LEARNING UNIT 5: GEOLOGICAL HAZARDS AND

PROBLEM SOILS

Table of Contents Page no.

1 Introduction and General Overview ................................................................................... 1
2 Purpose and Expected Outcome of the Learning Unit ....................................................... 2
3 Definitions and Abbreviations ............................................................................................ 2
4 Readily Available Sources and Student Guidance .............................................................. 2
5 Geological Hazards.............................................................................................................. 3
5.1 Susceptibility, Hazard and Risk Maps .......................................................................... 4
5.2 Geological Hazards ‐ Natural ....................................................................................... 9
5.2.1 Earthquakes (Seismicity) ...................................................................................... 9
5.2.2 Volcanic Activity ................................................................................................. 14
5.2.3 Landslides and Slope Movements ..................................................................... 14
5.2.4 River Action and Flooding .................................................................................. 19
5.2.5 Shoreline Processes ........................................................................................... 20
5.2.6 Wind Action ....................................................................................................... 22
5.2.7 Glacial ................................................................................................................. 24
5.2.8 Ground Collapse and Subsidence ...................................................................... 24
5.2.9 Tsunami .............................................................................................................. 25
5.2.10 Geochemical, Derelict and Contaminated Land ................................................ 26
5.3 Prevention and Mitigation of Geological Hazards .................................................... 26
6 Problem Soils .................................................................................................................... 26
6.1 Collapsible Soils ......................................................................................................... 26
6.2 Swelling and Shrinking Clays ..................................................................................... 27
6.3 Soft Clays (Compressible Soils).................................................................................. 29
6.4 Sensitive Clays ........................................................................................................... 29
 6.5 Dispersive and Erodible Soils .................................................................................... 30
6.6 Saline and Aggressive Soils ........................................................................................ 31
6.7 Dolomites .................................................................................................................. 31
6.8 Soils Prone to Liquefaction........................................................................................ 32
7 Self‐Assessment Activities ................................................................................................ 32
8 Further Reading ................................................................................................................ 32
9 Informative Website Links ................................................................................................ 32
10 References ........................................................................................................................ 33
List of Tables Page no.
Table 1: Ground Types (SANS1060‐4, 2017, p. 12) ............................................................................... 11

List of Figures Page no.

Figure 1: Outline of the Module (Focus on Learning Unit 5) .................................................................. 1
Figure 2: Seismic Hazard Zones obtained from Seismic Hazard Map (SANS1060‐4, 2017) .................... 5
Figure 3: Construction of Risk Map – Map 1 of 3 – Flood Hazard Consideration (ESA, 2020)................ 6
Figure 4: Construction of Risk Map – Map 2 of 3 – Land‐Use Consideration (ESA, 2020) ...................... 6
Figure 5: Construction of Risk Map – Map 1 of 3 – Flood Risk Map (ESA, 2020) .................................... 7
Figure 6: Methodology for Preparing Susceptibility, Hazard and Risk Maps (de Vallejo & Ferrer, 2011,
p. 641) ..................................................................................................................................................... 8
Figure 7: Example of Inventory and Susceptibility Maps for Slope Movements (de Vallejo & Ferrer,
2011, p. 640) ........................................................................................................................................... 9
Figure 8: Probabilistic Representation of Seismic Hazard in the US. Shaded Areas Give a Probabilistic
Horizontal Acceleration of the Ground that, with a 90 % Probability, is not likely to be exceeded in 50
Years (Algermissen and Perkins, 1976) ................................................................................................. 10
Figure 9: Seismic Hazard Map of South Africa (10 % in 50 years nominal peak ground acceleration,
expressed in earth gravity acceleration (g) (9.81 m/s2) (SANS1060‐4, 2017)....................................... 12
Figure 10: Seismic Hazard Zones of South Africa (SANS1060‐4, 2017)................................................. 13
Figure 11: Slides (Rotational) (de Vallejo & Ferrer, 2011, p. 558) ........................................................ 16
Figure 12: Slides (Translational) (de Vallejo & Ferrer, 2011, p. 558) .................................................... 16
Figure 13: Flows (Soil, Debris and Rock Blocks) (de Vallejo & Ferrer, 2011, p. 558) ............................ 16
Figure 14: Falls and Topples (de Vallejo & Ferrer, 2011, p. 558) .......................................................... 17
Figure 15: Avalanches (de Vallejo & Ferrer, 2011, p. 558) ................................................................... 17
Figure 16: Lateral Spread (de Vallejo & Ferrer, 2011, p. 558) .............................................................. 17
1 Introduction and General Overview
This is Learning Unit five of 11 units in this module (see Figure 1). The module consists of ten
structured learning units and one unit that will be one (or more) geological engineering
project(s). The focus of this learning unit is on “Geological Hazards and Problem Soils” for
the prospective engineer.

Basic Geology
(Learning Unit 1)
Basic Fundamentals
Geological
and Introduction to
Engineering Projects
Structural Geology
(Learning Unit 11)
(Learning Unit 2)

Geological Factors
Discontinuities and
Affecting Construction
“Properties of Rock”
Projects
(Learning Unit 3)
(Learning Unit 10)

Civil
Engineering
Design
Slopes Construction Geomorphology
(Learning Unit 9) (Learning Unit 4)

Geological
Engineering Hazards and
Geophysics
Problem Soils
(Learning Unit 8)
(Learning Unit 5)

Soil and Rock

Geotechnical Site
Parameters for
Investigations
Design Input
(Learning Unit 7)
(Learning Unit 6)

Figure 1: Outline of the Module (Focus on Learning Unit 5)

A geological hazard is an agent or source of a geological nature that can cause harm such
as damage to property, structures or even loss of life. Problem soils are, in simple terms, any
soils that require special consideration, mitigation and/or design precautionary measures in
order to prevent unacceptable damage to the environment, property or structures. These soils
give rise to many geotechnical difficulties such as differential movement, excessive erosion,
slope instability, etc.
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By combining our knowledge of geology, geomorphology and engineering we can identify,
predict and assess potential geological hazards and problem soils and avoid areas of concern,
or apply the necessary mitigation measures for a specific project.
You were introduced to basic geology, tectonics (structural geology) and geomorphology in
previous units. In this learning unit we will use or apply our knowledge – obtained in the
previous units – to identify hazards and problem soils, with some focus on characterisation
and the mitigation measures that can be applied. This is mainly a self-study unit. The learning
unit will provide the outline, but you need to address the content. You will be guided throughout
the learning unit and sources will be provided, where necessary.

2 Purpose and Expected Outcome of the Learning Unit

The purpose of the learning unit is to introduce you to geological hazards and problem soils,
as well as various readily available sources on each of the topics.
At the end of this learning unit, you should be able to:
Identify potential geological hazards;
Discuss the difference between susceptibility, hazard and risk maps;
Provide typical mitigation measures for different geological hazards;
Identify the typical problem soils that can be expected in different environments;
Discuss engineering problems (effects) associated with the various types of problem
soil.

3 Definitions and Abbreviations

Definitions are covered in the sections of interest. Please familiarise yourself with all definitions
that are relevant to the subjects of this learning unit.
Where there is uncertainty, refer to the original source, article or publication, or conduct an
online search on the definition or concept.

4 Readily Available Sources and Student Guidance

Geological hazards and problem soils are covered in various published textbooks.
You may obtain and refer to any textbooks that cover the specific subjects, if additional
knowledge on each subject is required. For the purposes of this learning unit, you will be
directed to various readily available sources. Make an effort to obtain the sources listed and
referred to under each topic. All questions or potential projects will be based on information
contained in the sources provided.
The sources include:
 Online YouTube lectures by Professor David Rogers.
 Online YouTube lectures by Professor Roy Debasis.
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  Online YouTube lectures by Doctor Kevin Franke.
 Selected published articles.
 Reports and documents on specific subjects, obtainable from various South African
authorities, including:
a. CSIR – Council for Scientific and Industrial Research
b. CGS – Council for Geoscience
c. DWA – Department of Water Affairs
d. SANRAL – South African National Roads Agency (South African Pavement
Engineering Manual 2014 – SAPEM).
The main purpose of the self-study methodology of this learning unit is to introduce you to
some research institutions and sources that may be invaluable when pursuing a career in
engineering. Feel free to visit each of the websites of the authorities and familiarise yourself
with the valuable documents, maps, publications and reports that can be obtained. Each of
the articles and reports referred to in this learning unit, contains references that may be of
great value to expand your knowledge on specific topics.
We recommend that you obtain the online lectures, articles and reports listed under each topic
– the links are provided. If you experience difficulty in obtaining the relevant sources, make
contact with your study leader. Read through the expected outcomes and/or questions listed
under each section before reading or viewing the reference documents/videos. Make sure that
you can answer all the questions.

5 Geological Hazards
A hazard is an agent which has the potential to cause harm to a vulnerable target. It is the
source of potential harm. The terms “hazard” and “risk” are often used interchangeably.
However, in terms of risk assessment, they are two very distinct concepts.
A hazard is any agent that can cause harm or damage to humans, property or the environment.
Risk is defined as the probability that exposure to a hazard will have a negative consequence,
or, more simply, a hazard poses no risk if there is no exposure to that particular hazard.
Earthquakes and landslides are rapid-onset hazards, and so give rise to sudden impacts.
Hazards such as soil erosion and subsidence due to the abstraction of groundwater may take
place gradually over an appreciable period of time.
Identifying potential geological hazards is an important aspect of planning any proposed
development. Selective natural and human-induced geological hazards are discussed in the
sections which follow.
For the purposes of this learning unit, geological hazards include:
 Earthquakes (seismicity);
 Volcanic activity (volcanism);
 Landslides and slope movements;
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  River action and flooding;
 Marine action;
 Wind action;
 Glacial hazards;
 Ground collapse and subsidence;
 Geochemical hazards; and
 Tsunamis.
It will become clear that geologic hazards are often interconnected. One hazard can trigger or
even cause another. Volcanic activity may (or generally does) trigger seismic events or
vibrations that could, in turn, trigger a landslide (slope instability). The landslide may, in turn,
flow into a river or lake and that can result in abnormal river action and/or devastating flooding.
The landslide may be submarine (below sea surface) and, if significant volume displacement
occurs as a result of such a landslide, the underwater slide may result in a tsunami. A tsunami
may also be the direct cause of fault movement. As such, a holistic approach is necessary
when identifying and evaluating geological hazards. In most cases, it is a matter of using the
knowledge you obtained in previous units on geology, tectonics, geomorphology and physics,
and applying logic.
Geological hazards caused (or accelerated) by humans may include:
 Soil erosion (soil disturbance and a change in the factors that have an impact on
weathering, transportation and deposition);
 Waste disposal (nuclear or landfill sites);
 Subsidence due to mining and/or dewatering activities (creating underground cavities
through mining/excavation and/or exposure of cavities by lowering of water levels);
 Induced seismicity (stress release in rock masses due to mining or water loading, such
as artificial dams that can cause movement).
Human-induced hazards are not covered in this learning unit. The fundamentals of soil erosion
were already covered in a previous unit.
The principles of subsidence due to mining and/or dewatering activities are covered under the
general heading “Ground collapse and subsidence”.

5.1 Susceptibility, Hazard and Risk Maps

Hazard and risk maps are very effective means of presenting information on hazards and risks
in a specific area or region. These maps usually form the basis for planning and implementing
mitigating and design measures for any land-use planning exercise.
Hazard maps highlight areas that are expected to be affected by, or are vulnerable to, a
specific hazard. This may be, for example, a flood hazard map.
Risk maps include socioeconomic considerations, and indicate the consequences of an event
with a likelihood scale.
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A hazard map may, for example, indicate a low, medium or high hazard for flooding or seismic
activity of a specified intensity (see Figure 2). The risk map overlays socioeconomic
considerations such as property type, development densities, likely deaths, direct or indirect
financial costs, and economic disruption due to the hazardous event. The risk will thus vary
within the same hazard category (or indicated zone on the hazard map), depending on the
consequences of the hazard. The risk in hazard Zone II (indicated in Figure 2) will be lower
in areas where low-density development and low-rise structures are present. The risk will be
higher in the same hazard zone (II) where high-density high-rise buildings are present or
planned, which may result in significant loss of life or financial damage when the hazard
occurs. Hazard maps form the basis for assessing risk and appropriate land-use planning.
An example of the construction of a flood risk map is provided in the following figures. Figure
3 presents the flood hazard. Figure 4 presents the land use (types of infrastructure). Figure
5 presents the risk map, considering the hazard and property type. Study the figures and take
note of low- and high-risk areas in the same high flood hazard zone. Refer to the land-use
map (Figure 4) and ensure that you can explain these phenomena.

Figure 2: Seismic Hazard Zones obtained from Seismic Hazard Map (SANS10160‐4, 2017)

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Figure 3: Construction of Risk Map – Map 1 of 3 – Flood Hazard Consideration (ESA, 2020)

Figure 4: Construction of Risk Map – Map 2 of 3 – Land‐Use Consideration (ESA, 2020)

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Figure 5: Construction of Risk Map – Map 1 of 3 – Flood Risk Map (ESA, 2020)

The general methodology for preparing risk maps is as follows (de Vallejo & Ferrer, 2011, pp.
640-641):
1. Estimate the hazard of the geological process under consideration, for a selected
intensity or magnitude and a given time period (or return period). This is the hazard
map.
2. Identify and evaluate the social, structural and economic elements (and environmental
and cultural elements, if appropriate) which may be affected.
3. Evaluate the social, structural and economic vulnerability (and environmental and
cultural vulnerability, if appropriate) of the elements exposed.
4. Estimate the risk from the hazard, and the vulnerability and cost or value of the
elements, sets of elements or zones under consideration. This is the risk map.
Note: It is often difficult or impossible to predict the frequencies or given times of a specific
occurrence for most geological hazards (flooding may be an exception, provided there is
sufficient record). For this reason, hazards are often simply expressed qualitatively (low,
medium or high hazard) by referring to only the spatial localisation of the processes.
Geological hazard and risk maps are, in the strict sense, generally only susceptibility maps
(de Vallejo & Ferrer, 2011).
The general methodology or required input for preparing inventory, susceptibility, hazard and
risk maps, is presented in Figure 6. Examples of inventory and susceptibility maps are
presented in Figure 7.

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Figure 6: Methodology for Preparing Susceptibility, Hazard and Risk Maps (de Vallejo &
Ferrer, 2011, p. 641)

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Figure 7: Example of Inventory and Susceptibility Maps for Slope Movements (de Vallejo &
Ferrer, 2011, p. 640)

It is important to have a basic understanding of the differences between inventory,

susceptibility, hazard and risk maps.

5.2 Geological Hazards – Natural

5.2.1 Earthquakes (Seismicity)
Earthquakes are primarily associated with plate margins that move with respect to one
another. Differential displacements give rise to elastic strain that eventually exceeds the
strength of the rocks, resulting in movement. The strained rocks rebound along the fault under
the elastic stress until the strain is partly or wholly dissipated. Initial movements may occur
over small areas of the fault plane. These initial events can be followed by a sudden, significant
event that usually occurs over larger areas of the fault plane.

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Hazards due to seismicity include:
1. The possibility of a structure being severed (relative displacement) by fault
displacement (not very likely);
2. Damage due to shaking (the much more likely event).
Earthquakes may trigger other hazards such as landslides, floods, subsidence, liquefaction,
tsunamis and even secondary earthquakes.
The ground motion is affected by the physical properties of the soils, rocks and geological
structure through which the shockwaves travel, and by groundwater.
Maximum acceleration within an earthquake source area may exceed 2 g for competent
bedrock (where g is the gravitational acceleration of ~9.8 m/s^2). Normally consolidated clays
with low plasticity are incapable of transmitting accelerations greater than 0.10–0.15 g to the
ground surface. Clays with a high plasticity allow accelerations of 0.25–0.35 g to pass through
to the ground surface. Saturated sandy clays and medium-dense sands may transmit 0.50–
0.60 g. Clean gravel and dry dense sand may transmit >0.6 g.

Figure 8: Probabilistic Representation of Seismic Hazard in the US. Shaded Areas Give a
Probabilistic Horizontal Acceleration of the Ground that, with a 90% Probability, is not
likely to be exceeded in 50 Years (Algermissen & Perkins, 1976)

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In South Africa, the South African National Standard SANS1010-4:2012 outlines the structural
design and actions for buildings and industrial structures. The seismic hazard map of South
Africa is depicted in Figure 9. This map shows the peak ground acceleration with a probability
exceeding 10% in 50 years, and includes both natural and mining-induced seismicity.
Two zones are presented in Figure 10. These zones are:
 Zone I: Natural seismic activity; and
 Zone II: Regions of mining-induced natural seismic activity.
The earthquake motion at a given point on the ground surface is represented by an elastic
ground acceleration response spectrum called the “elastic response spectrum”, which is
affected by ground conditions. Depending on the structure class, certain design precautionary
measures are required to prevent or limit structural damage due to ground motion caused by
seismic activity. The ground type has an impact on the design response spectra, thus
confirmation of the ground type is critical. The four major ground types are (SANS10160-4,
2017):
1. Ground type 1: Rock or other rock-like geological formations, including at most 5 m
of weaker material at the surface;
2. Ground type 2: Deposits of very dense sand, gravel or very stiff clay, at least several
tens of metres in thickness, characterised by a gradual increase in mechanical
properties with depth;
3. Ground type 3: Deep deposits of dense or medium-dense sand, gravel or stiff clay
with thickness from several tens of metres to many hundreds of metres; and
4. Ground type 4: Deposits of loose-to-medium cohesionless soil (with or without soft
cohesive layers), or of predominantly soft-to-firm cohesive soil.

Table 1: Ground Types (SANS10160‐4, 2017, p. 12)

Parameters a
Ground
Description of Stratigraphic Profile vs, 30 NSPT cu
Type
m/s blows/30 cm kPa
Rock or other rock-like geological
1 formation, including at most 5 m of > 800 - -
weaker material at the surface
Deposits of very dense sand, gravel
or very stiff clay, at least several tens
2 of metres in thickness, characterised 360–800 > 50 > 250
by a gradual increase in mechanical
properties, with depth

3 Deep deposits of dense or medium- 180–360 15–50 70–250

dense sand, gravel or stiff clay with

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 thickness from several tens of metres
to many hundreds of metres
Deposits of loose-to-medium
cohesionless soil (with or without soft
4 < 180 < 15 < 70
cohesive layers), or of predominantly
soft-to-firm cohesive soil
avs, 30 is the average value of propagation of S-waves in the upper 30 m of the soil profile
at shear strains of 10-5 or less.
NSPT is the standard penetration test blow-count.
cu is the undrained shear strength of soil, expressed in kilopascals (kPa).

Figure 9: Seismic Hazard Map of South Africa (10% in 50 Years Nominal Peak Ground
Acceleration, Expressed in Earth Gravity Acceleration (g) (9.81 m/s2) (SANS10160‐4, 2017)

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Figure 10: Seismic Hazard Zones of South Africa (SANS10160‐4, 2017)

Seismic hazard maps are available for all regions. The hazard should be identified, avoided if
possible, or mitigated where it cannot be avoided. It is important to note that the ground
conditions have an impact on the response, and it is critical to confirm the ground conditions
to determine the necessary parameters for the structure design. The earthquake motion at a
given point on the surface is represented by an elastic ground acceleration response spectrum
called the “elastic response spectrum”. The horizontal seismic action is described by two
orthogonal components considered to be independent and represented by the same response
spectrum. Different materials have different behavioural characteristics (response spectra)
and the ground type (see Table 1) should be known, in order to design for seismic actions for
structures. In South Africa, designs are guided by SANS1060-4:2017. You will probably go
into design actions for structures in future engineering modules.
Refer to the following sources:
 Online lecture by Professor Debasis Roy on Geological Hazards: Lecture 32
GeoHazards - Earthquake Hazard Assessment. The YouTube link is:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pCvZ7ufB2_I&t=39s
 Online lecture by Professor Debasis Roy on Geological Hazards: Lecture 33
GeoHazards - Seismicity and Volcanism. The YouTube link is:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6oRkGCBYeAw&t=103s
 Council for Geoscience Report No. 2011-0061 on Seismic Hazards in South Africa
(Brandt, 2011): http://www.geoscience.org.za/index.php/2017-05-24-21-07-
23/earthquakes

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From the two video lectures, see that you can answer the following:
Which hazards are associated with earthquakes? List the five indicated in the lecture.
List the procedures for seismic hazard assessment.
Describe the procedure for characterising seismic sources.
List the impacts which earthquakes have on natural deposits and artificial (man-made)
facilities.
List the principal causes of geological hazards.
From the CGS report (Brandt, 2011), see that you can answer the following:
Which model has been accepted for crustal evolution?
What do figures 3 and 4 in the report show? Also indicate the percentage probability
and return period.
Do the figures indicate natural and mining-related seismicity?
List the three areas with the greatest seismic hazard. See that you can identify these
three areas on the seismic intensity map.
What is the reason for the seismic clusters in the Welkom, Klerksdorp, Carletonville,
West Rand, Central Rand, East Rand and Evander gold fields regions?

5.2.2 Volcanic Activity

Refer to the following source:
 Online lectures by Professor Debasis Roy on Geological Hazards: Lecture 33
GeoHazards - Seismicity and Volcanism. The YouTube link is:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6oRkGCBYeAw&t=103s
From the video lecture, see that you can answer the following:
What governs the explosiveness of a volcano?
Which hazards are associated with volcanism? List the six which are indicated in the
lecture.

5.2.3 Landslides and Slope Movements

Geodynamic processes may result in mass movements of different types and sizes that occur
and move at different speeds. Mass movements include slope movement and subsidence.
Slope movement occurs frequently and is a well-known phenomenon. Subsidence is generally
associated with very specific materials under special circumstances, such as sinkhole
formation in geological formations prone to dissolution (karst environments). Subsidence
formation is covered under a separate heading.
Landslides can be defined as the movement of masses of soil, rock or debris which slide,
moving in relation to the substratum on one or more failure surfaces, when the shear strength
within these zones is exceeded (de Vallejo & Ferrer, 2011, p. 557).

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The landslide hazard has to be assessed before landslide risk can be assessed. An early-
stage mapping exercise is generally conducted during project or township planning stages, in
order to compile a hazard map. Such hazard maps can be regional, but local or site-specific
investigations should be conducted. Studies generally consist of a combination of desk
studies, field mapping and monitoring. Desk studies generally include an assessment of
existing information, databases, hazard maps, reports and publications, in combination with
geomorphological mapping from aerial photographs or satellite imagery. Field mapping
generally includes visual surface inspections for indications of movement and
conditions/properties, sub-surface investigation by means of excavation trenches, pits or
boreholes, sampling testing and monitoring of potential movements and pore water pressures
in piezometers.
Effective landslide hazard management may include:
1. Identifying the hazard;
2. Assigning an indication of the possibility or relative risk of occurrence;
3. Avoiding hazardous areas or areas with unacceptable risk;
4. Proper land-use planning in areas with acceptable risk;
5. Applying required development regulations;
6. Monitoring and implementing early warning systems;
7. Establishing evacuation and disaster control measures and protocols.

Standard preventative or corrective work cannot always be applied to different types of slope
movement. It is thus important to identify the type of slope movement that is likely to take place
(Bell, 2007, p. 398). Slope movement is typically classified on the basis of the materials
involved (soil, rock, debris, water), and on their mechanism and type of failure. Other aspects
considered include ground water content, the rate of movement and the dimensions of the
movement (de Vallejo & Ferrer, 2011, p. 557).
There are five main types of slope movement (see Figure 11–Figure 16):
1. Slides (rotational and translational);
2. Flows (mud flow, debris flow, sand flow, debris avalanche-flow, creep or solifluction);
3. Rock falls or toppling;
4. Avalanches; and
5. Lateral spreads.
Debris refers to materials that are loose, unconsolidated and contain a significant portion of
coarse material (Varnes, 1988).

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Figure 11: Slides (Rotational) (de Vallejo & Ferrer, 2011, p. 558)

Figure 12: Slides (Translational) (de Vallejo & Ferrer, 2011, p. 558)

Figure 13: Flows (Soil, Debris and Rock Blocks) (de Vallejo & Ferrer, 2011, p. 558)

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Figure 14: Falls and Topples (de Vallejo & Ferrer, 2011, p. 558)

Figure 15: Avalanches (de Vallejo & Ferrer, 2011, p. 558)

Figure 16: Lateral Spread (de Vallejo & Ferrer, 2011, p. 558)

Landslides involve the movement of masses (soil, rock, debris) which slide in relation to the
substratum.
Slides can be rotational or translational, and the sliding materials generally reach equilibrium
at the toe of a slope.
In special cases, the sliding material may not reach equilibrium at the toe of the slope and the
mass may continue to move for hundreds of metres. This behaviour is generally termed a
flow. Flows are often associated with high moisture/water content at near saturation or at
saturation conditions. Creep can be considered a very slow flow type, or rather the time-
dependent deformational behaviour of soil along a slope.
Rock falls merely consist of rock blocks or fragments that are dislodged and fall down the
slope face. The fallen rock is generally relatively small in terms of the overall volume of the
slope. Toppling is a term used when naturally inclined blocks are free to rotate and fall down
the slope face. It generally occurs where the bedding of a rock formation dips into a slope at
a steep angle.
Avalanches are rapidly falling masses of rock and debris that detach themselves from steep
slopes, sometimes associated with ice or snow (de Vallejo & Ferrer, 2011). These are
generally considered to be large-scale landslides or rock falls moving down steep slopes at
great speed.
Lateral spreads (or lateral displacements) refer to the movement of rock or soil blocks
overlying soft, low-strength material. A loss of strength in the underlying material can result in
lateral movement under self-weight or sliding of upper rock or soil on the soft material along a
gentle slope.
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Areas that have a high risk of landslides can either be avoided, or if the landslide can be
properly identified with regard to the type and possible amount and volume of movement,
preventative treatment may be considered.
The factors controlling the stability of a slope can either 1) contribute to reducing the shear
strength of the material or 2) increase the shear stress. These factors can either be passive
or active (the latter are generally considered the triggers for instability).
Passive factors include:
 Relief (geometry of the slope impact on the distribution of the weight);
 Lithology (composition and texture impact on unit weight, strength and hydrogeological
behaviour);
 Geological structure and in-situ stress-state (impact on the strength, deformability and
type of behaviour);
 Weathering (results in physical and chemical changes within the slope or along specific
planes in a slope); and
 Deforestation (passive or active, depending on the rate of occurrence; it has an impact
on erosion (loss of support), moisture content and water levels).

Active factors include:

 Rainfall and water infiltration (impact on weight of the material, pore water pressure,
shear strength and erosion);
 Changes in hydrogeological conditions (impact on weathering, weight of the material,
pore water pressure, shear strength and erosion);
 Application of external or internal static or dynamic loads (impact on pore water
pressures, weight distribution and state of stress);
 Erosion or undermining of toe (changes slope geometry, impact on pore water
pressures, weight distribution and state of stress);
 Climatic actions (i.e., any changes in the climate, which may be periodic and are often
intense). This includes seasonal temperature or precipitation variations, day–night
temperature variations, variations in wind speeds/actions, etc. Climatic factors such as
precipitation (or lack thereof) and temperature fluctuations (thawing and freezing) can
change the moisture content of the ground, potentially generate tension cracks and
ultimately alter material strength.
Preventative treatment involves reducing activating forces and increasing the forces resisting
movement.
The reduction of activating forces can be accomplished by doing the following:
1. Preventing seepage water flow into the unstable material or potential tension cracks
by means of proper up-slope and surface drainage measures or cut-off channels;
2. Draining the material to decrease the self-weight;
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 3. Removing material from that part of the slide that provides the force that will give rise
to movement;
4. Completely excavating potentially unstable material from a slope; and
5. Flattening the slope.
The identification, investigation, analysis and monitoring of slopes are covered in a separate
learning unit. Measures to increase the forces resisting movement are covered in the learning
unit on slope stability.
Refer to the following sources:
 Online lecture by Professor Debasis Roy on Geological Hazards: Lecture 35
GeoHazards - Landslide Hazards - Zoning. The YouTube link is:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pFLn7-RPP90&t=8s (Watch from 00:14:48 to
end).
 Online lecture by Professor Debasis Roy on Geological Hazards: Lecture 36
GeoHazards - Landslide Hazards - Zoning. The YouTube link is:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AO0Lw4QaCDw&t=12s
 Council for Geoscience Report No. 2011-0016 on Landslide Geohazards in South
Africa: Landslide Susceptibility Mapping, Socio-Economic Impacts, Mitigation and
Remediation Measures (Singh, Forbes, Chiliza, Musekiwa, & Claassen, 2011):
http://www.geoscience.org.za/index.php/2017-05-24-21-07-23/landslides
From the video lectures, make sure that you can answer the following:
Differentiate between active, dormant and inactive landslides.
Define the term “scarp” by means of a simple sketch.
How can you identify an active landslide, a dormant landslide and an inactive
landslide?
What are the key factors which have an impact on a landslide hazard? (List five.)
What main inputs should be considered for landslide hazard assessment? (List seven.)
From the CGS report (Singh, Forbes, Chiliza, Musekiwa, & Claassen, 2011), ensure that you
can answer the following:
What is the definition of a landslide?
Which factors influence slope stability? (List eight, refer to the section on landslide
mechanisms.)
Which of the factors have the highest assigned weighting when evaluating a landslide
hazard? (Refer to Table 3 in the report.)
What basic mitigation measures can be considered? (Refer to section 7.3 in the report,
and list five.)

5.2.4 River Action and Flooding

19
Heavy rain can cause devastating floods, destroying infrastructure and/or resulting in loss of
life. Floods represent one of the most common types of geological hazards. River action can
result in excessive erosion that can, in turn, cause the undercutting of structures and slope
instability.
Examining the geological record of past floods can assist in calculating the extent of potential
floods.
Hydrogeological studies generally investigate the climate in relation to the river catchment
area, as well as the geohydrological characteristics of the river system, in order to understand
and predict flood patterns and flood levels.
Earthquakes and undersea landslides can result in powerful ocean surges caused by the
displacement of a large water volume. These surges are referred to as a tsunami, and the
consequences can be devastating. Tsunamis are covered under a separate heading.
Understanding and predicting possible flood levels are critical in the planning and design
phases of any project, in order to reduce the associated risks that flooding and river action
may cause.
A potential development area is generally divided into a series of flood hazard zones based
on the flood stages and risks involved.

Factors which are often considered in flood hazard evaluations, are:

 Loss of life and property,
 Erosion and structural damage;
 Disruption of socioeconomic activity (including transport and communications);
 Contamination of water;
 Impact on food sources and critical materials in a specific region;
 Damage to agricultural land and the loss of livestock.
Land-use regulations are implemented for the hazard zones, to limit risk and minimise the
impact of flood damage.

5.2.5 Shoreline Processes

Waves acting on beach material are a varying force; the variability of the wave action itself
and the tidal range means that the beach is rarely in equilibrium. Conditions can either favour
erosion where the wave action attacks the sediments and those are actively eroded, or they
can favour a depositional environment, where the wave action can result in extensive, wide
beaches.
Before any project or beach planning and management scheme can be started, a complete
study must be made of the coastal area.
A preliminary investigation of a coastal area should at least consider:
 Landforms along the beach and adjacent rivers;

20
  Rock and soil formations along the beach and adjacent rivers;
 Durability and stability of formations along the beach and rivers;
 Width, slope, composition and state of accretion or erosion of the beach;
 Presence of bluffs, dunes, marshy areas or vegetation in the backshore area;
 Presence of beach structures such as groynes.
 Provisions of estimates on the rate of erosion and the proportion and size of eroded
material which has contributed to the beach;
 Influence of seasonal effects;
 Potential for flooding and slope instability.
Erosion and flood hazards can be avoided or appropriate land-use planning and mitigation
measures can be implemented. Mitigation measures for coastal defences include, but are not
limited to:
1. Construction of groyne structures;
2. Artificial replenishment of the shore by building beach fills;
3. Placement of rip-rap deposits to protect the shore from wave action;
4. Construction of retaining walls;
5. Offshore breakwaters and jetties to protect harbour inlets;
6. Storm-tide warning systems.
Marine action is a specialised field of study. Erosion, flooding and landslide hazards should
be identified and incorporated in land-use planning.
Refer to the following sources:
 Online lecture by Professor Debasis Roy on Geological Hazards: Lecture 34
GeoHazards - Shoreline Processes. The YouTube link is:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y1SFoKpfLJc&t=4s (Watch from 00:11:40 to end).
 Online lecture by Professor Debasis Roy on Geological Hazards: Lecture 35
GeoHazards - Shoreline Processes. The YouTube link is:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pFLn7-RPP90&t=2s (Watch from beginning to
00:14:48).
 Council for Geoscience Report No. 2011-0066 on Geohazards in Coastal Areas
(Wigley, 2011): http://www.geoscience.org.za/index.php/2017-05-24-21-07-
23/coastal-and-beach-erosion.
From the video lectures, ensure that you can answer the following:
What are the causes of shoreline hazards? (List four.)
What are the consequences of shoreline hazards? (List 2.)
Briefly explain the term “storm surge”.

21
 Differentiate between “long shore” and “on- or offshore” erosion and deposition.
What measures can be considered in shore protection against long-shore erosion and
deposition?
What measures can be considered against on- and offshore erosion and deposition?
From the CGS report (Wigley, 2011), ensure that you can answer the following:
What are considered to be the most common geohazards in coastal areas? (List five.)
What are the probable impacts of sea-level rise on coastal areas? (List five.)
Which six physical variables are considered essential inputs for ranking the physical
vulnerability of the coastal environment?
Smith et. al. (2007) note that the severity of coastal erosion and consequent damage
along the KwaZulu-Natal coast during the March 2007 storm was dependent on five
main factors. List the five factors.

5.2.6 Wind Action

Wind action may result in blasting, erosion, dune migration, excessive deposition, dust and
sand storms. These hazards are often overlooked.
In arid areas with scarce vegetation, wind action can be significant and sediment yield may be
high. Wind can be highly erosive in these areas, and once armed with sand particles, it can
be very abrasive. This phenomenon is referred to as blasting.
The most serious problem attributable to wind action is soil erosion. This makes the greatest
impact in relation to agriculture. Migrating sand dunes gives rise to problems. Hazards such
as migrating dunes are frequently made more acute because of the intervention of man.
Commonly, the problems are most severe on desert margins where rainfall is uncertain, and
there may be significant human pressure on land (Bell, 2007).
The movement of sand can bury infrastructure (e.g., roads and railways) and agricultural land,
or sand can accumulate against large structures. Moving sand necessitates continuous and
often costly maintenance activities.
Aerial photographs and remote sensing imagery mapping can identify and provide valuable
information on these hazards. Field mapping can be conducted to confirm and identify
erosional and depositional evidence of sediment movement, which can provide useful
information on the direction of sand movement. The hazard should be identified, so that it can
be avoided or mitigated.
Moving sand can be treated or stabilised using a number of methods:
1. Removal of the moving sand, if quantities are small;
2. Chemically stabilising loose sand surfaces (cement, asphalt emulsion, polymers etc.);
3. Using biochemical stabilisation techniques (e.g., Microbially Induced Calcite
Precipitation (MICP) where bacteria are introduced and calcite is ultimately
precipitated to act as a bond to stabilise loose soil particles);
22
 4. Placement of gravel or coarse aggregate over sand surface (also referred to as a stone
mattress) to prevent deflation;
5. Surface laying of straw/wood/chippings (checkerboard and bales);
6. Placement of surface netting/geotextiles;
7. Using wind breaks to control wind erosion (best developed where groundwater is close
enough to the surface for trees and shrubs to survive);
8. Constructing fences to impound or divert moving sand;
9. Establishing vegetation cover to stabilise sand (still the preferred method worldwide, if
climatic conditions allow for this).
Kerr and Nigra (1952) present a review of the objectives and methods to control wind-blown
sand. The objectives and surface modification methods to achieve the objectives are listed
below.

Objectives
1. The destruction or stabilisation of sand accumulations, to prevent their further
migration and encroachment.
2. The diversion of wind-blown sand around features requiring protection.
3. The direct and permanent stoppage or impounding of sand before the location or object
to be protected.
4. The rendering of deliberate aid to sand movement, to avoid deposition over a specific
location, especially by augmenting the saltation coefficient through surface smoothing
and obstacle removal.
Methods
The above objectives are achieved by using one or more types of surface modification:
1. Transposing: Removal of material (using anything from shovels to bucket cranes).
Rarely economical or successful, and does not normally feature in long-term plans.
2. Trenching: Cutting of transverse or longitudinal trenches across dunes destroys their
symmetry and may lead to dune destruction. Excavation of pits in the lee of sand
mounds or on the windward side of features to be protected, will provide temporary
loci (locations/positions) for accumulation.
3. Planting of appropriate vegetation is designed to stop or reduce sand movement, bind
surface sand, and provide surface protection. Early stages of control may require
planting of sand-stilling plants (e.g. Ammophila arenaria, beach grass), the protection
of surface (e.g. mulching), seeding and systematic creation of surface organic matter.
Planting is permanent and attractive, but expensive to install and maintain.
4. Paving is designed to increase the saltation coefficient of wind-transported material by
smoothing or hard-surfacing a relatively level area, thus promoting sand migration and
preventing its accumulation at undesirable sites. Often used to leeward of fencing,

23
 where wind is unladen of sediment and paving prevents its recharge. Paving may be
with concrete, asphalt or wind-stable aggregates (e.g., crushed rock).
5. Panelling, in which solid barriers are erected to the windward side of areas to be
protected, is designed either to stop or deflect sand movement (depending largely on
the angle of the barrier to wind direction). In general, this method is inadequate,
unsatisfactory and expensive, although it may be suitable for short-term emergency
action.
6. Fencing. The use of relatively porous barriers to stop or divert sand movement, or
destroy or stabilise dunes. Cheap, portable and expendable structures are desirable
(using, e.g., palm fronds or chicken wire).
7. Oiling involves the covering of aeolian material with a suitable oil product (e.g., high-
gravity oil) that stabilises the treated surface and may destroy dune forms. It is, in many
deserts, a quick, cheap and effective method. Depending on the country/state and the
environmental sensitivity of the specific area, this stabilisation technique may not be
acceptable.

5.2.7 Glacial
The impact of glacial hazards on man is not as significant as the other hazards, since less
than 0.1% of the world’s glaciers occur in inhabited areas (Bell, 2007, p. 418). Glacial hazards
can be categorised as direct or indirect hazards.
Direct hazards include:
 Avalanches that have a direct impact on structures or property, or may result in a loss
of life if in the path of movement. The movement is generally rapid and may contain a
fair amount of debris.
Indirect hazards include:
 Glacier outbursts and flooding that have an indirect impact on structures or property.
The floods can be glacier floods due to a sudden release of water that is trapped in the
glacier, or flooding due to displacement into lakes or rivers that ultimately result in a
rise in water levels and may case flood damage.

5.2.8 Ground Collapse and Subsidence

Refer to the following sources:
 Online lecture by Professor Debasis Roy on Geological Hazards: Lecture 37
GeoHazards - Subsidence and Collapsible Soils. The YouTube link is:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M9bAZOMVv44&t=3s (Watch from beginning to
00:39:25).
 Council for Geoscience Report No. 2011-0011 on Sinkholes and Subsidence in
South Africa (Oosthuizen & Richardson, 2011):
http://www.geoscience.org.za/index.php/2017-05-24-21-07-23/landslides
From the video lecture, ensure that you can answer the following:
List the four causes of subsidence discussed in this lecture.
24
 List the four main mitigation measures disuccused in this lecture.
Discuss the concept of backfilling or grouting.
Discuss the concept of a perimeter trench.
Discuss the concept and purpose of flexible utility connections.
From the CGS report (Oosthuizen & Richardson, 2011), ensure that you can answer the
following:
What is the difference between a sinkhole and subsidence?
What are the primary triggering mechanisms for sinkhole or subsidence formation?
(List three.)
Jennings et. al. (1965) prescribe five concurrent conditions that must exist for sinkhole
formation. List the five conditions.
Refer to the figures illustrating the mechanism of sinkhole formation in both ingress
and dewatering scenarios. Ensure that you understand the mechanisms of both
scenarios, and that you can illustrate this by means of hand-drawn sketches and a
very brief discussion.
Refer to the figures illustrating the mechanism of subsidence formation in both ingress
and dewatering scenarios. Ensure that you understand the mechanisms of both
scenarios, and that you can illustrate this by means of hand-drawn sketches and a
very brief discussion.
What are the early warning signs of impending sinkhole formation?
Considering the triggering mechanisms you have identified in this learning unit, as well
as the early warning signs of impending sinkhole formation, can you list two things that
you would properly design for in any development on land which is prone to
sinkhole/subsidence formation (other than ground matressess and structural
reinforced foundations)? Can you list at least five things you will consider in a routine
monitoring schedule for development on dolomitic land?

5.2.9 Tsunami
Refer to the following source:
 Online lecture by Professor Debasis Roy on Geological Hazards: Lecture 34
GeoHazards - Shoreline Processes. The YouTube link is:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y1SFoKpfLJc&t=10s (Watch from 00:11:38 to
00:52:40)
From the video lecture, ensure that you can answer the following:
What is the relationship between wave length and the energy dissipation rate of a
(water) wave?
What is a deep-water wave?
What is a shallow-water wave?

25
 List four things that can cause tsunamis.
List four challenges in tsunami prediction.
Briefly discuss how to mitigate the tsunami hazard.

5.2.10 Geochemical, Derelict and Contaminated Land

Derelict land is regarded as land that has been damaged by industrial use or other means of
exploitation, to the extent that it has to undergo some form of remedial treatment before it can
be of beneficial use (Bell, 2007, p. 446). Potentially hazardous geochemical element-
anomalies can also occur naturally, depending on the geology, weathering and depositional
environment. Take note of potential hazards. The topic is not, however, covered in this
learning unit.

5.3 Prevention and Mitigation of Geological Hazards

By making use of the knowledge you obtained on hazard mapping, risk mapping and the
geological hazards covered in this learning unit, you should be able to formulate mitigation
measures for each hazard. Ensure that you understand the method that goes into preparing
susceptibility, hazard and risk maps, as summarised in Figure 6. Once the hazard(s) is
identified, a hazard map can be constructed. Proper land-use planning, mitigation and design
measures can then follow, as per the applicable national standards or codes of practice.

6 Problem Soils
Problem soils in this context are considered to be any soil that requires special consideration,
mitigation and/or design precautionary measures, in order to prevent unacceptable damage
to the environment, property or structures. These soils give rise to many geotechnical
difficulties, such as differential movement, excessive erosion, slope instability, etc.
The problem soils that form part of this learning unit are:
 Collapsible soils.
 Swelling and shrinking clays.
 Soft clays (compressible soil).
 Sensitive clays.
 Dispersible and erodible soils.
 Saline and corrosive soils.
 Dolomites (covered under hazards – ground collapse and subsidence).
 Soils prone to liquefaction.

6.1 Collapsible Soils

Refer to the following sources:
26
  Department of Public Works document No. PW2006/1 “Identification of Problematic
Soils in Southern Africa” (DPW, 2007). Conduct a Google search or make contact with
your study leader to obtain the document. Only refer to the section on collapsible soil.
 A publication in The Civil Engineer in South Africa, Volume 27, Number 7, July 1985,
Problem Soils in South Africa – State of the Art “Collapsible Soils” (Schwartz, 1985).
(Obtain from the library or make contact with your study leader.)
 Council for Geoscience report No. 2011-0062 “A review on Problem Soils in South
Africa” (Diop, Stapelberg, Tegegn, Ngubelanga, & Heath, 2011):
https://www.geoscience.org.za/index.php/2017-05-24-21-07-23/problem-soils (if the
link is not active, just conduct a Google search). Only refer to the sections on
collapsible soil.
 South African Pavement Engineering Manual – Chapter 6 – Road Prism and Pavement
Investigations (SAPEM Chapter 6, 2014). https://www.nra.co.za
Based on the information obtained from these sources, ensure that you can address the
following:
Define the phenomenon of collapse.
Discuss the difference between collapse and consolidation.
List the conditions that must be satisfied before collapse settlement can occur in a
collapsible soil.
Provide at least four depositional environments (transported soils) where collapsible
soils can be expected (refer to origin of transported soil).
Briefly discuss how collapsible soil fabric is formed in residual granite (thus residual
soils) in relatively humid areas. Keep in mind the mineralogy of granite, minerals prone
to chemical weathering, leaching and resulting soil structure.
Discuss how collapsible soils are identified in the field (simple visual identification
tests).
List four laboratory methods that can be considered to identify or evaluate collapsible
soil.
List one in-situ field test that may be considered to identify or evaluate collapsible soil.
Illustrate a basic understanding of the laboratory methods that can be considered to
characterise and quantify expected collapse settlement.
Illustrate you understanding, and the intention and limitations, of the collapse potential
test.
List and discuss at least four engineering solutions in respect of collapsible soil.

6.2 Swelling and Shrinking Clays

Refer to the following sources:

27
  Department of Public Works document No. PW2006/1 “Identification of Problematic
Soils in Southern Africa” (DPW, 2007). Conduct a Google search or make contact with
your study leader to obtain the document. Only refer to the section on expansive soil.
 A publication in The Civil Engineer in South Africa, Volume 27, Number 7, July 1985,
Problem Soils in South Africa – State of the Art “Expansive Soils” (Williams, Pidgeon,
& Day, 1985). (Obtain from the library or make contact with your study leader.)
 A paper “The Prediction of Heave from the Plasticity Index and Percentage Clay
Fraction of Soils” by D.H. van der Merwe (Van der Merwe, 1964). (Obtain from the
library or make contact with your study leader.)
 Council for Geoscience report No. 2011-0062 “A review on Problem Soils in South
Africa” (Diop, Stapelberg, Tegegn, Ngubelanga, & Heath, 2011):
https://www.geoscience.org.za/index.php/2017-05-24-21-07-23/problem-soils (if the
link is not active, just conduct a Google search). Only refer to the sections on expansive
soils.
 Online lecture by Professor David Rogers: Lecture 3: Section on Heave. The YouTube
link is: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SePfiTCQ-lI&t=30s (Watch from 01:03:22
to 2:15:33).
 South African Pavement Engineering Manual – Chapter 6 – Road Prism and Pavement
Investigations (SAPEM Chapter 6, 2014). https://www.nra.co.za
Based on the information obtained in the provided source(s), ensure that you can address the
following:
Illustrate an understanding of the origin of expansive soils and the association thereof
with geological formation (residual soils from basic igneous or argillaceous rock) and
the depositional environment (alluvium, lacustrine, gulleywash or hillwash).
Illustrate an understanding of the mechanisms of heave/swell and shrinkage.
Understand the concept of an active zone (zone of changing seasonal moisture
variation) and the impact which this zone has on the potential heave of a site.
List the information that should be provided when assessing expansive soil.
Which engineering problems can you expect if you build a stiff structure on expansive
soils?
List at least three design solutions to construct a building on expansive soils.
Predict the heave from the weighted plasticity index and clay component of soils,
making use of Van der Merwe’s (1964) method. Take note that the PI (plasticity index)
to be used is the PIws of the whole sample. (PIws is PI measured on the fine portion
tested, multiplied by the percentage passing the 0.425 mm sieve to correct, if for the
PI of the whole sample). A PI of 20% may be recorded on a laboratory report. Confirm
what PI this is. If it is the PI on the fine portion only, you will have to correct the PI
value. If the recorded PI is 20% and 75% of the material is passing the 0.425 mm sieve,
the PIws = 20% * 75 % = 15%. Note that the PIws will be lower than the PI recorded on

28
 the fine portion due to consideration of coarser fragments in the soils that will reduce
the plasticity. Ensure that you know what PI is recorded, and correct if necessary.

6.3 Soft Clays (Compressible Soils)

Refer to the following sources:
 Department of Public Works document No. PW2006/1 “Identification of Problematic
Soils in Southern Africa” (DPW, 2007). Conduct a Google search or make contact with
your study leader to obtain the document. Only refer to the section on soft clays.
 A publication in The Civil Engineer in South Africa, Volume 27, Number 7, July 1985,
Problem Soils in South Africa – State of the Art “Soft Clays” (Jones & Davies, 1985).
(Obtain from the library or make contact with your study leader.)
 Council for Geoscience report No. 2011-0062 “A review on Problem Soils in South
Africa” (Diop, Stapelberg, Tegegn, Ngubelanga, & Heath, 2011):
https://www.geoscience.org.za/index.php/2017-05-24-21-07-23/problem-soils (if the
link is not active, just conduct a Google search). Only refer to the sections on soft
clays.
 South African Pavement Engineering Manual – Chapter 6 – Road Prism and Pavement
Investigations (SAPEM Chapter 6, 2014). https://www.nra.co.za
Based on the information obtained in the provided source(s), ensure that you can address the
following:
Illustrate an understanding of the mechanism of compression in soft clay/soil.
List at least three depositional environments where soft clays can be expected.
Provide the typical characteristics of soft clay.
Identify or describe soft clay in the field (finger moulding or squeeze test).
Define “normally consolidated clay”.
Define “over-consolidated clay”.
List the engineering problems that can be expected if you construct large
embankments with or on soft clay.
List the engineering problems that can be expected if you construct stiff structures on
soft clay.

6.4 Sensitive Clays

Refer to the following sources:
 YouTube video to illustrate the concept of sensitive/quick clay: NGI quick clay
illustration: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UJsoCWqCsJ8&t=5s

29
  Online lecture by Dr Kevin Franke: Lecture 15 on Clay Sensitivity and Anisotropy: The
YouTube link is: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UbXnWe4fivE (Watch from
beginning to 00:11:21, short portion on clay sensitivity only.)
Based on the information obtained in the provided source(s), ensure that you can address the
following:
Define the term “sensitive soil”.
Define the term “quick soil”.
How is soil sensitivity expressed?
In what depositional environment are quick clays generally formed?
What is required to calculate the Liquidity Index that can be used as an index test to
determine whether a clay is likely to be sensitive, or not?
What is needed to determine the sensitivity (St) of a soil/clay?
Briefly explain why the shear strength of clay is increased through the addition of salt.

6.5 Dispersive and Erodible Soils

Refer to the following sources:
 Department of Public Works document No. PW2006/1 “Identification of Problematic
Soils in Southern Africa” (DPW, 2007). Conduct a Google search or make contact with
your study leader to obtain the document. Only refer to the section on dispersive soils.
 A publication in The Civil Engineer in South Africa, Volume 27, Number 7, July 1985,
Problem Soils in South Africa – State of the Art “Dispersive Soils” (Elges, 1985).
(Obtain from the library or make contact with your study leader.)
 Council for Geoscience report No. 2011-0062 “A review on Problem Soils in South
Africa” (Diop, Stapelberg, Tegegn, Ngubelanga, & Heath, 2011):
https://www.geoscience.org.za/index.php/2017-05-24-21-07-23/problem-soils (if the
link is not active, just conduct a Google search). Only refer to the sections on dispersive
soils.
 South African Pavement Engineering Manual – Chapter 6 – Road Prism and Pavement
Investigations (SAPEM Chapter 6, 2014). https://www.nra.co.za/content/SAPEM-
Chapter-6-+-Appendices-2nd-edition-2014.pdf.
Based on the information obtained in the provided source(s), ensure that you can address the
following:
Discuss the difference between dispersive and erodible soils.
List the field identification methods of potentially dispersive soils.
List the laboratory testing methods for testing the potential dispersiveness of soils.
List the typical methods for treating dispersive soils.

30
6.6 Saline and Aggressive Soils
Saline soils are mainly associated with geological settings with high levels of evaporation.
They usually contain more than 15% of their ionic exchange capacity saturated with sodium
ions, and also appreciable quantities of other soluble salts. The pH of the saturated soil
solution is generally 8.5 or less (de Vallejo & Ferrer, 2011, p. 104). Soils with high salt content
can have significant engineering consequences.
Refer to the following sources:
 An article by P. Paige Green and D. Turner on “The preliminary identification of
problem soils for infrastructure projects” (Paige-Green & Turner, 2008). Download
link: https://researchspace.csir.co.za/dspace/bitstream/handle/10204/2827/Paige-
Green_2008.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y. (Obtain from the library or make contact
with your study leader.) Refer to the section on saline soils.
 South African Pavement Engineering Manual – Chapter 6 – Road Prism and Pavement
Investigations (SAPEM Chapter 6, 2014). Download link:
https://www.nra.co.za/content/SAPEM-Chapter-6-+-Appendices-2nd-edition-2014.pdf
Based on the information obtained in the provided source(s), ensure that you can address the
following:
What problems can saline soils cause in road construction? (List four.)
From where can salts originate? (List two.)
How can soils with high salt content be identified?
What corrective action can be taken in road construction (refer to SAPEM chapters 3
and 4, if necessary).

6.7 Dolomites
The general concepts related to ground collapse and subsidence were covered under
“geological hazards”. These included dolomite and instability-related problems due to
undermining. An introduction to the concept is sufficient for the purposes of this learning unit.
For more information on dolomitic soil, refer to the following sources:
 A publication in The Civil Engineer in South Africa, Volume 27, Number 7, July 1985,
Problem Soils in South Africa – State of the Art “Dolomites” (Wagener, 1985). (Obtain
from the library or make contact with your study leader.)
 Council for Geoscience report No. 2011-0010 “Sinkholes and subsidence in South
Africa” (Oosthuizen & Richardson, 2011):
http://www.geoscience.org.za/index.php/2017-05-24-21-07-23/sinkholes.
See that you can address the questions listed in section 5.2.8 of this learning unit (Ground
Collapse and Subsidence).

31
6.8 Soils Prone to Liquefaction
Refer to the following sources:
 YouTube video to illustrate the concept of liquefaction:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZMWKTuRgJjY
 Online lecture by Dr. Kevin Franke: Lecture 23 - Soil Liquefaction (Part 1):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Id3ktqZDv8A
 Online lecture by Dr. Kevin Franke: Lecture 24 - Soil Liquefaction (Part 2):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I4GuEH7Sg8c
 Online lecture by Dr. Kevin Franke: Lecture 25 - Soil Liquefaction (Part 3):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fZoy-GKBOsY
Based on the information obtained in the provided source(s), ensure that you can address the
following:
Explain the phenomenon of liquefaction with a simple drawing indicating sand particles
and water, and briefly explain the mechanism of liquefaction.
What are the three critical aspects to consider in evaluating soil liquefaction?
With reference to grain size, plasticity and water content, what are typically regarded
as soils or conditions that may favour potential liquefaction?
In what natural depositional environments can you potentially expect soils that are
prone to liquefaction? (Refer to section on geological criteria in the online source.) Also
refer to the knowledge you obtained in the geomorphological learning unit.
List six effects of liquefaction.

7 Self-Assessment Activities
The self-assessment activities are listed under the relevant headings. Obtain and refer to the
relevant sections in the provided sources. Ensure that you address the self-assessment
activities.

8 Further Reading
The sources provided are deemed suitable for the purposes of this learning unit. You may,
however, refer to any alternative sources.

9 Informative Website Links

All links are provided in the learning unit. If the links are not active, feel free to do a Google
search. If you are unable to obtain any of the material, contact your study leader.

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10 References
Bell, F. G. (2007). Engineering Geology (2nd ed.). Oxford, UK and Burlington, USA:
Butterworth‐Heinemann (Elsevier Ltd.).

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Geoscience. Retrieved 02 10, 2020, from
http://www.geoscience.org.za/index.php/2017‐05‐24‐21‐07‐23/earthquakes

de Vallejo, L., & Ferrer, M. (2011). Geological Engineering. Oxford: CRC Press; Taylor &
Francis.

Diop, S., Stapelberg, F., Tegegn, K., Ngubelanga, S., & Heath, L. (2011). Report "A review on
Problem Soils in South Africa". South Africa: Council for Geoscience. Retrieved 02 10,
2020, from https://www.geoscience.org.za/index.php/2017‐05‐24‐21‐07‐
23/problem‐soils

DPW. (2007). Department of Public Works ‐ Identification of Problematic Soils in Southern

Africa ‐ Technical notes for Civil and Structural Engineers. Retrieved 02 11, 2020,
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Elges, H. (1985, July). Problem Soils in South Africa ‐ State of the Art ‐ Dispersive Soils. The
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ESA. (2020, August 20). ESA. Retrieved from European Space Agency:
https://eo4sd.esa.int/2019/11/27/flood‐risk‐mapping‐in‐support‐to‐resilient‐urban‐
planning‐the‐case‐of‐saint‐louis‐senegal/

Heath, G., & Engelbrecht, J. (2011). Report on Deformation due to Mining Activities. South
Africa: Council for Geoscience. Retrieved 02 10, 2020, from
http://www.geoscience.org.za/index.php/2017‐05‐24‐21‐07‐23/deformation

Jones, G., & Davies, P. (1985, July). Problem Soils in South Africa ‐ State of the Art ‐ Soft
Clays. The Civil Engineer in South Africa, Volume 27, Number 7.

Le Roux, L. L. (2011). Report on Monitoring Soil Erosion in South Africa at a Regional Scale.
Pretoria: Agricultural Research Council Institute for Soil, Climate and Water.
Retrieved 02 10, 2020, from http://www.geoscience.org.za/index.php/2017‐05‐24‐
21‐07‐23/terrestrial‐erosion

Maya, M., & Cloete, T. (2011). Report on Geochemical Hazard Mapping. South Africa:
Council for Geoscience. Retrieved 02 10, 2020, from
http://www.geoscience.org.za/index.php/2017‐05‐24‐21‐07‐23/geochemical‐
hazards

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NOAA. (2020, May 5). National Centers for Environmental Information. Retrieved from:
https://maps.ngdc.noaa.gov/viewers/hazards/?layers=0

Oosthuizen, A. C., & Richardson, S. (2011). Report on Sinkholes and Subsidence in South
Africa. South Africa: Council for Geoscience. Retrieved 02 10, 2020, from
http://www.geoscience.org.za/index.php/2017‐05‐24‐21‐07‐23/sinkholes

Paige‐Green, P., & Turner, D. (2008). The Preliminary Identification of Problem Soils for
Infrastructure Projects. Pretoria: CSIR. Retrieved 02 10, 2020, from
https://researchspace.csir.co.za/dspace/bitstream/handle/10204/2827/Paige‐
Green_2008.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

SANS1060‐4. (2017). Basis of Structural Design and Actions for Buildings and Industrial
Structures Part 4: Seismic Actions and General Requirements for Buildings (2 ed.).
South African National Standard.

SAPEM Chapter 6. (2014). South African Pavement Engineering Manual ‐ Road Prism and
Pavement Investigations (2 ed., Vol. 6). Republic of South Africa: SANRAL.

Schwartz, K. (1985, July). Problem Soils in South Africa ‐ State of the Art ‐ Collapsible Soils.
The Civil Engineer in South Africa, Volume 27, Number 7.

Singh, R. G., Forbes, C., Chiliza, G., Musekiwa, C., & Claassen, D. (2011). Landslide
Geohazards in South Africa ‐ Landslide Susceptibility Mapping, Socio‐Economic
Impacts, Mitigation and Remediation Measures. South Africa: Council for
Geoscience. Retrieved 02 10, 2020, from
http://www.geoscience.org.za/index.php/2017‐05‐24‐21‐07‐23/landslides

Van der Merwe, D. H. (1964). The Prediction of Heave from the Plasticity Index and
Percentage Clay Fraction of Soils. The Civil Engineer in South Africa, June, pp. 103‐
107.

Wagener, F. (1985, July). Problem Soils in South Africa ‐ State of the Art ‐ Dolomites. The
Civil Engineer in South Africa, Volume 27, Number 7.

Wigley, R. (2011). Report on Geohazards in Coastal Areas. South Africa: Council for
Geoscience. Retrieved 02 10, 2020, from
http://www.geoscience.org.za/index.php/2017‐05‐24‐21‐07‐23/coastal‐and‐beach‐
erosion

Williams, A., Pidgeon, J., & Day, P. (1985, July). Problem Soils in South Africa ‐ State of the
Art ‐ Expansive Soils. The Civil Engineer in South Africa, Volume 27, Number 7.

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