Subject: Political philosophy

Semester: 2 year: 1

Submitted by: Atta Muhammad Kamboh - 1203

Submitted to: Madam Aminah Gillani

Department of Political Science

Government College Lahore

 Final term questions

1. Analyse at least five salient features of John Locke’s social contract theory.
Reason and critically evaluate the distinct features of his theory on
government’s legitimacy in comparison to those of Thomas Hobbes and
Jacques Rousseau.
2. Critically evaluate the theory of ‘rise and fall of nations’ as discussed by Ibn-e-
khaldun. Is this theory relevant to the modern day of nation building?
3. Karl Marx considers class-struggle as the basis of all social conflict, he says ‘The
history of all previous societies has been the history of class struggle’, critically
evaluate his theory with reference to present day and the prospective future of
developments.
 Question 1: Analyse at least five salient features of John Locke’s social
theory. Reason and critically evaluate the distinct of his theory on
government’s legitimacy in comparison to those of Thomas Hobbes and
Jacques Rousseau.

 Introduction

John Locke was an English philosopher and one of the most famous political theorists of
his own age. He is also considered the ‘father of liberalism’. He was the great advocate
of the empirical approaches of the scientific revolution. His political theory of
government as the means of protection of natural rights is considered one of the most
influential theories of their ages. His essay on religious tolerance has a very significant
one which laid the foundation of separation of churches and state.

 Social contract theory

Social contract theory is an agreement which was made between human beings in the
form of contract with the consent of its members in order to protect liberty, peace and
natural rights of the people by the state.

Under state of nature people live without government or written laws. Most people
seek to follow principles of justice but the problem is lack of explicit written laws that
leads to uncertainty and difficulty to resolve disputes. The social contract was made by
different groups of peoples where people agreed to obey the state, let the state make
and enforce laws and people pay the state for services. The state set up legislature
and judicial system for the protection of peoples in order to maintain law and order in
the society.
  Salient features of John Locke’s social contract theory

1. No political obligations can be accepted without the will of individuals.

2. Consent of the citizens is necessary for the governmental legitimacy.
3. There cannot be a legitimate government under the divine rights of king.
4. If the government does not provide protection than the peoples have the right
to overthrow it.
5. Role of government is to protect three fundamental rights which are liberty, life
and property.
6. No law against public will and interest would be enforced.
7. The powers of the government are not absolute but defined by the constitution
and the people have equally reserve the rights to check the government.
8. Government is instituted only as a trustee of society.

 John Locke’s legitimacy in comparison to Thomas Hobbes

Thomas Hobbes was an English philosopher and also considers one of the founders of modern
political philosophy. The essence of the Hobbes’s philosophy is found in his famous book
‘Leviathan’ in which he expounds an influential formulation of social contract theory. Hobbes
described ‘Doctrine of supremacy of the state power’ and also strongly advocated the
absolutism.

Thomas Hobbes believed the formation of government through the social contract theory. He
thought that all individuals must give their powers to one sovereign authority for the
establishment of government legitimacy in order to keep away from the state of nature by
sacrificing their fundamental rights and everyone must obey him. But Locke did not believe to
hand over all powers without the consent of the public will. He believed that everyone is equal
in their rights and no political obligations can be derived without the support of its peoples. The
authority obtained through fear is invalid. But according to Hobbes, the legitimacy of contracts
made under force and violence is acceptable for the protection of peoples. He believed that
sovereignty is essential and no state can be considered a state unless it has absolute
sovereignty. Locke was in favor of direct democracy by the consent of people rather to
establish absolute sovereignty by obtaining fear and death and by neglecting the public free
will.
 John Locke’s legitimacy in comparison to Rousseau

Rousseau was a European philosopher and one of the greatest political theorists of their
age. He is also very famous for his social contract theory in comparison to Thomas
Hobbes and John Locke. His philosophies have greatly influenced by French revolution
and the modern political thoughts.

John Locke’s legitimacy is dependent on the consent of public will. He believed that no
political obligations can be made if it has no support of peoples. The legitimacy obtained
by fear cannot be valid and it must not be obeyed. Legitimacy is only possible when
there has public consent.
Rousseau’s views are not very relevant to the legitimacy views of John Locke. He
believed that there must be a popular sovereignty in which the authorities of state and
its government are to be created by the consent of its peoples through their elected
representatives. Every member should obey the sovereign. In this type of system,
people will be governed by a group of individuals.
Rousseau also approved the tacit consent of the people and no continual consent is
necessary until the peoples are silent.
He believed that ‘to live in a country means to submit its sovereignty’. But his social
contract theory leads to disorder legitimacy because the group of people who rule the
state can punish any individual with death penalty.

 Conclusion

Every philosophers gave their views on government legitimacy by observing the

circumstances and issues of their own times. Hobbes believed that there must be
absolute sovereign power but Locke was favor for it but with the consent of public will.
But Rousseau gave the concept of popular sovereignty. Because he believed that it
would create general and unbiased laws according o the common interests.
Question 2: Critically evaluate the theory of ‘rise and fall of nations’ as discussed
by Ibn-e-Khaldun. Is this theory relevant to the modern day nation building?

 Introduction

Ibn-e-Khaldun was one of the renowned Muslim philosophers of the early Islamic 14 th
century. He was an Arab scholar who had contributed much of his golden work on
Islam, social sciences, history and economics. He is also described as the father of
modern disciplines of economy, historiography and demography. His famous well-
known works is ‘The Muqaddimah’ – an introduction to universal history of civilizations
which were studied to analyze the growth and decline of the Ottoman Empire.

 Rise and fall theory of nations as described by Ibn-e-Khaldun

The cyclic or rise and fall theory of Ibn-e-Khaldun is explained with the understanding
of ‘Asabiyyah’. Asabiyyah is the basic force of history, responsible for the rise and fall of
kingdoms and dynasties and explains the reasons why civilizations eventually collapsed.
Human history is very circular and the rise and fall of nations and dynasties was marked
by what he called ‘Asabiyyah circle’. Asabiyyah circle is a series of events which explains
the rise and decline of any nation.

The Asabbiyah derived from radicals. It means solidarity and social cohesion.
According to Ibn-e-Khaldun, Asabiyyah is the force which pushed individuals towards
one another and creates a sense of unity amongst them. This force of unity results in
the creation of states.

He believed that individuals start living together because of Asabiyyah, common

interests attract them towards one another and they start living together as a group.
Without force of solidarity tribes, clans and states will become weak and dominated
by other external force.
 Nomads are the good example of solidarity. They travel together, live together and
face external enemies together.

Ibn-e-Khaldun believed that Asabiyyah plays an important role in the strong and firm
formation of any nation or state. The role of Asabiyyah is like strength in any human
body. He explained that every state has 120 year of age which consist of three sub-ages
of 40 years.

At first age, the government runs a country effectively in order to develop the social
structure of state which may benefit the state and its peoples. This development is
only done by the presence of Asabiyyah which are at its peak at the first age.

At second age, the social structure of state has fully developed which does not require
any efforts. The system goes at the same pace. But the Asabiyyah starts getting lost
because the peoples of the start to become relax and increase conformity due to the
developed social structure. They starts to rely on state’s resources and do not work for
its enhancement.

At third age, the state starts to crumb because the peoples have lost Asabiyyah. They
have become corrupt, leisured, not hard working due to self-comfort and by
depending on country’s resources. It is the law of nature when one nation lost the
passion of Asabiyyah, other one overthrows them. The end of third age is dependent
on the comfort and relaxation of second age of nation. Through this Ibn-e-Khaldun
explained the 120 years of any state.

 5 stages of rise or fall of any state as described by Ibn-e-Khaldun

Ibn-e-khaldun explained 5 stages which become the cause of rise and fall of any state
or nation which is following as,

One stage
In this stage, the ruler is very enthusiastic and hard worker with a full support of its
peoples. The government win victories at every place due to intensity of passion. The
firmness of this stage starts to influence on other nations. He takes every step for the
development of its people.
 Second stage
At second stage, the ruler is independent and does not allow any evil to enter in the
state. He works hard with sincerity and makes laws and new policies for the betterment
of state and its peoples.

Third stage
At third stage, the ruler makes every effort to remain in power. He takes every step to
secure his position and earning respect in the eyes of the peoples whether the policy
damages the country’s prestige.

Fourth stage
At fourth stage, the ruler makes busy his life in self-comforts. He never cares for the
consolidation of the state. His attentions remain towards for their self-pleasure.

Fifth stage
It is the period of downfall. The ruler has become so inefficient that he lost control on
the different departments and also on the earning of state. It results in the nepotism,
corruption and collapse of administrative system. Peoples start to suffer. The end of
state happens mainly by the foreign invaders or by the revolution of its people in the
state.

 Ibn-e-khaldun theory and its relevance to present day and nation building

The rise and fall theory of Ibn-e-khaldun has a great importance in today’s
contemporary life. It explains the factors which are very necessary for the
development or fall of any state. As Ibn-e-Khuldon said that there are 5 stages which
play an important role in the nation’s rise and fall.

In today’s life, his theory of rise and fall is being used by explaining the downfall of
any state. The Ibn-e-khuldon described that if the ruler makes good policies and works
sincerely, the state may rise and starting increasing its wealth production and
resources. This development in resources leads the state in achieving its full potential
at worldwide. If the ruler makes good governance and maintains law and order in the
society, then the state prospers.

Pakistan is one of the greatest examples of the rise and fall theory of Ibn-e-Khuldon.
The theory explains those factors which may leads any nation to its downfall.
Pakistan is at the 4th stage of Ibn-e-khaldun’s rise and fall theory. At its inception, its
leadership was loyal. Quaid e azam gave his blood for the consolidation of Pakistan
but he could work much due to his death. After him, liaquat ali khan and other leaders
worked sincerely in making better policies, managing human resources and signing
agreements for the strengthening the country. But at 4th stage, the state of Pakistan
started to toss because of corruption, nepotism, bad governance, injustice, lack of rule
of law and incompetent administrative system due to insufficient and comfort
leadership.

The theory clearly tells that the ruler never be incompetent one. He must hard work
and never get satisfied with the temporary pleasures and comforts during governing
the state. He must have a strong hold on administration and keep checking the
policies and workers of the state’s officials and departments in order to have stability
in the state.
According to Ibn-e-Khaldon, the ruler must generate a sense of patriotism among its
people to defeat external threats. He also stated that if the ruler is honest and
believes to work sincerely with full swing. There is no force or stage which may fall the
state.
Ibn-e-khaldun explained the important principles to follow which may lead any state
towards its rise which are following as,
1. A state must establish the private property rights
2. There must be rule of law and reliable judicial system
3. There must have security of trade
4. There must have low taxation and good surplus policies
5. There must not have involvement of government in trade in order to sustain
and develop the economy

If these principles are to be followed by any state, then the first stage of Ibn-e-
khaldun theory may takes any state to achieve its full potential.

In the today’s world, it is necessary for us to follow the principles of rise of nations
depicted by Ibn-e-khaldun in order to rise as a powerful and developed state. If it is
not acted as described by Ibn-e-khaldun, then it may become the causes of the
downfall of the state.
Question 3: Karl Marx considers class struggle as the basis of all Social Conflict
he says that ‘The history of all previous societies has been the history of class
struggle’. Critically evaluate this theory with reference to present day and the
future development.

 Introduction

Karl Marx was a German philosopher, economist and social theorist. He is famous for
his theories about capitalism and communism. Its main theories are about societies,
politics and economics which are mainly known as ‘Marxism’. His theories express that
human societies develop through class conflict. He is well-known around the world for
his remarkable work which is Communist Manifesto and Das capital.

 Karl Marx theory of Class conflict

A group of people who share the similar relation with the force of production is
known as ‘Class’. Karl Marx gave the theory of class struggle to explain the dialectical
process of conflict and social change.
It is the analytical tool to explain the conflict between two classes and social change
from different stages.

Primitive communism ---- feudalism---- capitalistic society ---- communism

Karl Marx based his social conflict theory that the entire modern society has divided into two
classes of people. The one who has equipments of production and the other ones who does not
have the equipments of production which are following as,
 The bourgeoisie
The proletariat

The bourgeoisie are the owners of the means of production: factories, industries, businesses
and equipments to produce wealth. The Proletariat is the workers. According to Karl Marx, the
power class exploits workers in the capitalistic society. The owners pay enough to afford food
and to live a place. The bourgeoisie class has control on all means of production.

Karl Marx believed that it is the political tension and economic antagonism that exists in society
to social-economic competition among the classes or between rich or poor. That the rich
become richer and the poor would remain poorer in this social class conflict. Ultimately there
will be conflict between each other. The member of the proletariat would remain powerless
unless they found some means of distributing power equally.

According to him, a capitalist does not pay to the laborer class according to his labor. The
value of a thing is fixed according to the labor done on the preparation or production of a
thing but a laborer is not paid profit according to his labor but all that profit goes to the
capitalist. Because of these thoughts he presented his class struggle theory.

The Karl Marx gave the solution in the form of establishment of ‘Communism’. He believed
that it was the only economic system where the means of system production would be taken
from individuals of capitalistic class and would control by the state. The state would
distribute the means of production between these two social classes equally to end this social
class exploitation.

 Theory of Social class conflict with reference to present day and future
prospective developments

It was rightly said by Karl Marx that ‘the history of all previous societies has been the
history of class struggle’. The conflict between two classes has been since the societal
emergence. Till today, it has been existed with its full pace. There are two classes which
is dividing the rich and poor peoples in the society. One is bourgeoisie and other is
proletariat.

In the present day, it still has a conflict between these two classes. Rich wants to
become rich as they think to have the ownership of factories, industries and means of
productions. And the poor remain poorer. But the world has changed so much than it
was in the Karl Marx age. There are no issues exist as it used to exist in the Karl Marx’s
time. It is right that rich want to become rich by having all production means and exploit
the other proletariat class which is the worker class. But there were no fundamental
rights to the peoples. Peoples used to exploit by the powerful elites of the society.
There were no laws and no domain was illustrated by the rulers.

But now the world has changed. There was no concept of private ownership and free
property rights. Property right was limited to the bourgeoisie class. The modern world
has given protection to the labor class. Laws and policies of their protection have been
made by the state. Democratic form of government has secured the fundamental
rights of the people. Worker gets the only wage for which he works. There was no
concept of democracy exist. Every theory is devised when the circumstances of the
society is not overcome by the existing norms and principles. The Karl Marx demanded
to establish Communism in order to protect proletariat class. But the modern world
rejected this idea as it was the requirement of his time. People aren’t oppressed as it
used to suppress in the capitalistic society of Karl Marx. There are certain issues which
all exist but these are being overcome by the democratic society as it is the granter of
the protection of human rights and freedom.

 The Proletariat class is now being protected by the government. Because

democratic system has given the full protection of human rights and
private ownership liberty to everyone.
 Every industry or factories where the workers work. There labor rights
are protected. No one can work out of his time. If someone wants to
work overtime, then its wages are determined by the working hours.
 Governmental industries have now responsible to take up the
responsibility of one worker’s one child. Expenses are given to workers
for educating their children in schools or universities.
 The today’s government has announced allowances for its working class
for their welfare which are being given to them in the governmental
industries or factories etc.
 The today’s government has introduced a special budget for the working
class in the constitution of every country.
 The today’s government now gives the job seeker allowances to the
unemployed peoples in order to save them from being hungry.
 The today’s government has taken up the responsibility of the working
class. They have been given free medical treatments.
  Health cards have introduced to protect their families for better health
facilities by the government.
 The today’s government gives small loans to its working class in order to
bring stability in their domestic issues.

Communism is not possible in the present world. There cannot be an equally

distribution of means of production and resources among the working class and non-
working class. In the Karl Marx’s age, proletariat class was oppressed brutally because
there was no strong government and state’s law existence in order to protect the
working class. The concept of democracy was not even introduced. Every system is
established with the need of time. We cannot establish authoritative rule by having
impressed by their absolute sovereignty. Then there will be oppression of human
fundamental rights.

But there are some major issues which need to be addressed for the betterment of
working class by the state in future which are following as,
 The government should make certain laws for the protection of working class
in the private ownership industries.
 The workers of private ownership industries or factories must be given a
retirement pension. There must be an establishment of welfare allowances as
it is given in the governmental industries for the protection of working class.
 There must be laws to protect the worker if someone is suspended from the
private job without any reasons.
 Educational allowances must be given to its workers of private companies.

These are the issues which still exist but these are present in low numbers.
Everyone is protected by the court of law if he may be harmed by others.

 Conclusion
Karl Marx class struggle theory of two classes in which he explained how one class
oppressed the other poor class is the struggle of all oppressed class of all ages. It has
been the issues of all society. But the modern world has changed so much and has made
certain policies in executing this class struggle issue. At last, the Karl Marx theory of
class struggle is very highly significant one and it has played its important role in every
societies of its age.