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ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Andy Ciddor is a technical writer, consultant, educator, and systems

technician. His unhealthy interest in how things work began when he
terminally dismembered an army field telephone at the age of eight.
Andy’s interests eventually expanded into wireless, audio, lighting,
electronics, AV, IT, software, control systems, communications,
technical production, cosmology, rocket science, neurobiology, etc.,
as the opportunities arose. He has contributed on a wide range of
subjects to publications across the English-speaking world and was
the founding editor of AV Technology magazine. His favorite place is
at the bottom of a steep learning curve.

About the Technical Editor

Greg Bronson, CTS-D, is a technical advisor for AVIXA. He has
worked as a technician, service manager, and system
designer/project manager over a 30+ year career in AV. Bronson is a
longtime volunteer and SME for AVIXA, including leadership roles
within its standards, education, committee, and council programs.
Copyright © 2021 by McGraw Hill and AVIXA. All rights reserved.
Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976,
no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any
form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system,
without the prior written permission of the publisher, with the
exception that the program listings may be entered, stored, and
executed in a computer system, but they may not be reproduced for
publication.

ISBN: 978-1-26-013610-4
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TERMS OF USE

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arises in contract, tort or otherwise.
 CONTENTS AT A GLANCE

Part I The CTS-Installation and CTS-I Exam

Chapter 1 Getting CTS-I Certification
Chapter 2 The CTS-I Exam

Part II The Basics of AV Installation

Chapter 3 Managing an AV Project
Chapter 4 Audiovisual Documentation
Chapter 5 Pre-installation Activities

Part III System Fabrication

Chapter 6 Cable Essentials
Chapter 7 Mounting AV Equipment
Chapter 8 Rack Build

Part IV AV Installation
Chapter 9 Audio Systems Installation
Chapter 10 Video Systems Installation

Part V System Setup, Verification, and Closeout

Chapter 11 Introduction to System Verification
Chapter 12 Networks
Chapter 13 Audiovisual Control Systems
Chapter 14 Audio Gain and System Equalization
Chapter 15 Video System Setup and Verification
Chapter 16 Conducting System Closeout

Part VI Ongoing Project Responsibilities

Chapter 17 Maintaining and Repairing Audiovisual Systems

Part VII Appendixes and Glossary

Appendix A Math Formulas Used in AV Installations
Appendix B AVIXA Standards
Appendix C AVIXA AV Standards Clearinghouse
Appendix D Video Link
Appendix E About the Online Content
Glossary

Index
 CONTENTS

Foreword
Acknowledgments

Part I The CTS-Installation and CTS-I Exam

Chapter 1 Getting CTS-I Certification

What Does a CTS-I Certified Installer Do?
AVIXA Certifications
Why Earn Your CTS-I Credential?
Are You Eligible for the CTS-I Exam?
AVIXA Standards
Getting Started

Chapter 2 The CTS-I Exam

The Scope of the CTS-I Exam
Exam Preparation Strategies
CTS-I Exam Sample Questions
Answers to Sample CTS-I Exam Questions
Mathematical Strategies
The Exam Calculator
Order of Operations
Electrical Calculations
Electrical Basics
The CTS-I Exam Application and Processes
Getting to the Testing Center
Identification Requirements
Items Restricted from the Exam Room
About the Exam
During the Exam
Dismissal or Removal from the Exam
Hazardous Weather or Local Emergencies
 Special Accommodations for Exams
Exam Scoring
Retesting
Chapter Review

Part II The Basics of AV Installation

Chapter 3 Managing an AV Project

Scope of Work
Project Planning
Developing a Plan
Managing Project Resources and Activities
Work Breakdown Structure
Gantt Chart for Project Schedules
Logic Network Diagram for Coordinating Resources
Managing the Project Budget
Monitoring Work at the Client Site
Other Project Management Activities
Providing Project Documentation
Information-Related Documents
Change Documentation
Types of AV Projects
Key Stages of AV Installation
Pre-installation
System Fabrication
AV Installation
AV Verification
System Closeout
Ongoing Project Responsibilities
Chapter Review
Review Questions
Answers

Chapter 4 Audiovisual Documentation

Types of Drawings
Audiovisual Drawings and Diagrams
Construction Drawings
Facility Drawings
 System Drawings
As-Built Drawings
The Basics of Drawings
Drawing Scales
Calculating Dimensions from Scaled Drawings
Converting Ratios
Converting Measurements
Drawing Dates
Elements of Drawings
Drawing Abbreviations
Drawing Symbols
Drawing Views
Plan View
Reflected Ceiling Plans
Elevation Drawings
Section Drawings
Detail Drawings
Chapter Review
Review Questions
Answers

Chapter 5 Pre-installation Activities

Types of Audiovisual Job Sites
Construction Site
Client-Occupied Space
Conducting a Site Survey
Technical Site Survey
Evaluating Facility Conditions
Drawing Review Process
De-installing Existing Equipment
Reusing Existing Equipment
Job Site Safety Guidelines
Safety Regulations
Safety Equipment
Audiovisual Tools
Working with Stakeholders and Other Trades
Typical Participants
Professional Behavior
Steps to Escalate a Problem
 Procuring Equipment and Supplies
Chapter Review
Review Questions
Answers

Part III System Fabrication

Chapter 6 Cable Essentials

Wire and Cable
Conductors
Insulation
Types of Cable Used in AV Systems
Coaxial Cable
Unshielded Twisted-Pair Cable
Twisted-Pair Network Cables (Cat x)
Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable
Shielded Twisted-Pair Network Cables
Fiber-Optic Cable
Combination Cables
More About Fiber-Optic Cable
Distance Limitations of Fiber
Fiber Applications
Identifying Connectors
Fiber Connectors
Plotting a Cable Route
Cable Support Systems
Cable Tray
Conduit
Cable Duct
Hook Suspension Systems
Cable Handling
Electrical Boxes
Cable Labels
Cable Pulling
Cable Pulling Tools
Pulling Tension
Cable Pulling Techniques
Cable Snout
Conduit Capacity
 Jam Ratio
Cable Termination
Stripping Cable
Steps to Strip Cable
Stripping Coaxial Cable
Cable Termination Methods
Continuity Testing
Chapter Review
Review Questions
Answers

Chapter 7 Mounting AV Equipment

Mounting Process
Mounting Preparations
Review Tools Checklist
Inspect the Building Structure
Load and Weight Considerations
Mounting Hardware
Selecting Fasteners for Mounts
Drilling a Pilot Hole
Measuring Bolt Depth
Mount Placement
Floor Mounting
Wall Mounting
Ceiling Mounting
Mounting Malfunctions
Safety Considerations
Fire Safety
Chapter Review
Review Questions
Answers

Chapter 8 Rack Build

Types of AV Racks
Rack Styles
Rack Sizes
Rack Accessories
Rack Elevation Diagrams
Ergonomics
 Weight Distribution
Cooling a Rack
Building a Rack
Rack Assembly
Mounting Equipment
Mounting Wireless Equipment
Rack Wiring
Block Diagrams
Connecting Devices
Power Distribution Within a Rack
Rack Grounding
Signal Separation Within a Rack
Rack Dressing
Rack Build Checklist
Load-In
Chapter Review
Review Questions
Answers

Part IV AV Installation

Chapter 9 Audio Systems Installation

Decibels
Calculating Decibel Changes
Decibel Reference Levels
Perceived Sound Pressure Level
Audio Signal Pathway
Balanced and Unbalanced Circuits
Audio Signal Levels
Audio System Components
Microphones
Preamplifiers
Audio Mixers
Audio Processors
Power Amplifiers
Loudspeakers
Loudspeaker Systems
Installing Audio Components
Microphone Installation
 Loudspeaker Installation
Loudspeaker Installation Guidelines
Direct-Coupled and Constant-Voltage Loudspeaker Wiring
Direct-Coupled Loudspeakers
Constant-Voltage Loudspeakers
Loudspeaker Transformers
Loudspeaker Taps
Loudspeaker Wiring
Series Loudspeaker Circuit
Parallel Loudspeaker Circuit
Connecting Loudspeakers
Loudspeaker Impedance
Impedance Meter
Series Circuit Impedance Formula
Parallel Circuit, Same Impedance Formula
Parallel Circuit, Differing Impedance Formula
Series/Parallel Combination Formula
Chapter Review
Review Questions
Answers

Chapter 10 Video Systems Installation

Video Signals
Video Terms and Concepts
Aspect Ratio
Frame Rate
Refresh Rate
Interlaced Scanning
Progressive Scanning
High-Definition Video Formats
Analog Video
Analog Video Signal Types
Digital Video
Digital Video Signal Types
Video Transport
Digital Video Bandwidth Requirements
Signal Loss over Distance
HDMI Repeaters
Video System Components
 Cameras
Video Signal Processors
Media Servers
Media Players/Recorders
Projectors
Video Projection Technologies
Projection Screens
Direct View Displays
Video Wiring Schemes
Direct Connection
Looping Scheme
Distributed Scheme
Network Distribution Scheme
Installing Video Source Components
Cameras
Media Players
Media Servers
BYOD Support Connections
Installing Video-Processing Components
Distribution Amplifiers
Matrix Switcher
Transmitters and Receivers
Installing Video Display Components
Front-Projection Screens
Mounting an Electrically Operated Front-Projection Screen
Mounting a Manual Wall-Mounted Projection Screen
Rear-Projection Screens
Rear-Screen Installation
Rear-Screen Mirror Position
Rear-Screen Mirror Mounting
Projector Installation
Projector Position
Projector Offset
Keystone Correction
Ceiling-Mounted Projector
Mounting a Projector to the Ceiling
Flat-Panel Displays
Chapter Review
Review Questions
 Answers

Part V System Setup, Verification, and Closeout

Chapter 11 Introduction to System Verification

Standards Compliance
Performance Verification Standard
System Verification Process
Regional Regulations
Resources for Regional Codes
Verification Tools
Circuit Theory
AC and DC Currents
Circuits: Impedance and Resistance
Verifying Wiring and Power
System Wiring
Powering the System On/Off
Electrical Safety
Verifying Power and Earthing/Grounding
Power Distribution Basics
Safety Earth/Ground
Safety Reminders
Troubleshooting Methods
Step 1: Symptom Recognition and Elaboration
Step 2: List and Localize the Faulty Function
Step 3: Analysis
Chapter Review
Review Questions
Answers

Chapter 12 Networks
Role of IT Network Managers
Network Device Inventory
Ports and Protocols
Network Components
Nodes and Connections
Network Interface Controllers and MAC Addresses
Network Devices
The OSI Model
Layers of the OSI Model
The Layers
Data Transmission and OSI
Network Connections
Copper Twisted-Pair Network Cables
RJ-45 (8P8C) Connectors
Fiber-Optic Cable
Wi-Fi Connection
Ethernet
Local Area Networks
Topology
What Is Ethernet?
Isolating LAN Devices
AV over Networks
AV over Ethernet
AV over IP Networks
AES67 Interoperability
Dante
SMPTE ST2110
RAVENNA
Crestron DM NVX
AMX SVSI
Extron NAV
BlueRiver and SDVoE
Q-SYS
Wide Area Networks
WAN Topologies
Private and Public WANs
Internet Protocol
IP Addressing
IPv4 Addressing
Types of IP Addresses
IPv6 Addresses
Address Assignment
Static and Dynamic IP Addresses
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
Reserve DHCP
Automatic Private IP Addressing
 Domain Name System
Internal Organizational DNS
Internal DNS Adoption
Transport Protocols
TCP Transport
UDP Transport
TCP vs. UDP
Ports
The Host Layers
The Session Layer
The Presentation Layer
The Application Layer
Bandwidth
Quality of Service
DiffServ
Security Technologies
Network Access Control
Firewall
Network Verification and Troubleshooting
Network Troubleshooting Tools
Chapter Review
Review Questions
Answers

Chapter 13 Audiovisual Control Systems

Control Systems Overview
Control System Functions
User Interfaces
Control System Hardware
Firmware
Control System Software
Types of Control Systems
Serial Data
USB
Network Control
Contact Closure
Infrared Control
Radio-Frequency Control
Control System Cable Tips
 Control System Signal-Flow Diagrams
Installing Control Systems
Installing Firmware
Verifying the Control System
Troubleshooting Control Systems
Talking Control with the Customer
Performance Verification Standard
Chapter Review
Review Questions
Answers

Chapter 14 Audio Gain and System Equalization

Audio-Testing Tools
Piezo Tweeter
Audio Signal Generators
Sound Pressure Level Meters
Multimeter
Measurement Microphone
Oscilloscope
Setting System Gain
Importance of Setting System Gain
Selecting a Method of Gain Structure
Unity Gain Method
Setting Unity Gain
System Optimization Method
The Benefits of Using the Optimization Method
Setting Gain Using the System Optimization Method
Setting Gain Structure for Audio DSPs
Mixer Input Adjustments
Microphone Input Adjustments
Line Input Adjustments
Power Amplifier Adjustments
Audio Equalization
Equalization Methods
Single-Channel vs. Dual-Channel Measurements
Room-Based Loudspeaker Measurements
Real-Time Analyzer
The RTA Method
Preparation for the RTA Method
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
bishop of Sabina, and who admired the talents of the monk, and
pitied him for the persecutions to which he was exposed. On his
elevation to the papal chair, this account of Bacon’s labours and
views was sent, at the earnest request of the pontiff. Besides the
Opus Majus, he wrote two others, the Opus Minus and Opus
Tertium; which were also sent to the pope, as the author says, 6 ‘on
account of the danger of roads, and the possible loss of the work.’
These works still exist unpublished, in the Cottonian and other
libraries.
6 Opus Majus, Præf.

“The Opus Majus is a work equally wonderful with regard to its

general scheme, and to the special treatises with which the outlines
of the plan are filled up. The professed object of the work is to urge
the necessity of a reform in the mode of philosophizing, to set forth
the reasons why knowledge had not made a greater progress, to
draw back attention to the sources of knowledge which had been
unwisely neglected, to discover other sources which were yet almost
untouched, and to animate men in the undertaking, by a prospect of
the vast advantages which it offered. In the developement of this
plan, all the leading portions of science are expounded in the most
complete shape which they had at that time assumed; and
improvements of a very wide and striking kind are proposed in some
of the principal of these departments. Even if the work had had no
leading purpose, it would have been highly valuable as a treasure of
the most solid knowledge and soundest speculations of the time;
even if it had contained no such details, it would have been a work
most remarkable for its general views and scope. It may be
considered as, at the same time, the Encyclopedia and the Novum
Organon of the thirteenth century. 515
 “Since this work is thus so important in the history of Inductive
Philosophy I shall give, in a Note, a view 7 of its divisions and
contents. But I must now endeavor to point out more especially the
way in which the various principles, which the reform of scientific
method involved, are here brought into view.
7 Contents of Roger Bacon’s Opus Majus:
Part I. On the four causes of human ignorance:—
Authority, Custom, Popular Opinion, and the
Pride of supposed Knowledge.
Part II. On the source of perfect wisdom in the Sacred
Scripture.
Part III. On the Usefulness of Grammar.
Part IV. On the Usefulness of Mathematics.
(1.) The Necessity of Mathematics in Human
Things (published separately as the
Specula Mathematica).
(2.) The Necessity of Mathematics in Divine
Things.—1°. This study has occupied holy
men: 2°. Geography: 3°. Chronology: 4°.
Cycles; the Golden Number, &c.: 5°.
Natural Phenomena, as the Rainbow: 6°.
Arithmetic: 7°. Music.
(3.) The Necessity of Mathematics in
Ecclesiastical Things. 1°. The Certification
of Faith: 2°. The Correction of the
Calendar.
(4.) The Necessity of Mathematics in the
State.—1°. Of Climates: 2°. Hydrography:
3°. Geography: 4°. Astrology.
Part V. On Perspective (published separately as
Perspectiva).
(1.) The organs of vision.
(2.) Vision in straight lines.
 (3.) Vision reflected and refracted.
(4.) De multiplicatione specierum (on the
propagation of the impressions of light,
heat, &c.)
Part VI. On Experimental Science.

“One of the first points to be noticed for this purpose, is the

resistance to authority; and at the stage of philosophical history with
which we here have to do, this means resistance to the authority of
Aristotle, as adopted and interpreted by the Doctors of the Schools.
Bacon’s work 8 is divided into Six Parts; and of these Parts, the First
is, Of the four universal Causes of all Human Ignorance. The causes
thus enumerated 9 are:—the force of unworthy authority;—
traditionary habit;—the imperfection of the undisciplined senses;—
and the disposition to conceal our ignorance and to make an
ostentatious show of our knowledge. These influences involve every
man, occupy every condition. They prevent our obtaining the most
useful and large and fair doctrines of wisdom, the secrets of all
sciences and arts. He then proceeds to argue, from the testimony of
philosophers themselves, that the authority of antiquity, and
especially of Aristotle, is not infallible. ‘We find 10 their books full of
doubts, obscurities, and perplexities. They 516 scarce agree with
each other in one empty question or one worthless sophism, or one
operation of science, as one man agrees with another in the practical
operations of medicine, surgery, and the like arts of secular men.
Indeed,’ he adds, 11 ‘not only the philosophers, but the saints have
fallen into errors which they have afterwards retracted,’ and this he
instances in Augustin, Jerome, and others. He gives an admirable
sketch of the progress of philosophy from the Ionic School to
Aristotle; of whom he speaks with great applause. ‘Yet,’ he adds,
‘those who came after him corrected him in some things, and added
many things to his works, and shall go on adding to the end of the
world.’ Aristotle, he adds, is now called peculiarly 12 the Philosopher,
‘yet there was a time when his philosophy was silent and
unregarded, either on account of the rarity of copies of his works, or
their difficulty, or from envy; till after the time of Mahomet, when
Avicenna and Averroes, and others, recalled this philosophy into the
full light of exposition. And although the Logic and some other works
were translated by Boethius from the Greek, yet the philosophy of
Aristotle first received a quick increase among the Latins at the time
of Michael Scot; who, in the year of our Lord 1230, appeared,
bringing with him portions of the books of Aristotle on Natural
Philosophy and Mathematics. And yet a small part only of the works
of this author is translated, and a still smaller part is in the hands of
common students.’ He adds further 13 (in the Third Part of the Opus
Majus, which is a Dissertation on Language) that the translations
which are current of these writings, are very bad and imperfect. With
these views, he is moved to express himself somewhat impatiently 14
respecting these works: ‘If I had,’ he says, ‘power over the works of
Aristotle, I would have them all burnt; for it is only a loss of time to
study in them, and a course of error, and a multiplication of
ignorance beyond expression.’ ‘The common herd of students,’ he
says, ‘with their heads, have no principle by which they can be
excited to any worthy employment; and hence they mope and make
asses of themselves over their bad translations, and lose their time,
and trouble, and money.’
8 Op. Maj. p. 1.

9 Ib. p. 2.

10 Ib. p. 10.

11 Op. Maj. p. 36.

 12 Autonomaticè.

13 Op. Maj. p. 46.

14 See Pref. to Jebb’s edition. The passages there quoted,

however, are not extracts from the Opus Majus, but (apparently)
from the Opus Minus (MS. Cott. Tib. c. 5). “Si haberem
potestatem supra libros Aristotelis, ego facerem omnes cremari;
quia non est nisi temporis amissio studere in illis, et causa erroris,
et multiplicatio ignorantiæ ultra id quod valeat explicari. . . . Vulgus
studentum cum capitibus suis non habet unde excitetur ad aliquid
dignum, et ideo languet et asininat circa male translata, et tempus
et studium amittit in omnibus et expensas.”

517 “The remedies which he recommends for these evils, are, in

the first place, the study of that only perfect wisdom which is to be
found in the Sacred Scripture; 15 in the next place, the study of
mathematics and the use of experiment. 16 By the aid of these
methods, Bacon anticipates the most splendid progress for human
knowledge. He takes up the strain of hope and confidence which we
have noticed as so peculiar in the Roman writers; and quotes some
of the passages of Seneca which we adduced in illustration of this:—
that the attempts in science were at first rude and imperfect, and
were afterwards improved;—that the day will come, when what is still
unknown shall be brought to light by the progress of time and the
labors of a longer period;—that one age does not suffice for inquiries
so wide and various;—that the people of future times shall know
many things unknown to us;—and that the time shall arrive when
posterity will wonder that we overlooked what was so obvious.
Bacon himself adds anticipations more peculiarly in the spirit of his
own time. ‘We have seen,’ he says, at the end of the work, ‘how
Aristotle, by the ways which wisdom teaches, could give to
Alexander the empire of the world. And this the Church ought to take
into consideration against the infidels and rebels, that there may be a
sparing of Christian blood, and especially on account of the troubles
that shall come to pass in the days of Antichrist; which by the grace
of God it would be easy to obviate, if prelates and princes would
encourage study, and join in searching out the secrets of nature and
art.’
15 Part ii.

16 Parts iv. v. and vi.

“It may not be improper to observe here that this belief in the
appointed progress of knowledge, is not combined with any
overweening belief in the unbounded and independent power of the
human intellect. On the contrary, one of the lessons which Bacon
draws from the state and prospects of knowledge, is the duty of faith
and humility. ‘To him,’ he says, 17 ‘who denies the truth of the faith
because he is unable to understand it, I will propose in reply the
course of nature, and as we have seen it in examples.’ And after
giving some instances, he adds, ‘These, and the like, ought to move
men and to excite them to the reception of divine truths. For if, in the
vilest objects of creation, truths are found, before which the inward
pride of man must bow, and believe though it cannot understand,
how much more should man humble his mind before the glorious
truths of God!’ He had before said: 18 ‘Man is incapable of perfect
wisdom in this life; it is hard for 518 him to ascend towards perfection,
easy to glide downwards to falsehoods and vanities: let him then not
boast of his wisdom, or extol his knowledge. What he knows is little
and worthless, in respect of that which he believes without knowing;
and still less, in respect of that which he is ignorant of. He is mad
who thinks highly of his wisdom; he most mad, who exhibits it as
something to be wondered at.’ He adds, as another reason for
humility, that he has proved by trial, he could teach in one year, to a
poor boy, the marrow of all that the most diligent person could
acquire in forty years’ laborious and expensive study.
17 Op. Maj. p. 476.

18 Ib. p. 15.

“To proceed somewhat more in detail with regard to Roger

Bacon’s views of a Reform in Scientific Inquiry, we may observe that
by making Mathematics and Experiment the two great points of his
recommendation, he directed his improvement to the two essential
parts of all knowledge, Ideas and Facts, and thus took the course
which the most enlightened philosophy would have suggested. He
did not urge the prosecution of experiment, to the comparative
neglect of the existing mathematical sciences and conceptions; a
fault which there is some ground for ascribing to his great namesake
and successor Francis Bacon: still less did he content himself with a
mere protest against the authority of the schools, and a vague
demand for change, which was almost all that was done by those
who put themselves forward as reformers in the intermediate time.
Roger Bacon holds his way steadily between the two poles of human
knowledge; which, as we have seen, it is far from easy to do. ‘There
are two modes of knowing,’ says he; 19 ‘by argument, and by
experiment. Argument concludes a question; but it does not make us
feel certain, or acquiesce in the contemplation of truth, except the
truth be also found to be so by experience.’ It is not easy to express
more decidedly the clearly-seen union of exact conceptions with
certain facts, which, as we have explained, constitutes real
knowledge.
 19 Op. Maj. p. 445; see also p. 448. “Scientiæ aliæ sciunt sua
principia invenire per experimenta, sed conclusiones per
argumenta facta ex principiis inventis. Si vero debeant habere
experientiam conclusionum suarum particularem et completam,
tunc oportet quod habeant per adjutorium istius scientiæ nobilis
(experimentalis).”

“One large division of the Opus Majus is ‘On the Usefulness of

Mathematics,’ which is shown by a copious enumeration of existing
branches of knowledge, as Chronology, Geography, the Calendar
and (in a separate Part) Optics. There is a chapter, 20 in which it is
proved 519 by reason, that all science requires mathematics. And the
arguments which are used to establish this doctrine, show a most
just appreciation of the office of mathematics in science. They are
such as follows:—That other sciences use examples taken from
mathematics as the most evident:—That mathematical knowledge is,
as it were, innate to us, on which point he refers to the well-known
dialogue of Plato, as quoted by Cicero:—That this science, being the
easiest, offers the best introduction to the more difficult:—That in
mathematics, things as known to us are identical with things as
known to nature:—That we can here entirely avoid doubt and error,
and obtain certainty and truth:—That mathematics is prior to other
sciences in nature, because it takes cognizance of quantity, which is
apprehended by intuition (intuitu intellectus). ‘Moreover,’ he adds, 21
‘there have been found famous men, as Robert, bishop of Lincoln,
and Brother Adam Marshman (de Marisco), and many others, who
by the power of mathematics have been able to explain the causes
of things; as may be seen in the writings of these men, for instance,
concerning the Rainbow and Comets, and the generation of heat,
and climates, and the celestial bodies.’
20 Ib. p. 60.
 21 Op. Maj. p. 64.

“But undoubtedly the most remarkable portion of the Opus Majus

is the Sixth and last Part, which is entitled ‘De Scientia
experimentali.’ It is indeed an extraordinary circumstance to find a
writer of the thirteenth century, not only recognizing experiment as
one source of knowledge, but urging its claims as something far
more important than men had yet been aware of, exemplifying its
value by striking and just examples, and speaking of its authority
with a dignity of diction which sounds like a foremurmur of the
Baconian sentences uttered nearly four hundred years later. Yet this
is the character of what we here find. 22 ‘Experimental science, the
sole mistress of speculative sciences, has three great Prerogatives
among other parts of knowledge: First she tests by experiment the
noblest conclusions of all other sciences: Next she discovers
respecting the notions which other sciences deal with, magnificent
truths to which these sciences of themselves can by no means
attain: her Third dignity is, that she by her own power and without
respect of other sciences, investigates the secrets of nature.’
22“Veritates magnificas in terminis aliarum scientiarum in quas
per nullam viam possunt illæ scientiæ, hæc sola scientiarum
domina speculativarum, potest dare.”—Op. Maj. p. 465.

520 “The examples which Bacon gives of these ‘Prerogatives’ are

very curious, exhibiting, among some error and credulity, sound and
clear views. His leading example of the First Prerogative is the
Rainbow, of which the cause, as given by Aristotle, is tested by
reference to experiment with a skill which is, even to us now, truly
admirable. The examples of the Second Prerogative are three—first,
the art of making an artificial sphere which shall move with the
heavens by natural influences, which Bacon trusts may be done,
though astronomy herself cannot do it—’et tunc,’ he says,
‘thesaurum unius regis valeret hoc instrumentum;’—secondly, the art
of prolonging life, which experiment may teach, though medicine has
no means of securing it except by regimen; 23 —thirdly, the art of
making gold finer than fine gold, which goes beyond the power of
alchemy. The Third Prerogative of experimental science, arts
independent of the received sciences, is exemplified in many curious
examples, many of them whimsical traditions. Thus it is said that the
character of a people may be altered by altering the air. 24 Alexander,
it seems, applied to Aristotle to know whether he should exterminate
certain nations which he had discovered, as being irreclaimably
barbarous; to which the philosopher replied, ‘If you can alter their air,
permit them to live; if not, put them to death.’ In this part, we find the
suggestion that the fire-works made by children, of saltpetre, might
lead to the invention of a formidable military weapon.
23 One of the ingredients of a preparation here mentioned, is the
flesh of a dragon, which, it appears, is used as food by the
Ethiopians. The mode of preparing this food cannot fail to amuse
the reader. “Where there are good flying dragons, by the art which
they possess, they draw them out of their dens, and have bridles
and saddles in readiness, and they ride upon them, and make
them bound about in the air in a violent manner, that the hardness
and toughness of the flesh may be reduced, as boars are hunted
and bulls are baited before they are killed for eating.”—Op. Maj. p.
470.

24 Op. Maj. p. 472.

“It could not be expected that Roger Bacon, at a time when

experimental science hardly existed, could give any precepts for the
discovery of truth by experiment. But nothing can be a better
example of the method of such investigation, than his inquiry
concerning the cause of the Rainbow. Neither Aristotle, nor
Avicenna, nor Seneca, he says, have given us any clear knowledge
of this matter, but experimental science can do so. Let the
experimenter (experimentator) consider the cases in which he finds
the same colors, as the hexagonal crystals from Ireland and India; by
looking into these he will see colors like those of the rainbow. Many
think that this arises from some 521 special virtue of these stones
and their hexagonal figure; let therefore the experimenter go on, and
he will find the same in other transparent stones, in dark ones as
well as in light-colored. He will find the same effect also in other
forms than the hexagon, if they be furrowed in the surface, as the
Irish crystals are. Let him consider too, that he sees the same colors
in the drops which are dashed from oars in the sunshine;—and in the
spray thrown by a mill wheel;—and in the dew drops which lie on the
grass in a meadow on a summer morning;—and if a man takes
water in his mouth and projects it on one side into a sunbeam;—and
if in an oil lamp hanging in the air, the rays fall in certain positions
upon the surface of the oil;—and in many other ways, are colors
produced. We have here a collection of instances, which are almost
all examples of the same kind as the phenomenon under
consideration; and by the help of a principle collected by induction
from these facts, the colors of the rainbow were afterwards really
explained.

“With regard to the form and other circumstances of the bow he is

still more precise. He bids us measure the height of the bow and of
the sun, to show that the centre of the bow is exactly opposite to the
sun. He explains the circular form of the bow,—its being independent
of the form of the cloud, its moving when we move, its flying when
we follow,—by its consisting of the reflections from a vast number of
minute drops. He does not, indeed, trace the course of the rays
through the drop, or account for the precise magnitude which the
bow assumes; but he approaches to the verge of this part of the
explanation; and must be considered as having given a most happy
example of experimental inquiry into nature, at a time when such
examples were exceedingly scanty. In this respect, he was more
fortunate than Francis Bacon, as we shall hereafter see.

“We know but little of the biography of Roger Bacon, but we have
every reason to believe that his influence upon his age was not
great. He was suspected of magic, and is said to have been put into
close confinement in consequence of this charge. In his work he
speaks of Astrology, as a science well worth cultivating. ‘But,’ says
he, ‘Theologians and Decretists, not being learned in such matters,
and seeing that evil as well as good may be done, neglect and abhor
such things, and reckon them among Magic Arts.’ We have already
seen, that at the very time when Bacon was thus raising his voice
against the habit of blindly following authority, and seeking for all
science in Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas was employed in fashioning
Aristotle’s tenets into that fixed form in which they became the great
impediment to the 522 progress of knowledge. It would seem, indeed,
that something of a struggle between the progressive and stationary
powers of the human mind was going on at this time. Bacon himself
says, 25 ‘Never was there so great an appearance of wisdom, nor so
much exercise of study in so many Faculties, in so many regions, as
for this last forty years. Doctors are dispersed everywhere, in every
castle, in every burgh, and especially by the students of two Orders,
(he means the Franciscans and Dominicans, who were almost the
only religious orders that distinguished themselves by an application
to study, 26 ) which has not happened except for about forty years.
And yet there was never so much ignorance, so much error.’ And in
the part of his work which refers to Mathematics, he says of that
study, 27 that it is the door and the key of the sciences; and that the
neglect of it for thirty or forty years has entirely ruined the studies of
the Latins. According to these statements, some change, disastrous
to the fortunes of science, must have taken place about 1230, soon
after the foundation of the Dominican and Franciscan Orders. 28 Nor
can we doubt that the adoption of the Aristotelian philosophy by
these two Orders, in the form in which the Angelical Doctor had
systematized it, was one of the events which most tended to defer,
for three centuries, the reform which Roger Bacon urged as a matter
of crying necessity in his own time.”
25 Quoted by Jebb, Pref. to Op. Maj.

26 Mosheim, Hist. iii. 161.

27 Op. Maj. p. 57.

28 Mosheim, iii. 161.

It is worthy of remark that in the Opus Majus of Roger Bacon, as

afterwards in the Novum Organon of Francis Bacon, we have certain
features of experimental research pointed out conspicuously as
Prærogativæ: although in the former, this term is employed to
designate the superiority of experimental science in general to the
science of the schools; in the latter work, the term is applied to
certain classes of experiments as superior to others.
 B O O K V.

F O R M A L A S T R O N O M Y.
 CHAPTER I.

Prelude to Copernicus.

Nicolas of Cus.

I WILL quote the passage, in the writings of this author, which bears
upon the subject in question. I translate it from the edition of his
book De Docta Ignorantia, from his works published at Basil in 1565.
He praises Learned Ignorance—that is, Acknowledged Ignorance—
as the source of knowledge. His ground for asserting the motions of
the earth is, that there is no such thing as perfect rest, or an exact
centre, or a perfect circle, nor perfect uniformity of motion. “Neque
verus circulus dabilis est, quinetiam verior dari possit, neque
unquam uno tempore sicut alio æqualiter præcisè, aut movetur, aut
circulum veri similem, æqualem describit, etiamsi nobis hoc non
appareat. Et ubicumque quis fuerit, se in centro esse credit.” (Lib. i.
cap. xi. p. 39.) He adds, “The Ancients did not attain to this
knowledge, because they were wanting in Learned Ignorance. Now it
is manifest to us that the Earth is truly in motion, although this do not
appear to us; since we do not apprehend motion except by
comparison with something fixed. For if any one were in a boat in the
middle of a river, ignorant that the water was flowing, and not seeing
the banks, how could he apprehend that the boat was moving? And
thus since every one, whether he be in the Earth, or in the Sun, or in
any other star, thinks that he is in an immovable centre, and that
everything else is moving; he would assign different poles for
himself, others as being in the Sun, others in the Earth, and others in
the Moon, and so of the rest. Whence the machine of the world is as
if it had its centre everywhere and its circumference nowhere.” This
train of thought 524 might be a preparation for the reception of the
Copernican system; but it is very different from the doctrine that the
Sun is the centre of the Planetary Motions.
 CHAPTER II.

T h e C o p e r n i c a n T h e o r y.

The Moon’s Rotation.

I HAVE said, in page 264, that a confusion of mind produced by the

double reference of motion to absolute space, and to a centre of
revolution, often leads persons to dispute whether the Moon, while
she revolves about the Earth, always turning to it the same face,
revolves about her axis or not.

This dispute has been revived very lately, and has been conducted
in a manner which shows that popular readers and writers have
made little progress in the clearness of their notions during the last
two or three centuries; and that they have accepted the Newtonian
doctrines in words with a very dim apprehension of their real import.

If the Moon were carried round the Earth by a rigid arm revolving
about the Earth as a centre, being rigidly fastened to this arm, as a
mimic Moon might be, in a machine constructed to represent her
motions, this contrivance, while it made her revolve round the Earth
would make her also turn the same face to the Earth: and if we were
to make such a machine the standard example of rotation, the Moon
might be said not to rotate on her axis.

But we are speedily led to endless confusion by taking this case

as the standard of rotation. For the selection of the centre of rotation
in a system which includes several bodies is arbitrary. The Moon
turns all her faces successively to the Sun, and therefore with regard
to the Sun, she does rotate on her axis; and yet she revolves round
the Sun as truly as she revolves round the Earth. And the only really
simple and consistent mode of speaking of rotation, is to refer the
motion not to any relative centre, but to absolute space.

This is the argument merely on the ground of simplicity and

consistency. But we find physical reasons, as well as mathematical,
for referring the motion to absolute space. If a cup of water be
carried round a centre so as to describe a circle, a straw floating on
the surface 525 of the water, if it point to the centre of the circle at
first, does not continue to do so, but remains parallel to itself during
the whole revolution. Now there is no cause to make the water (and
therefore the straw) rotate on its axis; and therefore it is not a clear
or convenient way of speaking, to say that the water in this case
does revolve on its axis. But if the water in this case do not revolve
on its axis, a body in the case of the Moon does revolve on its axis.

The difficulty, as I have said in the text, is of the same nature as

that which the Copernicans at first found in the parallel motion of the
Earth’s axis. In order to make the axis of the Earth’s rotation remain
parallel to itself while the Earth revolves about the Sun, in a
mechanical representation, some machinery is needed in addition to
the machinery which produces the revolution round the centre (the
Sun): but the simplest way of regarding the parallel motion is, to
conceive that the axis has no motion except that which carries it
round the central Sun. And it was seen, when the science of
Mechanics was established, that no force was needed in nature to
produce this parallelism of the Earth’s axis. It was therefore the only
scientific course, to conceive this parallelism as not being a rotation:
and in like manner we are to conceive the parallelism of a revolving
body as not being a rotation.