Application of sustainable smart

manufacturing technologies and toolkits in

the automotive industry
..............................................................................................................................................................

Victoria Inyang1, *, Grace M Kanakana1 and OT Laseinde2

1
Department of Industrial Engineering, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, 0183

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South Africa; 2 MIET Department, University of Johannesburg, DFC Campus,
Johannesburg, 2028, South Africa
.............................................................................................................................................
Abstract
A more rapid development of smart manufacturing system (SMS) within the automotive industry will
significantly promote its competitiveness, which is essential to the economic sustainable development of
South Africa. From recent research studies, the automotive sector contributes >7% to the annual gross
domestic product of South Africa, and its sustainability is important to the segment through SMS. Thus,
SMS deserves greater focus from the government and the industry. Smart manufacturing technology uses
machines and tools that are interconnected for the improvement of the manufacturing system and energy
optimization. The benefits of SMS include cost reduction, increased productivity, product customization,
resources efficiency and minimization of negative environmental impacts. Globally, the automotive industry
puts significant emphasis on SMS, considering the ongoing substantial initiatives. To achieve SMS, ultra-
modern technologies in different areas, varying from cyber-physical systems, smart sensors, complex and
large data analytics, Internet of Things, cloud manufacturing, additive manufacturing, energy reduction
and hologram are being established and used in manufacturing locations. Therefore, this study is aimed
at technologies and toolkits development that will increase the implementation and responsiveness of SMS
among automotive manufacturers and support decision makers in planning better SMS capabilities.

Keywords: automotive industry; smart toolkits; e-manufacturing; industry 4.0; digitisation; digital manu-
facturing
*Corresponding author:
vickyinyang@yahoo.com Received 4 December 2022; revised 19 February 2023
.................................................................................................................................................................................

1 INTRODUCTION the nascent fourth industrial revolution—often referred to as SM

The amalgamation of operational technologies with data in
various manufacturing technologies, operations, processes and
resources is otherwise known as smart manufacturing (SM) [41].
Small and medium-scale enterprises (SMEs) are integral factors
in the evolution and advancement of economies worldwide, espe-
cially in relevant developing and emerging economies of the world
[50, 52]. This new thrust in manufacturing is currently accounting
for almost 100% of all business enterprises in Europe especially
within the European Union. They have engineered and created
a whopping >80% of new jobs in the past half-decade, which
also gives rise to two-thirds of all private sector participation
in the subcontinent [23]. With the dawn of new conjectural,
predictive and practical models and technologies derivable from
or more commonly, industry 4.0 (4IR)—the overall industrial
ambience and setting have undergone a dramatic, significant
transformation in recent times [29]. The fourth sector of the
so-called industrial revolution, known as I4.0, is being driven
by intelligent/SM. To achieve an intelligent and digital factory
and encourage production to become digitalized, sustainable,
information driven and custom made, the concept of 4IR is
based on the incorporation of advanced industrial technology
and information and communication technologies [13, 79]. SM
focuses on integrating industry, information technology (IT),
and the Internet while also connecting people, machines and
goods with the environment. To sustain the existing competitive
edge over the long term, industry must implement these types
of production techniques [57]. Lead times, adaptability, and the

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capacity to produce several product variations in small batches
must all increase to remain competitive [43].
The client is given greater functionality and customization
options, and the supply chain is given more flexibility, trans-
parency and internationalization [57]. It is difficult to enable
a business to swiftly respond to consumer expectations and
demands; this requires agile, flexible production systems with
rapid design [76]. I4.0 development addresses global concerns
including improvement in resource and energy efficiency to
increase high-wage countries’ competitiveness [57]. Companies,
especially SMEs, struggle to put I4.0’s concepts into practice
and capitalize on its promise to boost shop floor efficiency [42].
Many businesses are now faced with the task of applying 4IR
processes and technologies due to the growing trend of the
fourth industrial revolution, often known as 4IR or SM. SMEs
in particular face difficulties with this because they lack the
personnel and financial resources needed to adequately address
the issue. But because SMEs are the backbone of the economy, it
is crucial to support them in implementing 4IR and creating the
necessary tools.
Manufacturing is always progressing from the level of the
development of concept to processes and tools that are accessible
for the manufacturing of items for use or sale, according to
Esmaeilian, Behdad and Wang [18]. The concept of manufactur-
ing is classically used to depict an industrial production process
wherein raw materials are transformed into finished products
that are thereafter sold to the market. Today, manufacturing is
often considered as an integrated concept at all levels, from the
machines themselves to the production processes and the overall
company activity. The definition of ‘manufacturing’ has evolved,
and as a result, new guidelines for the creation of manufacturing
toolkits have been established ([18]. Over time, many manufac-
turing initiatives, including lean manufacturing [8] and digital
manufacturing [28], have created their own toolkits that may aid
manufacturing companies as they transition to more productive
production processes. Computer-aided technologies (CAx)
technologies, working tools, managerial principles, instruction
techniques, organizational procedures, etc., are all included in
these toolkits. However, when it comes to the latest SM initiative
[31, 46], there aren’t any toolkits available, or there are just a few
of them.
These toolkits are meant to help manufacturing firms, or SMEs,
embrace the new ‘smart’ techniques of conducting production
operations. For SMEs to create small manufacturing capabilities
in their own unique manufacturing systems, it is necessary to
systematize the already available small-scale medium methodolo-
gies, tools and practices into a modular toolkit that offers a step-
by-step and building-block approach. In the context of the fourth
industrial revolution, or 4IR, and the accessible toolkits in the
corpus of scientific knowledge, this study analyses the significance
of SM toolkits for SMEs. Thus, the purpose of this research was
to analyse how the development of SM toolkits could promote
automotive industries and smart manufacturing systems (SMS)
in general.
Smart manufacturing technologies and toolkits
2 STUDY BACKGROUND
To comprehend and deploy the idea of a data-driven, connected
supply network, SM incorporates a number of technologies that
include but are not constrained to Internet of Things (IoT), cyber-
physical production systems, robotics/automation, cloud com-
puting and large data analytics [20, 46]. The particular emphasis
placed on human innovation within the framework distinguishes
SM from many other initiatives in a significant way. On the work
floor, automation and artificial intelligence are not intended to
simply replace people; rather, they are meant to improve human
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capabilities by cleverly creating a solution that is tailored to a
particular situation. It is widely acknowledged that product and
process information and data are essential for enabling technol-
ogy and (human- or machine-intrinsic) knowledge. The three
major goals of SM are plant-wide optimization, sustainable pro-
duction, and agile supply networks, underscoring its large and
all-encompassing scope [67].
Another important element in the context of SM and 4IR
is technology. Use of cutting-edge manufacturing technology
(AMTs). AMTs can be used improve quite an array of related man-
ufacturing strategic sections, including Human Resources (HR)
practices and quality assurance [14]. However, an SME with inad-
equate resources may not easily be upgraded or implement AMTs
and therefore lack the required available technical support. In the
same vein, SMEs also perform abysmally in research and develop-
ment. Moreso, they do not have the capacity for IT integration of
multinational enterprises, and so the data analytics tools and sim-
ilar software used in keeping the data of SMEs are directed toward
tackling the relevant and particular problem faced by the SMEs.
Research and development domains of SMEs are not particularly
advanced due to the limited technological and financial resources
available, but their diligent effort results in highly specialized
goods that can set SMEs apart from their rivals [27].
The survival of SMEs is daunting because of their lack of
knowledge and resources compared with multinational enter-
prises (MNEs) [34]. Standards like International Organization
for Standardization (ISO) and others are closely adhered to
by MNEs, even though SMEs penultimately adhere to them.
The resources needed to prepare for and pass the certifications
are somewhat to blame [45]. As a result, SMEs must take
into account industry norms. SMEs are eager in acquiring the
expertise amassed by MNEs, according to a study done in German
electrical engineering and machinery microenterprises, but they
fear that standardization may reveal their crucial information
to rivals [10]. The organizational culture is another essential
component of a business. Compared with MNEs, SMEs have a
less formal and complex organizational structure. Organizational
cultures are frequently too rigid to allow for experimentation
and consideration of implementation initiatives for cutting-edge
technology. As a result, SMEs are unable to invest similarly in
market research and analysis (Van [69]). Therefore, it is possible
that SME decision making is occasionally not as well informed
and is instead mostly reliant on the manager’s or decision maker’s
International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2023, 18, 412–422 413
V. Inyang et al.
‘gut feeling’ [61]. Because decisions based on gut instinct perhaps
necessitate a great deal of ambiguities, managers and decision
makers in SMEs seldom have the needed confidence in their made
choices. Contrarily, choices made by MNEs are reinforced by
in-depth study and discourses among higher authorities like
boards of advisers and consultants [68].
Employees in SMEs and MNEs experience opportunity and
exposure in very different ways. For instance, SMEs’ staff mem-
bers are more likely to be, because they have daily duties in a
range of areas, a ‘jack of all trades’ [11] and most unlikely to
develop skills of high-level ranking in any specific discipline or
profession [16]. Paradoxically, MNE employees are gauged with a
more likelihood of being highly specialized, recognized as author-
ities in their fields of endeavours such as in the technology of
automation, and knowledgeable in the most nascent technological
developments in their industry. Furthermore, it is perhaps more
predictable that SME employees will not be able to have access to
mentorships, training workshops, supervised industrial exposure
and so on [44].
For this reason, the involvements of employees in SMEs are
quite sparse. In addition, cross-disciplinary, multidisciplinary and
international networking possibilities may therefore not be avail-
able or practically lacking in SMEs. As a result, they are unable to
maintain connections with universities and research institutions
and keep up with ongoing, cutting-edge research. The success
of an organization also depends on its collaborative techniques.
SME partnerships with universities and other research institutes,
on the other hand, are scarce. Because of the absence of access
to collective knowledge, it is possible that the partnership will be
limited because they may only be able to draw inferences from
their direct and close-knitted experiences.
When compared with MNEs, SMEs recurrently possess
insights into what is disseminated throughout a variety of different
industries. For that reason, a lot of operational tasks are contracted
out to lessen the workload. SMEs typically have fewer items to
handle and a weaker collaborative network; as a result, they rely
heavily on a limited number of suppliers and vendors [64] On
the other hand, MNEs typically have a wide range of options for
suppliers and vendors; therefore, their dependence on a certain
supplier or vendor is considerably smaller.
3 INDUSTRY 4.0 AND SM IN SMES
The complexity of modern manufacturing is inherent [18].
Numerous research on how manufacturing SMEs deal with this
complexity are already available in the literature. Nieuwenhuize
[51] examined six different Dutch SMEs from the following
industries to determine their strategic orientation toward a switch
to ‘SM’: (a) sheet metal production, (b) railroad manufacturing,
(c) machine packaging, (d) profile and tube cutting, (e) steel
processing and (f) copper separation. Nieuwenhuize [51] divided
SMEs into three segment profiles based on their level of intention
and adoption of SM technology and practices: (1) inactive,
(2) prisoners and (3) adopters. SMEs frequently lack the funding
414 International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2023, 18, 412–422
to explore new opportunities outside of their core skills. Most of
the time, this is because they are afraid of investing in the wrong
technology or adopting bad habits, which prevents them from
being ‘early adopters.’
To compete with MNEs who have already started their SM
journey, SMEs must quickly learn about upcoming technologies
and digital processes [19]. Veza, Mladineo and Peko [70] eval-
uated the 4IR maturity level of Croatian enterprises as part of
the project INSENT using a nine-question survey questionnaire
based on a scale from 1 to 4. (an acronym for Croatian Model
of Innovative Smart Enterprise). The survey’s findings indicate
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that Croatian businesses currently have an 4IR maturity level of
‘2.15’, indicating that they have not yet begun to implement 4IR
technology. Currently, they are adopting electrically driven mass
manufacturing techniques in the second wave of industrialization
[47]. One hundred fifty-nine businesses participated in the survey,
and 69% of them were SMEs [70]. During the literature review,
only 2 of the studies, Veza, Mladineo and Peko [70] and Nieuwen-
huize [51] were found to have at least a partial focus on the unique
demands of SMEs.
This dearth of SME-based research on SM/4IR points to
a research vacuum in the field’s current body of knowledge.
Although there are many comprehensive studies on holistic
models that take into account organizational, commercial,
and technological elements accessible, most are only tangen-
tially assisting SMEs in implementing SM and 4IR. In their
evolutionary route toward SM or 4IR, most academic and
consulting studies that are currently accessible concentrate
on MNEs and treat SMEs similarly. This may be difficult,
though, given the various features and requirements of SMEs.
The literature research also reveals that SMEs are frequently
overburdened with operational and strategic decisions on
how to integrate various SM or 4IR technologies into their
manufacturing and/or service business and operational models.
[46, 59].
4 TOOLKITS FOR 4.0 SMART
MANUFACTURING
Toolkits can be thought of as a collection of organized operational
procedures, hardware and software resources and management
techniques [53]. Each toolbox has a specific goal. There are a few
manufacturing toolkits on the market that might be viewed as
models for the creation of SM toolkits. To create a modular toolkit,
various methods and lean tools were arranged into five categories
vis a vis: (1) automation (poka-yoke and on and full work sys-
tems); (2) Value stream mapping (VSM) (future state map, current
state map and flow diagrams); (3) Just in time (JIT) (takt-time,
pull system and Kanban systems); (4) Kaizen (continuous flow,
Pareto chart, brainstorming, five whys and Gantt chart) and (5)
Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) (Single-Minute Exchange
of Die (SMED), Overall Equipment Effectiveness (OEE) and Sort,
Straighten, Shine, Standardize, and Sustain (5S)) according to
Belekoukias, Garza-Reyes and Kumar [8]. The literature has also

examined how to choose the best lean toolkits for manufacturing
SMEs, focusing on the qualities of the toolkits that are unique to
SMEs [3].
Accordingly, there are three other groups of tools that
should be included in the target tool retinue of digitalized
manufacturing. These include: (i) production automation tools
vis a vis: remote monitoring systems, machine vision systems,
Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) programming systems,
computer numerical control (CNC) machining operations and
barcoding technologies; (ii) robotics in manufacturing and
(iii) simulation, manufacturing and design tools focusing on
waste reduction and value addition within the framework
of overall production planning, process simulation, layouting
and lean manufacturing [3]. The following toolkits for e-
manufacturing were mentioned as being relevant by Lee [32]
in his studies. They include: (i) dynamic decision making
system for synchronization; (ii) predictive intelligence sys-
tem wherein algorithms, agent and software are involved;
(iii) data-to-information-to-knowledge transformation tools;
(iv) scalable system platform; (v) tether-free communication
systems; (vi) information compatibility between businesses and
devices; (vii) flexible enterprise and (viii) education and training
for employee system.
Similar to what was previously mentioned, a new set of
toolkits was proposed at a small-scale intelligent manufacturing
system level [25]. The new toolkits were defined in three broad
categories vis a vis: (1) the application of the modern artificial
intelligence (AI) methods in manufacturing, which involved
smart conventional manufacturing technologies such as CNC
machining, computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) and computer-
aided design (CAD), use of robots and most recent virtual
reality (VR) techniques; (2) the deployment of information and
communication technology (ICT) in production operation and
production management with examples such as cloud comput-
ing, agent system technology, remote monitoring and mobile
technologies and (3) related and ancillary technologies such as:
3D printing, measurements and inspection, rapid prototyping
reconfigurable machine toolkits and reverse engineering.
Similarly, 4IR toolkits have been made assessable to account
for output product and for level processing [5]. These have been
discretized to include six different toolkits for each of the product
and process levels. At the product level, they are: (i) business
models, (ii) product-related IT services, (iii) actuator and sen-
sor integration, (iv) data functionality of information exchange
and storage, (v) monitoring and (vi) connectivity. At the process
level, the toolkits include: (i) ICT facilities, (ii) processing of data
tools, (iii) machine human interfaces, (iv) communication within
machines, (v) production networking within companies and (vi)
efficiency of batch operations.
4.1 SME toolkit for SM
A toolbox for SMEs called digital manufacturing (DM) was pro-
posed by Kaartinen, Pieskä and Vähäsöyrinki [28]. With the help
of DM, SMEs can digitally test and prototype a variety of product
Smart manufacturing technologies and toolkits
and process concepts, lowering design risks and ultimately, costs.
SM will enable SMEs to connect all of their production resources
to their products and to each other to streamline operations. A
specific SM toolbox for manufacturing SMEs is therefore required
but is currently lacking in the literature. A collection of toolboxes
that integrate and adhere to the suggested modular SM toolkit for
SMEs is shown in Figure 1. The proposed SM toolkit was created
with the aid of a literature research, conversations with academic
experts and additional revisions with SME management. This
led to the improvement of various toolboxes that were already
partially available in the literature. Various technologies, meth-
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ods, tools and practices that are taken into consideration for the
proposed SM toolkit are shown in Figure 1 along with a list of
toolboxes and their respective features, as well as the corporate
functions that each toolbox supports.
4.2 SM technology models and applications
Intelligent technologies are always evolving. For instance, a new
5G cellular network is not necessary for SM, but 5G connectivity
can ease setups, offer more capacity than 4G, and lessen reliance
on hardware and Wi-Fi.
The principles of high-tech SM comprise the following tech-
nologies; however, they are not discrete. Quite frequently, a tool,
machine, or system will combine multiples of them.
For instance, an IoT gadget might contain sensors that are
wirelessly linked to the cloud and processors with AI built in that
can independently issue alerts or take action.
4.2.1 Machine learning and AI
Data analysis for SM is closely related to AI/machine learning
because of how quickly it can process data and spot trends. Cobots
and other robotics systems used in smart factories frequently
have some amount of AI. AI is also being included into the
microprocessors of edge computing, IoT, and SM machines as
its cost continues to decline. Video of the production floor can
provide insights using AI-based computer vision. For instance,
Drishti’s AI-powered analysis of manual assembly lines can elim-
inate product faults, offer worker training, improve procedures
and more. AI is being adopted in the new generation of manufac-
turing systems to increase human–robot collaboration, decrease
the human workforce in danger areas, improve the production
system’s maintenance system and detect any product or machin-
ery faults. The AI system is capable of making decisions on its
own, optimizing its performance and responding automatically to
physical changes like altering production schedules, stopping or
running any machining units, replacing machine tools automati-
cally and forewarning of any uncontrollable situations in advance
[17, 22, 33].
4.2.2 Virtual and augmented reality
Applications for augmented reality (AR) and VR have diverse use
cases for SM. They are currently especially pertinent for on-the-
job training to assist workers in closing the growing skills gap.
International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2023, 18, 412–422 415
V. Inyang et al.
Figure 1. Features, illustrations and associated SME functions of the SM toolbox. Adapted from Mittal et al. [46 ]
Since the start of the epidemic, the SM industry has increased its
use of AR and VR for training and remote assistance with repairs
and other tasks. For instance, a production worker can receive
instructions from a distant expert using Microsoft’s mixed-reality
HoloLens 2 goggles while the expert is literally looking through
the worker’s eyes.
VR offers the ability to interact with computer-generated im-
agery and movies that simulate real-world events. VR is a wearable
technology that enables users to feel as though they are physically
present in the virtual world that has been generated through simu-
lation. It includes a video device, an audio device, location systems
like GPS, external communication to other devices and hardware.
Young engineers and technical graduates who are ill-equipped
416 International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2023, 18, 412–422
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to handle industrial processes are introduced to production pro-
cesses, mechanization processes, troubleshooting processes and
maintenance systems through the use of VR, which has proven
to be more effective than theoretical learning. By imagining the
idea without actually producing it, you can also lower the cost
of designing and testing any product. In addition, the ability to
view and test items for clients in a virtual setting aids in the digital
manufacturing process, opening up more possibilities for product
customization, refurbishment and quick testing of product design
[9, 30, 40, 48, 60].
Wearables and mobile devices can be used to actualize an
artificial environment that is built through computer simulation
throughout the real world. Before moving forward with actual

Figure 2. Application of SM technologies in SMEs (Adapted from Mittal, Romero, and Wuest [45], [71])
manufacturing, they use technology that combines a real physical
environment with computer-generated graphics to see artificially
added components to an already existing real-world scenario for
training, simulation or validation purposes. Real-world scenarios
and computer-simulated images are combined to assist actualize
the product in an existing setting. The use of an augmented
environment for product testing and training new personnel has
been found to be more effective and time saving [21, 54, 59].
4.2.3 Automation/robotics
The usage of robotics in SM is expanding in both diversity and col-
laboration as robots become more and more common as a result of
social distancing regulations. The levels of AI, autonomous deci-
sion making, sensing, communication and mobility that robots
and automated machines possess vary. However, robot systems in
SM typically collect a lot of data and are well connected to the
cloud and the entire smart factory.
4.2.4 Hybrid and additive manufacturing
Rapid prototyping has been transformed by additive manufac-
turing, often known as 3D printing, which now supports con-
ventional production with finished goods or even infrastructure
like small-scale buildings and bridges. It is anticipated that it will
eventually be used in mass production. To further reduce mate-
rial waste and create parts fast, hybrid manufacturing combines
metal additive manufacturing with subtractive manufacturing on
a single machine.
Today’s 3D printing technology has significantly and holisti-
cally transformed the ability of most industries to create, develop
and produce new products as intended. The 3D printing expe-
rience has invented new climes especially to the automotive,
Smart manufacturing technologies and toolkits
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especially the car, sector by embedding and introducing lighter
and more complex constructions within the shortest amount of
time. An illustration is the fact that Local Motors produced the
first electric vehicle, which was printed in 3D, in 2014. They also
produced a 3D-printed bus called OLLI. Local Motors thereafter
expanded the spectrum of the application and uses of 3D printing
technology, which has now escalated beyond just automobiles.
The OLLI bus is a 3D-printed, electric, recyclable and incredibly
intelligent bus. In addition, Ford is a pioneer in the application
of 3D printing technology in automobiles and uses it to create
prototypes and engine parts [65]. BMW also uses 3D printing
technology to create hand tools for the testing and assembling of
automobiles.
In contrast, Audi and SLM Solution Group AG worked together
in 2017 to create prototypes and replacement parts [62]. As a
result, the application of 3D printing technology or introduction
thereof in the automobile industry permits empirical business
experimentation using varied and differentiated ideas that are
more focused early enough in the development process, thus
leading to the conceptualization and evolution of efficient and
optimal car designs and inventions. In addition, 3D printing
technology helps cut down on resource use and waste. In addition,
3D printing technology and approach will save time and cost, thus
enabling the possibility of testing new and/or novel designs with
dispatch and immediacy [39].
4.2.5 Big data analysis
Every facet of SM is impacted by big data, and in some circum-
stances, data is what makes a system ‘smart.’ Machine learning
is fed by data-driven SM, which uses the cloud for processing
and storage. In addition to the factory floor, big data analysis is
International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2023, 18, 412–422 417
V. Inyang et al.
essential for SM in areas such as: assessment of risks; logistics;
costing of structures, quality control mechanisms and improve-
ment; strategies for growth; build to order; other sales patterns
and services after sales.
Real-time decision making for SM is aided by gathering and
analysis of data from multiple sources, including production
units, businesses, consumer feedback systems and product
request systems. Manufacturers today want their customers to
provide feedback and personal opinions about the items they have
used or plan to use. With this information, manufacturers hope to
better target their product designs to appeal to a broad spectrum
of consumers. Big data analysis will help the manufacturer
identify the current situation and reasons for product failures
in real time as well as encourage customers to buy their items by
comprehending their purchasing patterns and needs and also
learn how data-driven marketing may be used for predictive
production [38, 48, 49, 58].
4.2.6 Cloud computing
IoT sensor data is saved in the cloud and processed by AI/machine
learning algorithms on remote servers. The Volkswagen Indus-
trial Cloud, which aggregates data from 122 Volkswagen Group
sites and processes it in real time to make changes, is an illustra-
tion of what the cloud can accomplish for SM. Volkswagen’s long-
term objective is to link >30 000 locations from 1500 suppliers
globally to the industrial cloud and perhaps develop a market
for SM software. The supply of scalable, on-demand computer
resources, such as data storage and processing power, that are
accessed remotely by a user through a network is known as
cloud computing [35, 73, 77]. It has made it possible for cloud
manufacturing, a service-oriented manufacturing paradigm that
aims to maximize resource usage while minimizing resource con-
sumption [66, 75].
4.2.7 CNC machining
Precision multiaxis milling, lathing, cutting, drilling and other
operations are carried out by sophisticated CNC machines using
the designs and models of CAM software. CNC machines fre-
quently have wireless sensors as part of the IoT in SM.
4.2.8 Manufacturing design
Design for manufacturing (DFM), sometimes known as design for
manufacturing and assembly (DfMA), is a design process that, via
a series of design decisions and guiding principles, enables and
optimizes prefabrication. Products and components are created
expressly for production to streamline and improve manufac-
turing operations. Designing and manufacturing are done using
sophisticated CAD and CAM software.
4.2.9 Edge computing, IoT and IIoT
Robots, equipment and other items used in SM are frequently
a component of the IoT, which means that they involve wire-
less networks that are connected to sensors that submit data for
418 International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2023, 18, 412–422
analysis. Low-cost central processing units are becoming more
common in IoT devices due to the falling cost of sensors, which
enables local computation before uploading to the cloud. That is
what edge computing is. Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) refers
to IoT equipment in a production line that can typically make
predictions based on input data to cut costs and waste [7, 29].
IIoT is focused on the industrial application of IoT, which con-
nects all physical entities with one another through the internet.
IoT is used in everyday domestic applications including smart
homes, transportation, logistics, health care, agriculture, human
pets and vehicle tracking applications in the industry. The IoT
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links physical objects like sensors, actuators and the full process
monitoring and control system to the cloud, enabling commu-
nication and collaboration across all objects to achieve a com-
mon purpose. Each component’s interactions with the others aid
in defect localization, preventive maintenance and production
planning, improved human–machine interaction and intelligent
process control for the most efficient use of tools, materials and
resources. In addition, IIoT permits customers to view visual
displays of products, processes and factories for marketing and
educational purposes [2, 26, 37, 56, 72].
4.2.10 Digital twins and simulation
To produce digital twins of physical components and goods that
can be tested, validated and optimized digitally before manufac-
ture, SM uses simulation software. The more accurate the digital
twin is compared with an exact physical depiction, the more useful
simulation becomes. Saving time and money on testing the pro-
duction system would be achieved by simulating plant operations
to optimize the machine settings for the previous production line
in a virtual environment.
In a virtual model that may be used for production planning
and scheduling based on simulation findings, simulations are used
to reflect the physical world. Moreover, these days, simulation
has been integrated into SMS systems, which has made it
easier to prepare cost estimates and examine design mistakes,
manufacturing time, labor and energy requirements for the entire
production. Before beginning the actual production process,
profit–loss analysis and bill of quantities preparation should be
done [6, 12, 22].
Smart Manufacturing Technology models and applications as
discussed in the just concluded sections 4.2.1 to 4.2.10 is summa-
rized in Figure 2.
5 RESEARCH ISSUES
This section presents the most recent study findings on I4.0
adoption and SM. The three main types of the identified research
issues are technological, methodological and business case
research issues. Some of the concerns surrounding the studies
that have been discussed could fall under more than one of these
headings. In these situations, the classification is based on what
the authors believe to be the most important factor.

5.1 Problems with technological research
Standards/interfaces: In the global economy, a variety of het-
erogeneous enterprises frequently come together to build supply
networks.
In this context, heterogeneous refers to various factors, such as
the size of the organization, the location and the software solu-
tions used. Although some businesses might opt for the market’s
proprietary solutions, others might prefer or be compelled by
financial constraints to adopt internally produced or open-access
alternatives.
Interoperability is a significant problem that needs to be
addressed to enable SM when businesses with various systems
desire to collaborate. This is demonstrated by the cyber-physical
logistics system, or CPLS, use case, where equipment from
many vendors, including machines, transport systems and
human interface devices, must cooperate. A unique integration
will not work due to the dynamic and complicated nature of
manufacturing; instead, widely accepted standards are required to
make the creation and operation of effective SM supply networks
possible.
5.2 Issues with methodological research
Reference models: Reference models are necessary for a precise
explanation of complicated ideas. This is especially true for smart
systems because they are subject to a wide range of technical
standards from different disciplines [1]. These standards begin to
interact in new ways that did not previously exist, necessitating
coordinating efforts [24]. There are currently no standards for
evaluating production system capabilities and connecting the
findings to earlier stages of the life cycle [36]. This led to the
identification of several research issues, including the need for
common definitions of fundamental concepts and modelling
formalisms [15, 24, 55]; i). the need for common definitions
of fundamental concepts and modelling formalisms (Da vis et
al. 2015, Ho and O’Sullivan 2017, Papazoglou, van den Heuvel,
and Mascolo 2015); ii) methods for the structured description
of comparable use cases [1, 24]; iii) advanced knowledge
representation mechanisms, supporting stakeholder commu-
nications and strategic standardization across manufacturing
[24, 55]; iv) dynamic orchestration of decision/action workflows
in heterogeneous environments [15] and v) a sociotechnical
evolution process for the reference model [4].
For I4.0, a sample of such a reference model that Deutsches
Institut für Normung (DIN) intends to standardize has been
developed Reference Architectural Model Industry 4.0 (RAMI
4.0). It comprises both horizontal networking outside of the single
factory toward the creation of dynamic value networks as well as
vertical networking of the means of production, workpiece and
associated data. The core components of I4.0 are present in the
final model.
5.3 Business plan problems
Privacy issues: Data security concerns are closely tied to privacy
concerns. However, it was decided to divide the two sections in
Smart manufacturing technologies and toolkits
this instance. Data security concerns are more concerned with the
technological capacity to safeguard and preserve sensitive (man-
ufacturing) data, whereas privacy concerns are more concerned
with issues relating to the sharing of data, information and/or
expertise within the firm and its supplier chain. Advanced analyt-
ics can now access specific industrial data thanks to the develop-
ment of SM and connected businesses. Even worse, competitors
can ‘reverse engineer’ the products to determine the underlying
knowledge and capabilities by getting useful data. On the other
hand, businesses that compete with one another in a separate mar-
ket niche may cooperate within supply networks. For instance, the
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service provider stores airline-owned video footage from aircraft
surveillance, which is subject to passenger privacy rules that vary
by country. Information exchange within the supply chain is
advantageous for many reasons, including quality improvements
[74]. It takes interdisciplinary study including professionals in
politics, law, commerce, computer science and engineering to
develop the systems that guarantee that data are used exclusively
for the reason for which they are provided.
6 APPLICATION OF INTELLIGENT
MANUFACTURING
Industry 4.0, where actual businesses can profit from cutting-
edge technologies, is crucial for intelligent manufacturing appli-
cations for entire organizations or industries. Because manu-
facturing companies may involve many different parts, such as
manufacturing process planning and scheduling, workshop mon-
itoring and control and warehouse management, an agent-based
framework for Intelligent Manufacturing System (IMSs) will be
an appropriate solution to the problem of production planning
and scheduling. Agent-based implementation can design work-
flows and adhere to manufacturing logics, effectively facilitating
the decision making pertaining to these elements [63]. To make
the deployment of intelligent manufacturing simpler, multiagent
technologies can be used to concurrently control robots that are
made possible by an agent-based architecture with distributed
agents.
Cloud-based solutions, which exchange or circulate manufac-
turing resources using Service- oriented Architecture (SOA) and
cloud computing, are another future use of intelligent manufac-
turing. To fully use IMSs, a number of different cloud platforms
will be developed, allowing industrial resources and capabilities
to offer end users on-demand services. Because typical resources
with modern sensors are endowed with intelligence and can react,
detect and even ‘think’ given diverse manufacturing requirements
or scenarios, modeling manufacturing resources in the 4IR era is
an important area for future research. It can be difficult to figure
out how to turn these resources into services and integrate them
into a cloud-based platform.
New-generation intelligent manufacturing is an enormous sys-
tem that essentially comprises three efficient subsystems: intelli-
gent products, production and services. In addition, it embraces
International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2023, 18, 412–422 419
V. Inyang et al.
Figure 3. System integration of new-generation intelligent manufacturing. Adapted from Zhou et al. [78]
the supporting systems of the industrial Internet and intelligent
cloud manufacturing (Figure 3). This intelligent manufacturing
technology is an essential enabling technology that is extensively
applicable in improvement and optimization across the value
chain of the manufacturing process; this includes but is not lim-
ited to product innovations, production and services in discrete
and process-based manufacturing [78].
7 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
The potential of various fields and research areas’ work within
the larger system is discovered to a greater extent as smart man-
ufacturing in conjunction with 4IR is introduced and adopted by
most industries and the academia. In addition, as 4IR and SM are
gaining greater traction, more insights and research questions will
surface. SM and 4IR are still in their infancy despite the fact that
there are currently successful testbeds accessible. Given the focus,
funds offered by funding organizations and high level of interest
from sectors (both large enterprises and SMEs), it is reasonable
to anticipate that this field will experience rapid advancements in
the near future.
Advances in basic research domains may reach commercial
applications more quickly than in previous years due to their
interdisciplinary nature. For fresh researchers without experi-
ence with applied research within their disciplines, this may be
an opportunity to synergize with researchers in similar fields
and with relevant industries to be able to implement research
outcomes in the real world.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Royal academy of engineering - Smart manufacturing research
group, Department of Industrial Engineering, Tshwane University
of Technology, Pretoria, South Africa for the funding.
420 International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2023, 18, 412–422
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ijlct/article/doi/10.1093/ijlct/ctad023/7083003 by guest on 01 May 2024
DATA AVAILABILITY
No data from any source.
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