
consortium for their contributions to the project.
v
Contents
vii
viii Contents
Index299
Notes on contributors
ix
x Notes on contributors
xv
1
Introduction: Citizen Organisations,
Transnational Solidarity and Collective
Learning in Europe
Christian Lahusen, Ulrike Zschache, and Maria Kousis
Introduction
Citizen groups and organisations are engaged in acts of solidarity through-
out Europe during times of welfare retrenchment and austerity, economic
and governance crises. Such acts appear to have increasingly embodied a
transnational dimension (Smith 1997; Davies 2014). The field of initia-
tives and activities is as diverse as the range of problems, hardships and
deprivations they address. Their solidarity activities range from service
provision and social economy projects to public information, political
1
Results presented in this volume have been obtained from Work Package 2 of the TransSOL project
(“European paths to transnational solidarity at times of crisis: Conditions, forms, role models
and policy responses”). This project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020
research and innovation programme under grant agreement No. 649435. http://transsol.eu.
See specifically Work Package 2 Integrated Report, Part III (pp. 120–277 and 336–341) at https://blogs.
uni-siegen.de/transsol/files/2016/12/Integrated-Report-on-Reflective-Forms-of-Transnational-
4 C. Lahusen et al.
Solidarity.pdf. The diligence, enthusiasm and work of all the teams involved in Work Package 2 are
gratefully acknowledged.
1 Introduction: Citizen Organisations, Transnational Solidarity… 5
at the macro level linked to the welfare state and its policies of redistribu-
tion (Baldwin 1990; Arts and Gelissen 2001). Organised forms of citizen
solidarity are located between these levels, because they reside in coordi-
nated collective actions and thus transcend the individual level, while
being tied back to specific groups of citizens, and thus placed below the
level of welfare institutions and public policies. These forms of collective
action have been at the centre of attention of various research strands
with intersecting debates that have addressed topics such as social capital
(Putnam 2000; van Oorschot et al. 2006), volunteering (Anheier and
Salamon 1999; Gil-Lacruz et al. 2017), the non-profit or third sector
(Evers 1995; Salamon and Sokolowski 2016; Kousis 2017), civil societies
(Hall 1995; Smismans 2006) and social movements (McAdam et al.
1996; della Porta and Caiani 2009; Kousis et al. 2018). In particular, the
latter three debates provide important insights for our study, because they
focus on organised collective action, organisational actors, fields or sec-
tors. Although they have not always addressed their research area in terms
of solidarity during hard times, most of their findings are immediately
relevant for a better understanding of the specificities of organised forms
of solidarity as collective action.
We define solidarity as a disposition and practice of help or support
towards others (Stjerno 2012: 88; also Bayertz 1999; de Deken et al.
2006; Smith and Sorrell 2014). More specifically, solidarity transcends
the unilateral orientation of concepts such as care, empathy or altruism
(Passy 2001), even though it shares some of the same features. In fact,
solidarity might be described empirically along different types of orienta-
tions and relations: top-down relations of unilateral help refer to philan-
thropic values or altruistic motives in support of others; bottom-up or
horizontal relations of support are governed by principles of reciprocity
and mutualism (Uba and Kousis 2018; Kousis et al. 2020; Zschache et al.
2020). However, to grasp the specificity of solidarity, we have to under-
stand the peculiar exigency it imposes, given that it is linked to reciprocal
expectations and practices between people expressing sameness, together-
ness and inclusiveness, which means that solidarity assumes the existence
of (imagined) reference groups with some sort of mutual responsibilities.
Solidarity might be restricted to national communities (particularistic
solidarity), thus excluding outsiders (for instance, migrants), but more
6 C. Lahusen et al.
NOTE
Since this Appendix was written, Hassanein Bey has visited and
fixed the positions of Arkenu and Owenat (Owanet). My information
upon Owanat seems to have been fairly accurate. The well at the
base of the cliff, the pass leading from it, the high-level oasis above,
the vegetation and the sand dunes in the district, and even the
Barbary sheep, have all been verified. The position I gave it, too,
from my native information was reasonably correct, being only about
twenty-one miles out, as compared with an error of about twenty-five
miles in the position of Kufara as fixed by Rohlfs’ expedition by
astronomical observations.
My estimate, however, of the nature of Jebel el Owanat—the high
land above the well—seems to have been wrong. But this, I think, is
due to misunderstanding on my part and not to any error on the part
of my informant. “Jebel”—the term he used to describe the high land
at Owanat, means literally mountain, but is a term used in the
western desert of Egypt to signify the high flat tablelands of which
the desert in that part is mainly composed. The oases in this district
all lie near the foot of the precipitous scarps that bound these
tablelands; so, as he mentioned a cliff in the proximity of the well at
Owanat, I assumed the “Jebel” to be of the same character as in the
neighbourhood of the Egyptian oases.
Hassanein Bey fixed the western limit of this elevated ground and
also its northern and southern boundaries, but though he made a
survey of some twenty-five miles to the east of the well, he was
unable to fix its eastern extension. So far as it is possible to judge
from his description and photographs, this elevated land seems to be
of much the same flat-topped character as the “jebels” round the
oases of Western Egypt, but so far as is at present known its limited
area makes it correspond more to Colonel Tilho’s estimate of its
character of a detached massif than to a tableland strictly speaking.
It is to be hoped that future travellers before long will revisit this
district and fix the eastern limit of Jebel el Owanat. Similar high
ground was reported to me as lying to the north of “the Egyptian
Oasis,” some 130 miles to the east of Owanat, and it is possible, if
this information is to be relied upon, that these two places are
connected by some hill feature, of which the high land at Owanat is
the western limit.
The accurate mapping of Owanat, with its permanent water
supply by Hassanein Bey, should be of great assistance to future
travellers, as it affords a most useful base for further exploration.
The difficulty, however, is to reach it. The old road that I surveyed
to the south-west of Dakhla Oasis for some 200 miles
unquestionably leads to Owanat; but it is very doubtful whether it is
practicable with camels at the present time. The distance from
Dakhla to Owanat in a straight line is some 375 miles, or at least
fifteen days’ hard travelling by caravan. A small well-mounted party
travelling light, even in the most favourable part of the year, would
find this an extremely formidable journey, without the use of some
sort of depot or relay system.
This road has been disused probably for centuries, as in most
places all traces have been completely weathered away. But from its
size in the few sheltered places where it is still visible it obviously at
one time was one of the main caravan routes of the desert.
Moreover, there were indications upon it that it had been largely
used by the old slave traders.
It can, I think, be assumed with absolute certainty that no main
road of this kind can have existed that contained a waterless stretch
of 375 miles—especially one over which large numbers of slaves
were forced to travel, as the water supply in these caravans was
always a most serious problem.
We are consequently forced to the conclusion that an
intermediate well, or oasis, once existed between Dakhla and
Owanat. It may have been only a well with an ordinary vertical shaft,
which has long since been sanded up and obliterated; but it may be
the oasis containing olive trees, on which the palm doves I found
migrating from this direction into Dakhla had been feeding. The
direction from which they came, viz. 217° Mag.,[25] I discovered
afterwards to be almost exactly the bearing of Jebel Abdulla from
Mut and so of the old road that we followed to reach it. Justus
Perthes’ map on a scale of 1/4.000.000, published in 1892, and also
the 1/2.000.000 map, revised to 1899, published by the French
Service géographique de l’Armée show an unnamed well, or oasis,
by a high steep hill and another oasis to the east of it. The German
map describes the oasis as being uninhabited, while the French
states it to be inhabited. It has been suggested that Arkenu
represents the well by the hill and Owanat the oasis farther east, and
there can be little doubt that this Arkenu-Owanat district is the one to
which they refer. But neither Arkenu nor Owanat can claim to be
oases strictly speaking—they would both be more accurately
described as wells: so it would appear that one of them—probably
Owanat—represents the well and that the oasis has yet to be found.
Very likely the failure of the water supply at this point led to the road
becoming abandoned. A road running up from the Central Sudan, as
this does, towards Cairo and the other wealthy towns of the northern
part of Egypt, where slave traders could find the best possible
market for their wares, must have been so convenient that it would
not have been abandoned without very good cause. If this road
could again be made serviceable by the restoration of this water
supply, it might still prove to be one of great value.
From what I saw of that part of the desert, I feel certain that this
intermediate oasis, or well, is not nearer Dakhla than Jebel Abdulla—
my farthest point along the road—nor can it be much farther. It is
certainly not in the immediate vicinity of that hill, but it cannot, I think,
be more than 50 or, at the outside, 75 miles farther on. It probably
lies rather to the east of the direct line joining the hill and Owanat, as
the road seemed to be trending rather in that direction.
But the most promising side from which to reach Owanat seems
to be from the east, using Bir Natrun, Legia, Selima or Terfawi as a
jumping-off point. My information as to Merga was derived from
several informants whose intelligence—with one exception—all
agreed in the distance and bearings from Bir Natrun and Legia, so,
assuming these two places to be correctly placed on the map, the
position of Merga is not likely to be very far in error. The “Egyptian
Oasis”—if it exists—would make a still better starting-point.
Assuming that it does, there should be no difficulty in discovering it,
as it would only be necessary to follow the line of the sand dunes
until it was sighted.
APPENDIX II
I. IDENTIFIED AT TRING
Arctiidæ