TOS Outline DevPsych Final-pages-1

Developmental Psychology
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Source: Papalia (2021), Santrock (2018), Sigelman-Rider (2012)
- progressive
Hellow, future RPm! Learning – how a person adapt to the environment
o Behavioral Genetics – scientific study of the extent
Doubt is definitely going to eat you this review season. I to which genetic and environmental differences
among people and animals are responsible for
just want you to know that it is very VALID to feel that
differences in their traits
way. But always remember to go back to the reason why
o Heritability – proportion of all the variability in the
you are doing this. trait within a large sample of people that can be
linked to genetic differences among those
May this reviewer help you pass the boards like it did to individuals
me and to many people that I know <3 o Gregor Mendel – studied the heredity in plants
o Selective Breeding – involves attempting to breed
We will be remembered animals for a particular trait to determine whether the
trait is heritable
▪ Genes contribute to such attributes as activity
Perspectives on Nature and Nurture level, emotionality, aggressiveness, and sex drive
o Human Development – focuses on the scientific in rats mice, and chickens
study of the systematic processes of change and 1. Twin Studies
stability in people 2. Adoption Studies
o Life-Span Development – concept of human 3. Family Studies
development as lifelong process, which can be o Concordance Rate – the percentage of pairs of
studied scientifically people studied in which if one member of a pair
o Life-Span Perspective – views development as displays the trait, the other does too
lifelong, multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic, Reaction Range – wide range of possibility that it
multidisciplinary, and contextual, and as a process might exhibit differently
that involves growth, maintenance, and regulation of Canalized Range – limited possible changes of
loss changing (fixed)
Domains of Development - e.g., motor and language development
Physical Development – growth of the body and brain, o Genes turn on and off in patterned ways throughout
sensory capacities, motor skills, and health the lifespan (Epigenetics)
Cognitive Development – learning, attention, o Gene-Environment Interaction – the effects of
memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity genes depend on what kind of environment we
Psychosocial Development – emotions, personality, experiences, and how we respond to the environment
and social relationships depends on what genes we gave
o Social Construction – a concept or practice that is o In an instance, Intelligence is strongly influenced by
an invention of a particular culture or society heredity. However, it is also affected by parental
o Stability-Change Issue – which involves the degree stimulation, education, peer influence, and others
to which early traits and characteristics persists o 3 factors that contribute to individual differences
through life or change in emotionality:
o Continuity-Discontinuity – focuses on the degree to 1. Genes
which development involves either gradual, 2. Shared Environmental Influences – common
cumulative change (continuity) or distinct stages experiences that work to make them similar (e.g.,
(discontinuity) parenting style)
Growth – physical changes 3. Nonshared Environmental Influences – unique
- quantitative experiences to the individual – those who are not
Maturation – transitional state that tells a person is shared with the other members of the family (e.g.,
fully functional parental favoritism)
- the unfolding of natural sequence of physical change 3 kinds of Gene-Environment Correlations
and behavior patterns Passive Gene-Environment – parent provide for their
Development – functional changes children is influenced partly by the parents’ genotypes
- it encompasses physical, mental, and social aspects
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Evocative Gene-Environment – child’s genotype o Theory – set of logically related concepts or
evokes certain kind of reactions from other people statements that seek to describe and explain
- Genetic makeup may affect the reactions of other development and to predict the kinds of behavior that
people to a child and, hence, the kind of social might occur under certain conditions
environment that the child will experience o Hypothesis – explanations or predications that can
Active Gene-Environment – children’s genotype be tested by further research
influence the kinds of environment they seek o John Locke – Tabula Rasa
o Heredity – consists of inborn traits and o Jean Jacques Rousseau – children are born “noble
characteristics provided by the child’s parents savages” who develop according to their own
(Nature) positive natural tendencies if not corrupted by
o Environment – influences stems from the outside society
body, starting from conception throughout life o Mechanistic Model – people are like machines that
(Nurture) react to environmental input (reactive)
o Individual Differences – people differ in gender, o Organismic Model – people as active, growing
height, weight, and body build; in health and energy organisms that set their own development in motion;
level, etc. initiate events, and do not just react (active)
o Heredity – consists of inborn traits provided by the o Continuous – gradual and incremental
parents o Discontinuous – abrupt or uneven
o Context of Development: o Quantitative Change – change in number or
1. Family – Nuclear and Extended Family amount, such as height, weight, or vocabulary size
2. Socioeconomic Status – combination of economic o Qualitative Change – emergence of new
and social factors describing an individual or family, phenomena that could not be easily predicted on the
including income, education, and occupation basis of the past basic functioning
3. Culture – society’s or group’s total way of life o Evolutionary Psychology – emphasized the
▪ Ethnic Gloss – overgeneralization that obscures importance of adaptation, reproduction, and
or blurs variations “survival of the fittest” in shaping behavior
▪ Race – identifiable biological category, is more o Nativist Perspective – genes
accurately defined social construct o Empiricist Perspective – environment
4. Gender o Noam Chomsky – all children acquire language in
5. History the same way
o Normative Influences – biological or environmental Research Methods in Developmental Psychology and
events that affect many or most people in a society in Ethics
a similar ways and events that touch only certain Ethics
individuals o APA General Principles:
a. Normative Age-Graded Influences General Principles
b. Normative History-Graded Influences A. Beneficence and Take care to do no harm;
▪ Historical Generation – group of people who Nonmaleficence minimize harm
experience the event at a formative time in their B. Fidelity and Establish relationships of
lives Responsibility trusts, upholding
▪ Age Cohort – group of people born at about the professional standards of
same time conduct, cooperate with
o Nonnormative – unusual events that have major other professionals if
impact on individual lives because they disturb the needed to serve the best
expected sequence of the life cycle interests of the client, and
o Imprinting – instinctively follow the first moving strive to contribute their
object they see professional time,
o Critical Period – specific time when a given event, compensated or not.
or its absence, has a specific impact on development C. Integrity Promote accuracy,
o Sensitive Periods – when developing person is honesty, and truthfulness
especially responsive to certain kind of experience
o Plasticity – modifiability of performance
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D. Justice Fairness and justice to all ▪ Seek individual’s assent, provide an explanation,
person to access and consider their best interest, and obtain permission
benefit from the from their guardians
contributions of ▪ Must appropriately document written or oral
psychology consent, permission or assent
E. Respect for People’s Respect the dignity and o Permission for recording images or vices are needed
Rights and Dignity worth of all people by unless the research consists of solely naturalistic
exercising their rights to observations in public places, or research designed
privacy, confidentiality, includes deception
and self-determination ▪ Consent must be obtained during debriefing
o PAP General Principles: o Dispense or Omitting Informed consent only when:
General Principles 1. Research would not create distress or harm
I. Respect for Dignity of - Respect for all human ▪ Study of normal educational practices conducted
Persons and Peoples beings, diversity, culture, in an educational settings
beliefs ▪ Anonymous questionnaires, naturalistic
- free and informed observation, archival research
consent ▪ Confidentiality is protected
- privacy, fairness, and 2. Permitted by law
justice o Avoid offering excessive incentives for research
II. Competent Caring - working for their benefit participation that could coerce participation
for the Well-being of and do no harm o DO not conduct study that involves deception unless
Persons and Peoples they have justified the use of deceptive techniques in
III. Integrity - honesty, truthfulness, the study
open and accurate ▪ Must be discussed as early as possible and not
communication during the conclusion of data collection
- appropriate professional o They must give opportunity to the participants about
boundaries, multiple the nature, results, and conclusions of the research
relationships, and and make sure that there are no misconceptions about
conflicts of interest the research
IV. Professional and - contributing knowledge o Must ensure the safety and minimize the discomfort,
Scientific about human behavior infection, illness, and pain of animal subjects
Responsibilities to - conducting affairs within ▪ If so, procedures must be justified and be as
Society society with highest minimal as possible
ethical standards ▪ During termination, they must do it rapidly and
o Must provide accurate information and obtain minimize the pain
approval prior to conducting the research o Must no present portions of another’s work or data
o Informed consent is required, which include: as their own
✓ Purpose of the research ▪ Must take responsibility and credit, including
✓ Duration and procedures authorship credit, only for work they have
✓ Right to decline and withdraw actually performed or to which they have
✓ Consequences of declining or withdrawing substantially contributed
✓ Potential risks, discomfort, or adverse effects ▪ Faculty advisors discuss publication credit with
✓ Benefits students as early as possible
✓ Limits of confidentiality o After publishing, they should not withhold data from
✓ Incentives for participation other competent professionals who intends to
✓ Researcher’s contact information reanalyze the data
o Researchers who study vulnerable population should ▪ Shared data must be used only for the declared
obtain informed consent both from the individual and purpose
guardian o Researchers who study cultural influences on
development or racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic
differences in development must work hard to keep
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their own cultural values from biasing their - high internal validity
perceptions of other groups Quasi-Experiment – natural experiment; compares
▪ Ethnocentrism: one’s group is superior than the people who have been accidentally assigned to separate
other groups groups by circumstances of life
o Do not conduct studies that involves deception - Actually, a correlational study
unless deceptive techniques are justified Differentiating Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal
▪ If ever, deception must be explained as early as Studies
feasible during the conclusion of the participation Developmental Research Designs
and participants have the right to withdraw if they Cross-Sectional
want to do so - children of different ages are assessed at ONE point
Basic Research Designs of time
Descriptive – aims to observe and record behavior - more economical
Case Study – study of a certain individual or group - no cases of attrition (dropping out of the study) or
- Useful in rare cases repeated testing (practice effect)
- Offers useful, in-depth information - individual differences and trajectories may be
- Can explore sources of behavior, test treatments, and obscured
suggest directions for further research - results can be affected by differing experiences of
- Cannot be easily generalized to other population people born at different times
- Cannot make strong causal statements Longitudinal
- low external validity - study the SAME GROUP or PERSON more than
Ethnographic Studies – seek to describe the pattern of once, or even years apart
relationships, customs, beliefs, technology, arts, and - can track individual patterns of continuity and change
traditions that make up a society’s way of life - time-consuming and expensive
- Case study of the culture - repeated testing could result to practice effect
- Open to observer bias - attrition could be a problem
- Help overcome cultural biases in theory and research - turnover of research personnel, loss of funding, or the
- Debunks the logic of western developed theories can development of new measures or methodologies
be universally applied Sequential
Correlational Study – determine whether a correlation - data are collected on successive cross-sectional or
exist between variables, phenomena that change or longitudinal samples
vary among people or can be varied for purposes of - track people of different ages over time
research - allows researchers to separate age-related change
- Study of the relationship between one variable and from cohort effects and provides more complete picture
another without manipulation of development
- No random assignment - drawbacks: time, effort and complexity
- Lack of control over extraneous variables - requires large number of participants and collection
- Cannot establish causation and analysis of huge amounts of data over a period of
- Used to study many important issues that cannot be years
studies experimentally for ethical reasons - Cohort Effects: important because they can
- Can study multiple influences operating in natural powerfully affect the dependent measures in a study
settings ostensibly concerned with age
- high external validity Developmental Theories (25)
Experiment – controlled procedure which the Psychosexual Theory by Freud (3)
experiment manipulated variables to learn how one o humans were born with a series of innate,
affects another biologically based drives such as hunger, sex, and
- Establish cause-and-effect aggression early experiences shaped later
- Permit replication functioning
- Manipulation o people are driven by motives and emotional conflicts
- Could encounter ethical issues of which they are largely unaware that they are
- Can be artificial shaped by their earliest experiences with the family
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o viewed newborn as “seething cauldron”, an - Oedipus Complex: loves his mother, fears that his
inherently selfish creature driven by Instincts father will retaliate by castrating him, and resolves the
(inborn biological forces that motivate behavior) conflicts through identification with his father
o strongly believed in unconscious motivation – the - Electra Complex: a girl having desire with her
power of instincts and other inner forces to influence father, seeing her mother as a rival
our behavior without out awareness - Castration Anxiety: son believes his father knows
o biological instincts provide unconscious motivation about his desire for his mother and fears that his father
for actions will castrate him
o selfish and aggressive = negative view of human - Penis Envy: a girl wants a penis as she desires her
nature father
o Id, Ego, Superego Latency
1. Id – pleasure principle, impulsive, irrational, selfish, - sexual urges sublimated into sports and hobbies
seeks immediate gratification Genitals
2. Ego – reality principle, rational, finds realistic way - genitals
to gratify instincts - physical sexual urges reawaken repressed needs
▪ Emerge during infancy when psychic energy is - direct sexual feelings towards others lead to sexual
diverted from the id to energize cognitive gratification
processes - may have difficulty accepting their new sexuality,
3. Superego – morality principle, individual’s therefore, reexperiencing conflict towards their
internalized moral standards parents and distance themselves to defend against
▪ develops from the ego as 3-6 years old internalize anxiety-producing feelings
the moral standards and values of their parents o personality formed from unconscious childhood
o Healthy Personality = balance of the id, ego, conflicts between the inborn urges of the id and the
superego requirements of civilized life
o Psychological problems arise when the individual’s o Defense Mechanisms – ego adapts unconscious
supply of psychic energy is unevenly distributed coping devices
among the id, ego, and superego Repression – unacceptable or unpleasant impulses are
o Fixation – arrest in development that can show up in pushed back into the unconscious
adult personality; libido remains tied to an earlier - a woman who experienced sexual harassment cannot
stage of development recall what happened to her
▪ Oral Fixation: may grow up to become nail-biters Regression – behaving as if they were at an earlier
or smokers stage of development
▪ Anal Fixation: may be obsessively clean, rigidly - your father throws a tantrum when he was left alone
tied to schedules and routines, or defiantly messy at home
Oral Displacement – the expression of an unwanted feeling
- Mouth or mere thought is redirected from a more threatening,
- experience anxiety and the need to defend against it powerful person to a weaker one
if denied oral gratification by not being fed on - an employee shouted at his child after being scolded
demand or being weaned too early by his boss
- Oral Fixation manifested in adults: alcoholic, Rationalization – people distort reality in order to
smoking, overeating, Pica, nail biting, thumb sucking justify something that has happened
Anal - a swimming athlete who lost her competition took her
- anus loss as something she expected anyways, and she did
- toilet training era not want the trophy
- Anal-Retentive: perfectionist, orderly, tidy Denial – people refuse to accept or acknowledge an
- Anal-Expulsive: lack of self-control, messy, careless anxiety-producing piece of information
Phallic - a widow never accepted that her husband died in an
- genitals accident
- youngsters develop an incestuous desire for the Projection – people attribute unwanted impulses and
parent of the other sex and must defend against it feelings to someone else
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- A woman fat-shamed another woman because she is o children are not born with innate ideas of reality
insecure about her body o Constructivism – children actively construct new
Sublimation – people divert unwanted impulses into understandings of the world based on their
socially approved thoughts, feelings, or behaviors experiences
- An angry man jogged instead to cool down his anger o development as the product of children’s attempts to
Reaction-Formation – unconscious impulses are understand and act upon their world
expressed as their opposite in consciousness o begins with an inborn ability to adapt to the
- A mother who unconsciously resent her child, acts environment
lovingly consciously o Cognitive Growth occurs through 3 related
o stage-oriented processes: Organization, Adaptation, and
o reactive Equilibration
Psychosocial Theory by Erikson Organization – tendency to create categories
Period Crisis Virtue - Schemes: ways of organizing information about the
Infancy Trust Vs. Mistrust Hope world that govern the way the child thinks and behaves
Toddlerhood Autonomy vs. Will in a particular situation
(Early Shame and Doubt Adaptation – how children handle new information in
Childhood) light of what they already know
Early Childhood Initiative vs. Guilt Purpose - Assimilation: incorporating it into existing cognitive
(Play Age) structures
Middle and late Industry vs. Competence - Accommodation: adjusting one’s cognitive structures
Childhood Inferiority to fit the new info
(School Age) Equilibration – children want what they understand of
Adolescence Identity vs. Fidelity the world to match what they observe around them
Identity
Confusion Their understanding = what they observe
Young Intimacy vs. Love o provided rough benchmarks for what to expect of
Adulthood Isolation children at various ages and has helped educators
Middle Generativity vs. Care design curricula appropriate to varying levels of
Adulthood Stagnation development
Late Adulthood Integrity vs. Wisdom o underestimated Children and overestimated adults
Despair (not all people develop formal operations)
o emphasized the influence of society on the o stage-oriented
developing personality o active
o Crisis: major psychosocial challenge that is Sensorimotor
particularly important at that time and will remain an o The first stage of Jean Piaget’s cognitive
issue to some degree throughout the rest of life development is Sensorimotor Stage
o each stage requires balancing positive and negative o Approx. from birth to 2 years old
tendency o Circular Reactions – an infant learns to reproduce
o successful resolution of each crisis puts the person in events originally discovered by chance
a particularly good position to address the next crisis, o Schemes – actions or mental representations that can
a process that occurs iteratively across the life span be performed on objects
o social and cultural influences mattered o Assimilation – occurs when children use their
o Social Clock: conventional, culturally preferred existing schemes to deal with new information
timing of important life events o Accommodation – occurs when children adjust their
o development is a lifelong process schemes to take new information and experiences
o stage-oriented into account
o active o Organization – grouping of isolated behaviors and
Cognitive Development by Piaget thoughts into higher-order system
o viewed intelligence as a process that helps an o Disequilibrium – cognitive conflict
organism adapt to its environment o Children constantly assimilate and accommodate as
they seek equilibrium
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o Equilibration – children shift from one stage of ▪ Children lacked the ability to retain mental
thought to the next representations
Substages o Infants under the age of about 8 months act as if an
1. Use of Reflexes (Birth to 1 Month) object no longer exists once it is out other line of
[ reflexes ] sight
Exercise their inborn reflexes and gain some control o Object Permanence – the realization that something
over them continues to exist when out of sight
Practice their reflexes and control them (e.g., sucking o Until about 15 months, infants use their hands to
whenever they want to) explore pictures as if they were objects
2. Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months) o By 19 months, children are able to point at a picture
[ pleasure ] of an object while saying its name, demonstrating an
Repeat pleasurable behaviors that first occur by chance understanding that a picture is a symbol of something
Begin to coordinate sensory information and grasp else
objects o Dual Representation Hypothesis – proposal that
They turn towards the sounds children under age of 3 have difficulty grasping
3. Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months) spatial relationships because of the need to keep
[ interesting results ] more than one mental representation in mind at the
Repeat actions that brings interesting results same time
Pre-operational
Learns about causality
o Jean Piaget’s second stage of cognitive development
4. Coordination of Secondary Schemes (8-12
o Lasting from ages 2 to 7, characterized by the
months) [ usage of previously learned info ]
expansion in the use of symbolic thought
Coordinate previously learned schemes and use
o Children begin to represent the world with words,
previously learned behaviors to attain their goals
images, and drawings
Can anticipate events
o Dominated by egocentrism and magical beliefs
5. Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months) o Does not yet perform Operations (which are
[ exploration ] reversible mental actions that allow children to do
Purposefully vary their actions to see results mentally what before they could do only physically)
Actively explore the world o Preoperational Thought – beginning of the ability
Trial and error in solving problems to reconstruct in thought what has been established
6. Mental Combinations in behavior
Can think about events and anticipate consequences o Divided into Symbolic Function and Intuitive
without always resorting action Thought
Can use symbols such as gestures and words, and can 1. Symbolic Function – being able to think about
pretend something in the absence of sensory or motor cues
Transition to Pre-operational stage ▪ Can use symbols, or mental representations such
Learns about numbers as words, numbers, or images to which a person
o Representational Ability – the ability to mentally has attached meaning
represent objects and actions in memory, largely ▪ Deferred Imitation: children imitate an action at
through symbols such as words, numbers, and mental some point after observing it
picture ▪ Pretend Play: fantasy play, dramatic play, or
o Infants develop the abilities to think and remember imaginary play; children use an object to
o Visible Imitation that uses body parts that babies can represent something else
see develops first followed by Invisible Imitation ▪ The most extensive use of symbolic function is
(involves with parts of the body that babies cannot language
see) ▪ Occurs between ages of 2 and 4
o Piaget believed that children under 18 months could 2. Intuitive Thought – begin to use primitive reasoning
not engage in Deferred Imitation and want to know the answers to all sorts of questions
▪ Reproduction of an observed behavior after the ▪ Occurs approx. 4-7 yrs of age
passage of time o Children also begin to able to understand the symbols
that describe physical spaces
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o Piaget believed that children cannot yet reason ▪ Inductive Reasoning: involves making
logically about causality observations about particular members of a class
o Transduction – they mentally link two events, of people, animals, objects, or events, and then
especially events close in time, whether or not here drawing conclusions about the class as a whole
is logically a causal relationship {specific > general conclusion}
o Identities – the concept that people and many things ▪ Deductive Reasoning: starts with a general
are basically the same even if they change in outward statement about a class and applies it to particular
form, size, or appearance members of the class {general conclusions
o Animism – tendency to attribute life to objects that application}
are not alive ▪ Piaget believed that children in the concrete
o Centration – the tendency to focus on one aspect of operations stage only used inductive reasoning
a situation and neglect others ✓ Conservation
▪ Children cannot Decenter (think about several ▪ Principle of Identity: still same object even tho it
aspects of a situation at one time) has different appearance
▪ Involves on focusing on one dimension while ▪ Principle of Reversibility: can picture what would
ignoring the other happen if he tried to roll back the clay of snake
▪ Irreversibility: failure to understand that an action ▪ Decenter: ability to look at more than one aspect
can go in two or more directions of the two objects at once
o Egocentrism – young children center so much on ✓ Numbers
their own point of view that they cannot take in Formal Operational
another’s o Adolescents enter what Piaget called the highest
o Conservation – the fact that two things are equal level of cognitive development – Formal
remain so if their appearance is altered, as long as Operations
nothing is added or taken away o Adolescents move away from their reliance on
o Theory of Mind – the awareness of the broad range concrete, real-world stimuli, and develop the
of human mental states – beliefs, intents, desires, capacity for abstract thought
dreams, and so forth – and the understanding that o Usually around 11 yrs old
others have their own o They can now use symbols to represent other
▪ Allows us to understand and predict the behavior symbols, hidden messages, imagine possibilities,
of others and makes the social world create hypotheses
understandable o Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning – methodical,
Concrete Operational scientific approach to problem solving, and it
o At about 7 years of age, children enter the stage of characterizes formal operations thinking
Concrete Operations according to Jean Piaget ▪ Involves ability to develop, consider, and test
o Children can now think logically because they can hypotheses
take multiple aspects of situations into account ▪ Piaget attributed it to a combination of brain
o However, their thinking is still limited to real maturation and expanding environmental
situations in the here and now opportunities
o Better understanding of: o According to David Elkind, the new way of thinking
✓ Spatial concepts – allows to interpret maps and of adolescents, the way they look at themselves and
navigate environment their world, is as unfamiliar to them as their reshaped
✓ Causality – makes judgement about cause and effects bodies, and they sometimes feel just awkward in its
✓ Categorization use
▪ Seriation: arranging objects in a series according o Adolescents can keep many alternatives in mind at
to one or more dimensions the same time yet may lack effective strategies for
▪ Transitive Inferences/Transivity: e.g. A < B < C choosing them
▪ Class Inclusion: ability to see the relationship o Self-Consciousness – adolescents can think about
between a whole and its parts, and to understand thinking – their own and the other people’s thoughts
categories within a whole o Imaginary Audience – a conceptualized “observer”
✓ Inductive and Deductive reasoning who is concerned with a young person’s thoughts and
behavior as he or she is
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▪ Adolescents often assume everyone is thinking Child becomes aware that while rules might exist for
about the same thing they are thinking about: the betterment of everyone, there are times you have to
themselves bend the law for self-interests. Goodness of all.
o Personal Fable – belief that they are special, their
experience is unique, and they are not subject to the e.g., Some lawyers study the law so in case they need
rules that govern the rest of the world it, they can find a loophole and they won’t be convicted.
▪ Underlies much risky, self-destructive behavior Some laws are unfair and unjust.
▪ Brain immaturity biases adolescent toward risky Stage 6: Universal Principles
decision making People developed their own set of moral guidelines,
o Adolescents also become more skilled in social which may or may not fit the law. The principles apply
perspective-taking, the ability to tailor their speech to everyone. They do what they think is right regardless
to another person’s POV of legal restrictions or opinion of others. Whatever
o Fuzzy-Trace Theory Dual-Process Model – other people would say.
decision making is influenced by two cognitive
systems: verbatim analytical and gist-intuitional, e.g., LGBTQIA++ community are still being
which operate in parallel discriminated and just tolerated by the society, but
Moral Development by Kohlberg certain someone thinks that they deserve better. Thus,
Level I: Preconventional Morality (3-7 yrs old) they do everything to recognize the rights of the people
Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation of the minority.
The child/individual is good to AVOID o Kohlberg placed too much emphasis on moral
PUNISHMENT because punishment equates, they thought and not enough for moral behaviors
must have done something wrong o Cosmic Stage – people consider the effect of their
actions not only on other people but on the universe
“What will happen to me if I do this?” as a whole
Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange o Just because a person is capable of moral reasoning
Children recognize that there is not just one right view does not necessarily mean the person actually
that is handed down by authorities. They conform to engages in moral reasoning
rules out of self-interest and consideration what others
o Kohlberg’s System is biased against non-western
can do for them.
cultures
“You scratch my back, I’ll scratch yours.” o Only 20% or 1/5 of adults reach Level III of Morality
Level II: Conventional Morality (Morality of o Very sexist and biased against women (males tend to
Conventional Role Conformity) (8-13 yrs old) focus on logic and rules) according to Gilligan
Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationship o Carol Gilligan – women prioritize an “ethics of
The child is good in order to be seen as a good person care” as their sense of morality evolves along with
by others. Approval of others is important. their sense of self
▪ care and empathy
e.g., Donating to the victims of the recent typhoon and Piaget’s Moral Reasoning
posting it on social media so everyone knows they did o Moral Reasoning – the application of principles of
something good. logic to moral issues in order to decide which actions
Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order are right or wrong, just or unfair
The child becomes aware of the rules of the society, so Heteronomous Morality (Moral Realism) – children
judgement concern obeying the rules to uphold the law think of justice and rules as unchangeable properties of
and avoid guilt. Law is law. the world, removed from the control of people
- 4-7 years old
e.g., Crossing the pedestrian crossing or going on a full - consider the consequences, not the intentions
stop when the traffic light turned red. - “law is law”
Level III: Postconventional Morality (Morality of - Immanent Justice: concept that if a rule is broken,
Autonomous Moral Principles) (14-older yrs old) punishment will happen immediately
Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights
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- from 7-10 years old, children are in transition showing o Exosystem: family composition, place of residence,
some features of the first stage of moral reasoning and or parents’ employment, and larger events
some stages of the second ▪ Incorporates other formal and informal social
Autonomous Morality (Moral Relativism) – structures, which do not themselves contain the
becomes aware with the rules and laws created by child but indirectly influence them as these social
people, and in judging an action, they consider the structures affect one of the microsystem
intentions as well as the consequences ▪ Child is not involved and are external to their
- 10 years and older experience but nonetheless affect them anyway
- products of cooperative agreements o Macrosystem: overarching cultural patterns such as
dominants beliefs, ideologies, and economic and
political systems
▪ How cultural elements affect a child’s
Ecological Model by Bronfenbrenner development
o Chronosystem: dimension of time
▪ Consists of all environmental changes that occur
over the lifetime that influence development
▪ Including major life transitions and historical
events
▪ Non-normative events
o active
Sociocultural Theory by Vygotsky
o cognitive development is shaped by the sociocultural
context in which it occurs and grows out of
children’s interactions with the member of the
culture
o cognitive growth as collaborative process
o people learn through social interaction
o placed emphasis on Language
o adults or more advanced peers must help direct and
organize a child’s learning before the child can
master and internalize it
o Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): the gap
between what they are already able to do by
o child is not seen as just an outcome of development; themselves and what they can accomplish with
the child is an active shaper of development assistance
o to understand development, we must see the child o Scaffolding: supportive assistance with a task that
within the context of multiple environments parents, teachers, or others give a child
surrounding o Allow testers to offer hints to children who were
o Microsystem: everyday environment; interactions having trouble answering a question, thereby
with family, friends, etc. focusing on that child’s potential learning
▪ have direct contact with the child o active
▪ other people can influence the child and their Attachment by Ainsworth and Mahler
environment and can also change the beliefs and Ainsworth – Attachment Theory
actions of other people o Attachment – reciprocal, enduring emotional tie
▪ very personal and crucial for fostering and between an infant and a caregiver, each of whom
supporting the child’s development contributes to the quality of the relationship
o Mesosystem: linkages between home and school or o Strange Situation – by Mary Ainsworth; designed
between the family or peer groups (events that links to assess attachment patterns between infant and
the microsystems) adult
▪ Interaction between child microsystems Secure Attachment – flexible, resilient
#BLEPP
- Secure attachment in early development becomes a o Mutual Regulation – the ability of both infant and
foundation for psychological development later caregiver to respond appropriately and sensitively to
- grow up as secured adults, can speak about each other’s mental and emotional states
attachment relationships with feeling but will also be o Social Referencing – seeking emotional information
thoughtful and reflective to guide behavior
: balances dependency and exploration, Five Stages of Attachment Development
balances emotion and thought Stage 1 (birth to 3 months): Infants uses sucking,
- Parenting Style: Sensitive and Responsive rooting, grasping, smiling, etc. to maintain closeness
- low avoidance, low anxiety
with caregivers
Avoidant (Insecure) Attachment – outwardly Stage 2 (3 to 6 months): more responsive to familiar
unaffected by a caregiver leaving or returning
figures than to strangers (responsive to mama onle)
- Not distressed if caregiver leaves, do not reestablish
Stage 3 (6 to 9 months): infants seeks physical
contact when they return
proximity and contact with objects of attachment
- grow up as dismissing adults, attachment is devalued
(finding mama)
and dismissed by these adults with concomitant
Stage 4 (9 to 12 months): Infants form internal mental
emphasis on though separated from emotions
representation of object of attachment, including
- Parenting Style: Inconsistent, often unresponsive
expectations about caregiver’s typical responses to
- low anxiety, high avoidance
signals of distress (forming mental rep of objects of
Ambivalent (Resistant) Attachment – generally
attachment)
anxious even before the caregiver leaves
Stage 5 (12 months and older): child uses variety of
- Cling to the caregiver then push them away when
behaviors to influence the behavior of the objects of
comforted
attachment in ways that will satisfy needs for safety and
- grow up as enmeshed adults (pre-occupied), cannot
closeness (papansin era)
turn their attention away from attachment, provide
Bowlby – Attachment Theory
contradictory, rapidly alternating views of their
attachment relationships accompanied by a gush of o Attachment Behavior System – a complex set of
vivid memories reflexes and signaling behaviors that bring about
- Parenting Style: rejecting-unresponsive or intrusive- caregiving responses from adults
overly stimulating (inconsistent) ▪ When the child is frightened or separated from the
- low avoidance, high anxiety mother, the attachment system is activated and the
Disorganized-Disoriented Attachment – lack a child will seek proximity or physical closeness to
cohesive strategy to deal with the stress of the strange the mother
situation; they show contradictory, repetitive, or ▪ The child is motivated to attain a sense of
misdirected behaviors; confused and afraid security, a subjective experience of safety and
- Strong patterns of avoidance and resistance or well-being
display certain specified behaviors such as extreme ▪ When the child feels secure, the attachment
fearfulness
system is deactivated and the exploratory system
- have psychopathological tendencies
is turned on
- Parenting Style: frightened and frightening
- high avoidance, high anxiety ▪ Attachment is a primary drive
o Children who were classified as securely attached o Principle of Monotropy – need to form attachment
were more likely to have better relationships with to one significant person
peers and teachers in later childhood than those o Internal Working Model of Attachment – through
classified as insecure repeated attachment experiences, the child develops
o According to Bowlby, attachment styles resulted expectations about the availability and
from repeated interactions with a caregiver responsiveness of the mother
o Stranger Anxiety – wariness of a person she does o Separation Anxiety – distress when a familiar
not know caregiver leaves her
o Separation Protest – crying when caregiver leaves Protest – upon the disappearance of the caregiver, the
o Babies react negatively to strangers by 8 or 9 months infant will cry, and will resist soothing from others

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