Physical Setting

Indian Geographical Extent and Frontiers

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India is a vast country, India is located entirely in the northern hemisphere;
specifically in the south-central part of the continent of Asia, the mainland extends
between latitudes 8°4’N and 37°6’N and longitudes 68°7’E and 97°25’E, area of the
world.

As the 7th largest country in the world, India stands apart from the rest of Asia,
marked off as it is by mountains and the sea, which gives the country a distinct
geographical entity.

India has a land boundary of about 15,200 km and the total length of the coastline of
the mainland, including Andaman and Nicobar and Lakshadweep, is 7,516.6 km.

India is bounded by the young fold mountains in the northwest, north, and northeast.
South of about 22° north latitude, it begins to taper and extends towards the Indian
Ocean, dividing it into two seas, the Arabian Sea on the west and the Bay of Bengal on
its east.

The latitudinal and longitudinal extent of the mainland is about 30°. Despite this
fact, the east-west extent appears to be smaller than the north-south extent.

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From Gujarat to Arunachal Pradesh, there is a time lag of two hours. Hence, time along
the Standard Meridian of India (82°30’E) passing through Mirzapur (in Uttar
Pradesh) is taken as the standard time for the whole country. The latitudinal extent
influences the duration of day and night, as one moves from south to north.

The Tropic of Cancer passes through eight

states in India: Gujarat (Jasdan), Rajasthan (Kalinjarh), Madhya
Pradesh (Shajapur), Chhattisgarh (Sonhat), Jharkhand (Lohardaga), West-
Bengal (Krishnanagar), Tripura (Udaipur) and Mizoram (Champhai).

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Size and Extent –

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 East-West Extent of Main Land India (Including Pak occupied
68° 7′ east to 97° 25′ east longitude
Kashmir-POK):

South-North Extent of Main Land India: 8° 4′ north to 37° 6′ north latitude

8° 4′ N to 37° 6′ N latitude and 68° 7′ E to 97

Locational Extent:
longitude.

• The southernmost point of the country is the Pygmalion Point or Indira Point is
located at 6° 45′ N latitude.
• The north-south extent from Indira Col in Kashmir to Kanniyakumari is 3,214
km.
• East-west width from the Rann of Kachachh to Arunachal Pradesh is 2,933 km.
• With an area of 32,87,263 sq km, India is the seventh-largest country in the
world.
• India accounts for about 2.4 percent of the total surface area of the world.
• The Tropic of Cancer passes through the middle of the country dividing it
into two latitudinal halves.
• The area to the north of Tropic of Cancer is nearly twice the area which lies to
the south of it.
• South of 22° north latitude, the country tapers off over 800 km into the Indian
Ocean as a peninsula.

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Coastline of India
India is a country that is surrounded by the sea on three of its sides. The coastal plains
in India are along the west and east of the country. Extending up to 7516.6 km, the
coastal plains in India are of two types:

1. Eastern Coastal Plains of India

2. Western Coastal Plains of India

Eastern Coastal Plains of India

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The eastern coastal plains stretch from West Bengal in the north to Tamil Nadu in
the south and pass through Andhra Pradesh and Odisha. Deltas of the rivers
Mahanadi, Krishna, Godavari, and Cauveri are present in the eastern coastal
plain. The deltas are very fertile and productive for agriculture. Therefore, the delta of
the River Krishna is called the ‘Granary of South India‘. The Eastern coast is again
divided into three categories:

• Utkal coast: Extending between the Chilika Lake and Kolleru Lake, they are
much wider than the western coastal plains and undergo immense rainfall.
Some of the crops that are cultivated here are rice, coconut, and banana.
• Andhra coast: Extending between the Kolleru Lake and Pulicat Lake, the
Andra coast forms a basin area for the Krishna and the Godavari rivers.
• Coromandel coast: The Coromandel coast extends between Pulicat Lake and
Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu. This Indian coastline remains dry in summer and
receives rainfall during the winter due to the north-east monsoons.

Chilka lake and the Pulicat lake (lagoon) are the important geographical features of
east coast.

Western Coastal Plains of India

Western Coastal Plains stretches from Kerala in the south to Gujarat in the north
passing through Karnataka, Goa, and Maharashtra. The western coastal plains
stretch for 1500 km north to south and its width ranges from 10 to 25 km. The West
Continental Shelf is at its widest off the Bombay coast. This place is rich in oil. Along
the Malabar Coast, there are many beautiful lagoons that make the place a tourist
destination. The western coast is narrower than the eastern coast.

The western coast is further divided into four categories:

• Kachchh and Kathiawar coast: Kachchh, formerly a gulf is formed by the

deposition of silt by the Indus. The area of Kachchh is covered with shallow water
during the monsoons and is divided into Great Rann in the north and Little Rann
in the east. Whereas, Kathiawar is situated to the south of Kachchh.
• Konkan coast: It extends between Daman in the north to Goa in the south. Rice
and cashew are the two important crops of this region.
• Kanada coast: It extends between Marmagaon and Mangalore and is rich in iron
deposits.
• Malabar coast: Extending between Mangalore to Kanyakumari, the Malabar
coast is relatively broad. This region also consists of lagoons running parallel to
the coast in southern Kerala.

Konkan coast = Maharashtra coast and Goa coast;

Malabar Coast = Kerala and Karnataka coast.

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Standard Time (Time Zone)
Every place on Earth is measured in terms of its distance east or west of the prime
meridian (0 longitude) in Greenwich, London, United Kingdom. This is also the
reference point for Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) with 1 hour per 15 degrees
longitude.

For Example:

At 150 degrees west (or 150 W) longitude, the time should be 150 degrees divided by 15
degrees = 10 hours behind UTC, or UTC-10.

In India 820 30 E has been taken as the reference for Indian Standard Time (IST),
which means India is ahead of UTC by 5hr and 30 minutes.

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Indian Standard Meridian passes through Uttar Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha and Andhra Pradesh.

India, Tropical or Temperate Country?

• The temperate part (north of Tropic of Cancer) is twice the area of tropical part.
• But India has always been treated as a tropical country for two different reasons
– physical and cultural.

Physical Geographical Reasons

• The country is separated from the rest of Asia by Himalayas.

• Its climate is dominated by the tropical monsoons and the temperate air
masses are blocked by Himalayas.
• Entire area south of the Himalayas is essentially tropical from climatic point of
view: Although the night temperatures in Winter at several places in North India
may come down to the level of those prevailing in temperate lands, yet clear
skies and intense insolation raise the day temperatures to a tropical level.

Cultural Geographical Reasons

• Settlements, diseases, agricultural and primary economic activities are all

tropical in nature.

India’s Frontiers
Reference: Ministry Of Home Affairs

• India has 15106.7 Km of land border running through 92 districts in 17 States and
a coastline of 7516.6 Km [6100 km of mainland coastline + coastline of 1197
Indian islands] touching 13 States and Union Territories (UTs).

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 • Barring Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Delhi, Haryana, and
Telangana, all other States in the country have one or more international
borders or a coastline and can be regarded as frontline States from the point of
view of border management.
• India’s longest border is with BANGLADESH while the shortest border is with
Afghanistan.
• The length of India’s land borders with neighboring countries is as under:

Ministry Of Home Affairs

Ministry Of Home Affairs

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Border with China
• This is the second longest border of India, next only to its border with
Bangladesh.
• Five Indian states, namely Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand,
Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh touch the Indian boundary with China.
• The Sino-Indian border is generally divided into three sectors namely : (i) the
Western sector, (ii) the Middle sector, and (iii) the Eastern sector.

The Western Sector

• Separates Jammu and Kashmir state of India from the Sinkiang (Xinjiang)
province of China.
• The western sector boundary is largely the outcome of the British policy towards
the state of Jammu and Kashmir.
• China claims the Aksai Chin district, the Changmo valley, Pangong Tso and
the Sponggar Tso area of north-east Ladakh as well as a strip of about 5,000 sq
km down the entire length of eastern Ladakh.
• China also claims a part of Huza-Gilgit area in North Kashmir (ceded to it in 1963
by Pakistan).

The Middle Sector

• Two Indian states of Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand touch this border.

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The Eastern Sector

• The 1,140 km long boundary between India and China runs from the eastern limit
of Bhutan to a point near Diphu pass (Talu Pass) at the trijunction of India, Tibet,
and Myanmar.
• This line is usually referred to as the Mc Mahon Line after Sir Henry Mc Mahon,
then foreign secretary of British India, who negotiated the boundary agreement
between Great Britain and Tibet at Shimla accord in 1913-14.

Disputed Territories
Western Sector

• In the western sector, India shares about 2152 km long border with China.
• It is between the Union Territory of Ladakh (erstwhile state of Jammu and
Kashmir) and Xinjiang Province of China.
• In this sector, there is a territorial dispute over Aksai Chin. India claims it as part
of erstwhile Kashmir, while China claims it is part of Xinjiang.
• The dispute over Aksai Chin can be traced back to the failure of the British
Empire to clearly demarcate a legal border between China and its Indian colony.
• During the time of British rule in India, two borders between India and China
were proposed- Johnson’s Line and McDonald Line.
• The Johnson’s line (proposed in 1865) shows Aksai Chin in erstwhile
Jammu and Kashmir (now Ladakh) i.e. under India’s control whereas
McDonald Line (proposed in 1893) places it under China’s control.
• India considers Johnson Line as a correct, rightful national border with
China, while on the other hand, China considers the McDonald Line as the
correct border with India.
• At present, the Line of Actual Control (LAC) is the line separating Indian areas of
Ladakh from Aksai Chin. It is concurrent with the Chinese Aksai Chin claim line.
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Middle Sector

• In this sector, India shares about 625 km long boundary with China which runs
along the watershed from Ladakh to Nepal.
• Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand touch this border with Tibet (China) in this
sector. Both sides do not have much disagreement over the border in this area.

Eastern Sector

• In this sector, India shares a 1,140 km long boundary with China.

• It runs from the eastern limit of Bhutan to a point near the Talu Pass at the
trijunction of Tibet, India, and Myanmar.
• This boundary line is called McMahon Line.
• China considers the McMahon Line illegal and unacceptable claiming that
Tibetan representatives who had signed the 1914 Convention held in Shimla
which delineated the McMahon line on the map were not having rights to do so.

The India-Nepal Boundary

• Five states of India, namely Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, and
Sikkim touch the Nepalese border with India. The border is a porous one with
the unrestricted movement of goods and people between Indian and Nepal.
• A major portion of the Indo-Nepalese border runs in the east-west direction
almost along the foothill of the Shiwalik Range.

Disputed Territories

• Kalapani: Kalapani is a valley that is administered by India as a part of the

Pithoragarh district of Uttarakhand. It is situated on the Kailash Mansarovar

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 route. The latest political map of India reiterated the Indian claims on the region
that Nepal says belongs to its westernmost part. India claims the historic region
as part of Uttarakhand.
• The Kali River in the Kalapani region demarcates the border between
India and Nepal.
• The Treaty of Sugauli signed by the Kingdom of Nepal and British
India (after the Anglo-Nepalese War) in 1816 located the Kali River as
Nepal’s western boundary with India. The discrepancy in locating the
source of the river led to boundary disputes between India and Nepal, with
each country producing maps supporting their own claims.
• Susta: Susta area is one of the disputed territories between India (Uttar
Pradesh) and Nepal.
• Susta is located on the bank of the Gandak river (called Narayani river in
Nepal).
• The change of course by the Gandak river is the main reason for disputes
in the Susta area.
• According to the Sugauli Treaty signed between British East India
Company and Nepal in 1816, the Gandak river is the international
boundary and eastern part of the river belongs to India and western
part of the river belongs to Nepal. At the time the treaty was
signed Susta village was situated west of the river. But, over the years,
the Gandak river changed its course and Susta moved to the east side
of the river, that is now on the Indian side of the river.

The India-Bhutan Boundary

• Quite peaceful border and there is no boundary dispute between the two
countries.

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The Indo-Pakistan Boundary
• The Indo-Pakistan boundary is the result of the partition of the country in 1947
under the Radcliffe award of which Sir Cyril Radcliffe was the chairman.
• Jammu and Kashmir, Sir Creek are the major disputed regions.

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Disputed Territories

• Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan-occupied Kashmir and Gilgit-

Baltistan: Pakistan is in the illegal and forcible occupation of approximately
78,000 sq. km of Indian Territory in Jammu and Kashmir. In addition, under the
so-called Sino-Pakistan Boundary Agreement of 1963, Pakistan illegally ceded
5,180 sq. km in Pakistan Occupied Kashmir to China.
• Siachen Glacier: The Siachen Glacier is located in the eastern Karakorams in the
Himalayas just east of the Actual Ground Position Line between India-Pakistan.
• The entire Siachen Glacier, with all major passes, is currently under the
administration of India since 1984 (Operation Meghdoot).
• Saltoro Ridge: The Saltoro Mountains mountain range is a subrange of the
Karakoram Heights or of Saltoro Ridge. They are located in the heart of the
Karakoram, on the southwest side of the Siachen Glacier.
• They are claimed as part of Jammu and Kashmir Union Territory by India
and as part of Gilgit-Baltistan by Pakistan.
• In 1984, India assumed military control of the main peaks and passes of the
range, with Pakistani forces into the glacial valleys just to the west.
• Sir Creek: It is a 96 km long strip of water disputed between India and Pakistan
in the Rann of Kutch marshlands.
• Pakistan claims the line to follow the eastern shore of the estuary while
India claims a centerline (differing interpretations of paragraphs 9 and 10
of the Bombay Government Resolution of 1914 signed between the then
Government of Sindh and Rao Maharaj of Kutch).
• The International Boundary in the Sir Creek area and International
Maritime Boundary line (IMBL) between India and Pakistan have not been
demarcated.

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The India-Bangladesh Border
• India’s 4,096 km long border with Bangladesh is the longest.
• This boundary has been determined under the Radcliffe Award which divided
the erstwhile province of Bengal into two parts.

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India-Myanmar Boundary
• This boundary runs roughly along the watershed between the Brahmaputra
and Ayeyarwady [Irrawaddy].
• It passes through thickly forested regions, with Mizo Hills, Manipur, and
Nagaland on the Indian side and Chin Hills, Naga Hills, and Kachin state on the
Myanmar side.

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India-Sri Lanka Boundary
• India and Sri Lanka are separated from each other by a narrow and shallow sea
called Palk Strait.
• Dhanushkodi on the Tamil Nadu coast in India is only 32 km away
from Talaimanar in the Jaffna peninsula in Sri Lanka. These two points are
joined by a group of islets forming Adam’s Bridge.
• Though, by and large, peace has reigned where the Indo-Sri Lanka border
issue is concerned, there were tensions over the question of who
owned Kachchatheevu Island in the Palk Strait. It was given by India to
Sri Lanka in 1974.

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 Indian Rock System (Archaean, Purana,
Dravidian & Aryan)
The geological structure of a country helps in understanding the types and character
of rocks and slopes, the physical and chemical properties of soils, the availability of
minerals, and the surface and underground water resources.

Indian Rock System

• Geological Structure: Geological structure is most commonly (and best applied
) to the arrangements and deposition of the rocks in the earth’s crust, as a
result of (or absence of) earth movements; but also applied to the morphological
features (morphology) of rocks; e.g. Gondwana structure.
• Geological Time Scale: Chronological dating of various geological
formations (Geological strata) and life according to their time and place of
origin, evolution, and extinction. “Giovanni Ardunia developed Geological Time
Scale in 1760”. Standard Geological Time Scale developed in International
Geological Congress held in 1881, Italy.
• The Indian Geological Time Scale, advocated by T.S. Holland.
• Geological History of India: The Geological Structure & rock systems of India
analyzed with reference to their geographical locations and their geological
history. The following physiographic divisions of India are used for referencing
the geological formations:
• Peninsular India;
• Extra Peninsular India
• Major events in the geological history of India:
• Peninsular India was a part of the old landmass since the formation of the
Earth’s Crust
• The upheaval of the Himalayas in the tertiary period.
• Aggradational formation of the Indo-Gangetic plain during the
Pleistocene period. It continues till today through sedimentation in the
floodplains of the rivers and the lower part of the Gangetic plain.

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 geological time scale

Based on this complex and varied geological history, the Geological Survey of
India has classified rock systems of the country into 4 major divisions:

• The Archaean Rock System

• The Purana Rock System
• The Dravidian Rock System
• The Aryan Rock System

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Archaean Rock System (Pre-Cambrian Rocks)
• The earliest phase of tectonic evolution was marked by the cooling and
solidification of the upper crust of the earth’s surface in the Archaean
era (prior to 2.5 billion years; Precambrian Period) which is represented by the
exposure of gneisses and granites, especially on the Peninsula.
• These form the core of the Indian Craton (Block of Indian Subcontinent of
Gondwanaland).
• The term ‘Archaean’ introduced by J.D. Dana in 1782, refers to the oldest rocks
of the earth’s crust.
• The Archaean group of rocks consists of two systems-
• (a) Achaean System: Granites and Gneisses,
• (b) Dharwar System: First Sedimentary Rocks

Gneiss — Mineral composition varies from granite to gabbro.

Schists — mostly crystalline, include mica, talc, hornblende, chlorite, etc.

Archaean Gneisses and Schists

These rocks are:

• Oldest rocks [pre-Cambrian era] [formed about 4 billion years ago].

• Rocks formed due to the solidification of molten magma – the earth’s surface
was very hot then.
• Known as the ‘Basement Complex’ [They are the oldest and forms the base for
new layers]
• Azoic or unfossiliferous,
• Foliated (consisting of thin sheets),
• Thoroughly crystalline (because they are volcanic in origin),
• Plutonic intrusions (volcanic rocks found deep inside).

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Dharwar System

• Formation period ranges from 4 billion years ago to – 1 billion years ago.
• Highly metamorphosed sedimentary rock-system. [formed due to
metamorphosis of sediments of Archaean gneisses and schists].
• They are the oldest metamorphosed rocks.
• Found in abundance in the Dharwar district of Karnataka.
• Economically the most important rocks because they possess valuable
minerals like high-grade iron-ore, manganese, copper, lead, gold, etc.

Purana Rock System

• The Cuddapah and Vindhyan rock systems are together known as the
Purana rock system.
• They are formed by the erosion and deposition of Archean and Dharwar
rocks, the process is believed to have taken place between 1400-600 million
years ago.
• They are mostly sedimentary in nature.

Cuddapah System

• Named after the Cuddapah district of Andhra Pradesh, due to the large
development of outcrops of cudappah rocks
• They were formed when sedimentary rocks like sandstone, limestone etc.,
and clay were deposited in synclinal folds (between two mountain ranges).
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 • Outcrops best observed in Cuddapah district of Andhra Pradesh.
• These rocks contain ores of iron, manganese, copper, cobalt, nickel, etc.
• They contain large deposits of cement grade limestones.

Vindhyan System (1300-600 million years)

• This system derives its name from the great Vindhyan mountains.
• The system comprises of ancient sedimentary rocks (4000 m thick)
superimposed on the Archaean base.
• Mostly Unfossiliferous rocks and a large area of this belt is covered by
the Deccan trap.
• The Vindhayan system have diamond-bearing regions from
which Panna and Golconda diamonds have been mined.
• It is devoid of metalliferous minerals but provides large quantities of durable
stones, ornamental stones, limestone, pure glass making sand, etc.

Dravidian Rock System (Palaeozoic)

• The Paleozoic rock formation is known as Dravidian systems in India; during
the Paleozoic era i.e., 600-300 million years ago. It is also known as the
Carboniferous rocks System due to high-quality Coal formation in the World.
• These rocks are mostly found in the extra-Peninsular regions of the Himalayas
and the Gangetic plain and are very little in the Peninsular shield (Umaria in
Rewa).
• PirPanjal, Handwara, Lider valley, Annatnag of Kashmir, Spiti, Kangra & Shimla
region of Himanchal Pradesh Gharwal & Kumayun of Uttarakhand are the major
region of Dravidian rocks.
• The Dravidian rocks mainly include shales, sandstones, clays, quartzites, slates,
salts, talc, dolomite, marble, etc.
• It is the period when Pangaea was broken and the Tethys Sea came into
existence.
• It marks the beginning of life on the earth’s surface. The rocks of this is the
period saw plenty of fossil evidences.
• These are seen in all geological formations from this period. They also indicated
marine conditions in these Paleozoic rocks in India.

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 • The Dravidian period was the beginning of coal formation ((high-Quality
Carboniferous coal) but these formations were not found abundantly in India.
• The Dravidian system of geological formations includes the rocks of the
following geological ages:
• The Cambrian System;
• The Ordovician Systems;
• The Silurian System;
• The Devonian System (fossils & corals) &
• The Carboniferous Systems (Lower & Middle Carboniferous system).

Carboniferous rocks (350 million years)

• The Carboniferous rocks (350 million years) comprise mainly of limestone, shale,
and quartzite.
• Mount Everest is composed of Upper Carboniferous limestones.
• Coal formation started in the Carboniferous age.
• Carboniferous in geology means coal-bearing. [most of the coal found in India is
not of the Carboniferous period; High-quality coal of Great Lakes Region-USA,
U.K and Ruhr region is Carboniferous coal].

Aryan Rock System

• The beginning of the Upper Carboniferous period is known as the Aryan
Group, has come to the threshold of the last, longest, and most eventful era,
extending from Upper Carboniferous to the Holocene period.
• The Aryan Group of Rock Formation classified in the following Group:
• Upper Paleozoic Era—- Upper Primary Epoch– Upper Carboniferous &
Permian Period formation
• Mesozoic Era-—Secondary Epoch -Triassic, Jurassic & Cretaceous period
Formation(Gondwana Rock system, Deccan trap, Jurassic system)
• Cenozoic Era-—Tertiary Epoch – Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene-Miocene &
Pliocene Period
• Neozoic Era— Quaternary Epoch– Pleistocene & Holocene/recent Period.

Gondwana System

• The Gondwana System [derives its name Gonds, the most primitive people of
Telangana and Andhra Pradesh]
• They are deposits laid down in synclinal troughs on ancient plateau surface.
• As the sediments accumulated, the loaded troughs subsided.
• Fresh water and sediments accumulated in these trough and terrestrial plants
and animals thrived.
• This happened since Permian period (250 million years ago).

Gondwana Coal

• Gondwana rocks contain nearly 98 per cent of India’s coal reserves.

• Gondwana coal is much younger than the Carboniferous coal and hence it’s
carbon content is low.
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 • They have rich deposits of iron ore, copper, uranium and antimony also.
• Sandstones, slates and conglomerates are used as building materials.

Jurassic System

• The marine transgression in the latter part of the Jurassic gave rise to thick series
of shallow water deposits in Rajasthan and in Kuchchh.
• Coral limestone, sandstone, conglomerates and shales occur in Kuchchh.
• Another transgression on the east coast of the Peninsula is found
between Guntur and Rajahmundry.

Deccan Trap

• Volcanic outburst over a vast area of the Peninsular India from the end of
the Cretaceous till the beginning of the Eocene gave rise to Deccan Traps.
• Basaltic lava flowed out of fissures covering a vast area of about ten lakh sq km.
• These volcanic deposits have flat top and steep sides and therefore
called ‘trap’ meaning a ‘stair’ or ‘step’ in Swedish.
• The process of weathering and erosion (denudation) since millions of years has
reduced the Deccan Trap to almost half of its original size.
• Present Deccan Trap covers about 5 lakh sq km mainly in parts of Kuchchh,
Saurashtra, Maharashtra, the Malwa plateau and northern Karnataka.
• Thickness of the Deccan Traps is 3,000 metres along the west which is reduced
to 600-800 metres towards the south, 800 metres in Kuchchh and only 150
metres at the eastern limit.
• The weathering of these rocks for a long time has given birth to black cotton
soil known as ‘regur’.

The Deccan Trap has been divided into three groups:

Group Found in Inter-trappean beds Layers of volcanic ash

The Upper Trap Maharashtra and Saurashtra Present Present

The Middle Trap Central India and Malwa Very rare to absent Present

The Lower Trap Present Very rare to absent

Tertiary System

• Eocene to Pliocene about 60 to 7 million years ago. Characterized by two

events- the final breaking up the old Gondwana land and the upliftment of
Tethys geosynclines or Himalayas.
• The tertiary is the most significant period in India’s geological history because
the Himalayas were born and India’s present form came into being in this
period.

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 • The Tertiary Succession are fully spread over the Bengal and Ganges delta, East
coast, and the Andaman Islands. They are also found in the Salt Range, Potwar
Plateau, outer Himalayan regions of Jammu and Punjab, Assam, Sind, and
Baluchistan. Important rock systems include Karewas of Kashmir, Bhangra, and
Khadar of the Gangetic plains, etc.

The geology history of India saw unique and diverse character. Different regions of
India contain rocks belonging to different geologic periods. The Indian Craton was
once part of the supercontinent of Pangaea.

After the breaking of the Gondwanaland carton (225 my ago) and sliding towards
the Eurasian craton, the Himalayan mountain region came into existence (65 my
ago).

After a succession of Outer Himalayas wide spared alluvial plain formation began in
upper Pliocene & Pleistocene period as the Indo- Ganga- Brahmaputra plain
region. Thus different parts of India contain rocks of almost every type of
geological structure of different geologic periods.

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The stratigraphy of India can be divided into several divisions such as Archean System,
Dharwar System, Cudappah system, Vindhyan system, Dravidian system, and
Aryan system (Gondwana, Jurassic, Deccan Trap, Tertiary and Quaternary rocks).

India is marked by the oldest rocks to the newest alluvial formations, found in the
these geological stratum of India. The oldest rocks of the Archaean period are
found in peninsular India. Sedimentary rocks are found in the land formed by the
deposition of sediments from the Indo- Gangetic plains. Different sedimentary and
metamorphism rocks also trace in the Great folded mountainous region.

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 Himalayas Formation: Relief & Structure of
Himalayas
The Himalayan mountain range and Tibetan plateau have formed as a result of the
collision between the Indian Plate and Eurasian Plate which began between 40 and
50 million years ago and continues today.

Because both these continental landmasses have about the same rock density, one
plate could not be subducted under the other. The pressure of the impinging plates
could only be relieved by thrusting skyward, contorting the collision zone, and forming
the jagged Himalayan peaks.

Himalayas Formation
• The Himalayas are the youngest mountain chain in the world.
• Himalayan mountains have come out of a great geosyncline called the Tethys
Sea and that the uplift has taken place in different phases.
• During Permian Period (250) million years ago, there was a supercontinent
known as Pangaea.
• Its northern part consisted of present-day North America and Eurasia (Europe
and Asia) which is called as Laurasia or Angaraland or Laurentia.
• The southern part of Pangaea consisted of present-day South America, Africa,
South India, Australia, and Antarctica. This landmass was called Gondwanaland.
• In between Laurasia and Gondwanaland, there was a long, narrow, and shallow
sea known as the Tethys Sea (all this was explained earlier in Continental Drift
Theory).
• There were many rivers that were flowing into the Tethys Sea (some of the
Himalayan rivers were older than the Himalayas themselves).
• Sediments were brought by these rivers and were deposited on the floor of
the Tethys Sea.
• These sediments were subjected to powerful compression due to the northward
movement of the Indian Plate. This resulted in the folding of sediments.
• An often-cited fact used to illustrate this process is that the summit of Mount
Everest is made of marine limestone from this ancient ocean.

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 • Once the Indian plate started plunging below the Eurasian plate, these
sediments were further folded and raised. This process is still continuing (India is
moving northwards at the rate of about five cm per year and crashing into the
rest of Asia).
• And the folded sediments, after a lot of erosional activity, appear as the present-
day Himalayas.
• Tibetan plateau was formed due to upthrusting of the southern block of the
Eurasian Plate.
• The Indo-Gangetic plain was formed due to the consolidation of
alluvium brought down by the rivers flowing from the Himalayas.
• The curved shape of the Himalayas convex to the south is attributed to the
maximum push offered at two ends of the Indian Peninsula during its northward
drift.

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Phases of Himalayas formation
The Himalayas do not comprise a single range but a series of at least three ranges
running more or less parallel to one another. Therefore, the Himalayas are supposed to
have emerged out of the Himalayan Geosyncline, i.e. the Tethys Sea in Six different
phases following one after the other.

6 phases involved in the formation of Himalayas

• Phase 1 – 100 million years ago

• Phase 2 – 71 million years ago
• Phase 3 – The Drass volcanic arc
• Phase 4 – Greater Himalayas were raised
• Phase 5 – Rise of lesser Himalayas
• Phase 6 – Rise of the Shiwalik ranges

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Phase 1 – 100 million years ago

• During Cretaceous Period, around 100 million years ago, the Indian plate was
located b/w 10 ⁰ S – 40 ⁰ S, over the reunion hotspot
• The movement of the plate attained its mass velocity as it was closer to the
equator (14cm/yr) and squeezing of the Tethys started towards the end of the
Paleocene.

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Phase 2 – 71 million years ago

• Himalayan Orogenesis begins roughly about 71 million years ago and

the plate with Gondwana continental piece drifted towards North East and
the rigid Northwestern flangs composed of the Aravalli series collided with
Eurasia.
• The line of collision b/w the Tibetan Plateau and the Indian Plate is called
(Indus–Tsangpo Suture Zone) which is a compressional tectonic fault line.
• As the plate began to subduct, crustal doubling below Tibet raised them into a
high plateau with a thickness of around 60km
• Along the southern front of the ITSZ ( Indus-Tsangpo Suture Zone), the Murree
Foredeep was formed and further south, the Shiwalik foredeep was created.

Orogenesis is the formation of mountains and orogeny is the process by which

mountains are formed.

Suture zone is a linear belt of intense deformation, where distinct terranes or

tectonic units with different plate tectonic, metamorphic, and paleogeographic
histories join together.

Phase 3 – The Drass volcanic arc

• During Oligocene, the Drass volcanic area was formed and in the Tethys crust,
a series of volcanic eruptions took place
• The plate has started anti-clock rotation and Drass became the Pivotal Axis
• Thus, in the western part, pressure and compression were gradually released but
towards the East, squeezing of Tethyan sediments has started which marks the
beginning of the rising of Tethyan.

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Phase 4 – Greater Himalayas were raised

• The rotation continued and greater compression created a major thrust in the
sediments of Murree foredeep and greater Himalayas were raised about 30-
35 million years ago ( Oligocene to Eocene)
• The compressional thrust line is known as the Main Central Thrust (MCT).

Phase 5 – Rise of lesser Himalayas

• The sediments were being deposited in the Shiwalik foredeep and further
movement in the plate resulted in the rise of lesser Himalayas during the
Miocene (15-20 MYA)
• MCT separates greater and lesser Himalayas and the compressional thrust line
along which the lesser Himalayas were lifted is called Boundary Thrust/Fault
(MBT of MBF) line.

Phase 6 – Rise of the Shiwalik ranges

• In the Shiwalik foredeep, sedimentation by the Himalayan rivers fills up the

molasse material.
• The partial feeding of the Shiwalik foredeep along the Himalayan Frontal Fault(
HFF) led to the rise of the Shiwalik ranges which represent partially folded
sedimentary range.
• Based on the tecto-geological history, the Himalayan relief and structure can
be studied.

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Relief and Structure of Himalayas
• Tibetan Plateau
• Indus –Tsangpo SutureZone
• Tethyan Himalayas
• Greater Himalayas
• MCT
• Lesser Himalayas
• MBF
• Shiwaliks
• HFF
• Indo Gangetic Basin

Tibetan Plateau

• Not a part of Himalayas, but formed due to Himalayan Orogeny

Indus- Tsangpo Suture Zone

• It is a compressional fault line that extends from the Indus gorge to the Tsangpo
gorge almost for 3200 km.
• It represents the zone of plate collision where rocks are crushed, pulverized and
mostly Paleozoic and ancient rocks are found.
• Presently, river Indus and river Tsangpo flow through the reverse faulted line of
discontinuity (Suture – Line where two plates are welding).

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Tethyan Himalayas

• The average height is 4000m

• It is compressed with Greater Himalayas and the absence of a longitudinal
valley between them manifests the high compressional forces which have
sandwiched them
• They have submarine, sedimentary, metamorphic rocks
• They represent initial upliftment in the Tethyan Geosyn or Murree foredeep.

Greater Himalayas

• The average height is 6000m

• Extends from Mt. Namcha Barwa to Nanga Parbat for 2500km
• The mightiest and the most majestic mountain range of the world, boasting of
hundreds of peaks rising above 7000m
• High relief, deep gorges, vertical slopes, symmetrical convexity, and antecedent
drainage mark the relief feature
• Due to iso-static adjustment and deep cutting of valleys, peaks are sharp and
the valleys have escarps or free face.
• They are composed of metamorphic and sedimentary rocks.
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 • The core of the mountains has Batholith representing the intrusion of Magma
(Granitic Magma)
• These mountains have asymmetrical folds due to high compression and they
have fractured rocks in the eastern part because of the Indian Plate closed the
Tethys like a door slamming shut.

Main Central Thrust (MCT)

• It makes the zone of Tectonic Thrust and the longitudinal axis along which
the Greater Himalayas were lifted
• It’s a tectonic compressional valley.
• Rocks are fractured, pulverized and it forms a synclinal basin b/w the Greater
Himalayas and the lesser Himalayas
• Kathmandu Valley, Kashmiri Valley, Kulu, and Kangra Valleys are examples of the
Syncline basin
• Kulu is a transverse valley while Kangra and Manali are straight valley (These
valleys are more prone to earthquakes due to fault beneath).

Lesser Himalayas

• The average height is 3800m, the length is about 2400kms, almost parallel to
the Greater Himalayas but in the Western section, it is segmented into several
parallel and transverse ranges
• Parallel Ranges – Pir Panjal, Dhaula Dhar
• Transverse Ranges – Ratan Pir, Nagtiba, Mussourie Range
• The central part in Nepal is called the Mahabharatha range and the eastern
part is called the Dafla hills, Mishmi hills, Miri hills, Abor which are closely
compressed with the Shiwaliks and difficult to isolate from Shiwalik Ranges
• Here the width of the Himalayas are much less than in the western section and
the structure is complex with fracture, fault, pulverization of rocks.

Main Boundary Fault (MBF)

• This is the longitudinal axis along with the second major thrust in the Himalayas
acted. However, it is not as deep as MCT. It is also a compressional fault line
• MCT is low angle reverse fault while MBF is a wide-angle reverse fault
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 • Thus, the valleys are wide and the rivers formed lakes in the valleys where
Lakestrene sediments were deposited.
• Once the rivers were able to cut through the Shiwaliks they developed their
course and these Lakestrene sediments formed the alluvial planes known
as Doons. Example: Dehra dun, Patli dun
• The wide longitudinal valleys in b/w the lesser Himalayas and Shiwaliks are called
“Doons” in western and central Himalayas and “Duars” in Eastern Himalayas.

Shiwaliks

• The average height is 800-1200m

• They are partially folded and formed of river sediments deposited in the
foredeep
• They represent Hogback topography and the 300m contour line demarcates
their boundary with the Gangetic Plain.
• In the western section, it is called Shiwalik
• In Nepal, it is called Churiaghat hills and in Assam, it is called Mishmi, Abor,
Dafla, etc (same as in lesser Himalayas)
• Closer to Greater Himalayas in Nepal – Disappear after River Ganges.

Himalayan Frontal Fault (HFF)

• This marks the boundary b/w the Himalayan ranges and the Gangetic basin
• It is a wide-angle thrust line where the last compressional force in the Himalayas
Orogeny has taken place.

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 Himalayan Ranges: Greater Himalayas, Middle
Himalayas, Shiwaliks

Major Physical Divisions of India

1. The Himalayan Mountains
2. The Northern Plains
3. The Peninsular Plateau
4. The Indian Desert
5. The Coastal Plains
6. The Islands

Himalayas

• Includes the Himalayas, Purvanchal, and their extensions Arakan Yoma

(Myanmar) and Andaman and Nicobar Islands (but we will consider these as
islands only).
• It is the youngest and highly unstable landmass of India.
• Tectonic movements are very common.

Indo-Gangetic Plain

• Between Peninsular and Himalayan region.

• Most youthful, monotonous [lack of change or variety] region prone to tectonic
forces.

Peninsular Plateau

• Includes the entire south India, central India, Aravalis, Rajmahal hills, Meghalaya
plateau, Kuchchh-Kathiawar region (Gujarat) etc..
• It is the oldest and the most stable landmass of India.

Great Indian desert

• The Great Indian Desert is located in the western part of India.

• It is a dry, hot, and sandy stretch of land. It has very little vegetation.

Coastal Plains

• Eastern Coastal Plains and Western Coastal Plains.

• Formed due to consolidation of sediments brought by rivers (fluvial deposits).
• Highly stable just like peninsular plateau.

Indian Islands

• Two major groups – Lakshadweep and, Andaman and Nicobar islands.

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 • Lakshadweep are a group of atolls occupied by coral reefs. No significant
volcanism or tectonic activity in the recent past. Highly vulnerable to sea-level
rise.
• Andaman and Nicobar islands – Continuation of Arakan Yoma. Has active
volcanoes and is tectonically active.

Division of the Himalayas

1. Shiwaliks or outer Himalayas
2. Lesser or Middle Himalayas
3. The Greater Himalayas
4. The Trans-Himalayas – Tibetan Himalayas.
5. The Eastern Hills – Purvanchal: A chain of hills in North-East India.

Himalayan Ranges

• Series of several parallel or converging ranges.

• The ranges are separated by deep valleys creating a highly dissected
topography.
• The southern slopes have steep gradients and the northern slopes have
comparatively gentler slopes.

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 • Most of the Himalayan ranges fall in India, Nepal, and Bhutan. The northern
slopes are partly situated in Tibet (trans-Himalayas) while the western extremity
lies in Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Central Asia.
• The Himalayas between Tibet and Ganga Plain is a succession of three parallel
ranges.

Shiwalik Range

• Also known as Outer Himalayas.

• Located in between the Great Plains and Lesser Himalayas.
• The altitude varies from 600 to 1500 meters.
• Runs for a distance of 2,400 km from the Potwar Plateau to the Brahmaputra
valley.
• The southern slopes are steep while the northern slopes are gentle.
• The width of the Shiwaliks varies from 50 km in Himachal Pradesh to less
than 15 km in Arunachal Pradesh.
• They are an almost unbroken chain of low hills except for a gap of 80-90 km
which is occupied by the valley of the Tista River and Raidak River.
• Shiwalik range from North-East India up to Nepal are covered with thick
forests but the forest cover decreases towards west from Nepal (The
quantum of rainfall decreases from east to west in Shiwaliks and Ganga Plains).
• The southern slopes of the Shiwalik range in Punjab and Himachal Pradesh are
almost devoid of forest cover. These slopes are highly dissected by seasonal
streams called Chos.
• Valleys are part of synclines and hills are part of anticlines or antisynclines.

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The Shiwaliks are known by different names in different areas

Region Name of Shiwaliks

Jammu Region Jammu Hills

Dafla, Miri, Abor and Mishmi Hills Arunachal Pradesh

The Dhang Range, Dundwa Range Uttarakhand

Churia Ghat Hills Nepal

Formation of Duns (Duras)

• Shiwalik Hills were formed by the accumulation of conglomerates (sand, stone,

silt, gravel, debris, etc.).
• These conglomerates, in the initial stages of deposition, obstructed the courses
of the rivers draining from the higher reaches of the Himalayas and
formed temporary lakes.
• With the passage of time, these temporary lakes accumulated more and more
conglomerates. The conglomerates were well settled at the bottom of the lakes.
• When the rivers were able to cut their courses through the lakes filled with
conglomerate deposits, the lakes were drained away leaving behind plains
called ‘duns’ or ‘doons’ in the west and ‘duars’ in the east.
• Dehra Dun in Uttarakhand is the best example.
• Kotah, Patli Kothri, Chumbi, Kyarda, Chaukhamba, Udhampur, and Kotli are
other important duns.

Middle or the Lesser Himalaya

• In between the Shiwaliks in the south and the Greater Himalayas in the
north.
• Runs almost parallel to both ranges.
• It is also called the Himachal or Lower Himalaya.
• Lower Himalayan ranges are 60-80 km wide and about 2400 km in length.
• Elevations vary from 3,500 to 4,500 m above sea level.

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 • Many peaks are more than 5,050 m above sea level and are snow-covered
throughout the year.
• Lower Himalayas have steep, bare southern slopes (steep slopes prevent soil
formation) and more gentle, forest-covered northern slopes.
• In Uttarakhand, the Middle Himalayas are marked by the Mussoorie and
the Nag Tibba ranges.
• The Mahabharat Lekh, in southern Nepal, is a continuation of the Mussoorie
Range
• East of the Kosi River, the Sapt Kosi, Sikkim, Bhutan, Miri, Abor, and Mishmi
hills represent the lower Himalayas.
• The Middle Himalayan ranges are more friendly to human contact.
• The majority of the Himalayan hill resorts like Shimla, Mussoorie, Ranikhet,
Nainital, Almora, and Darjeeling, etc. are located here.

Important ranges of Lesser Himalayas Region

Jammu and Kashmir (They are to the south of Kashmir

The Pir Panjal Range
Valley)

The Dhaola Dhar Range Himachal Pradesh

The Mussoorie Range and The Nag Tiba

Uttarakhand
Range

Mahabharat Lekh Nepal

The Pir Panjal range

• The Pir Panjal range in Kashmir is the longest and the most important range.
• It extends from the Jhelum river to the upper Beas river for over 300 km.
• It rises to 5,000 meters and contains mostly volcanic rocks.

Passes in Pir Panjal

• Pir Panjal Pass (3,480 m), the Bidil (4,270 m), Golabghar Pass (3,812 m)
and Banihal Pass (2,835 m).
• The Banihal Pass is used by the Jammu-Srinagar highway and Jammu-
Baramula railway.
• The Kishanganga, the Jhelum, and the Chenab cut through the range.
• Southeast of the Ravi, the Pir Panjal continues as Dhaola Dhar range, passing
through Dalhousie, Dharmshala, and Shimla.

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Important Valleys

• Between the Pir Panjal and the Zaskar Range of the main Himalayas, lies the
valley of Kashmir.
• The synclinal basin of the valley is floored with alluvial, lacustrine [lake
deposits], fluvial [river action], and glacial deposits.
• Jehlum River meanders through these deposits and cuts a deep gorge in Pir
Panjal through which it drains. (Kashmir is like a basin with very few outlets)
• In Himachal Pradesh, there is Kangra Valley. It is a strike valley and extends
from the foot of the Dhaola Dhar Range to the south of Beas.
• On the other hand, the Kulu Valley in the upper course of the Ravi
is a transverse valley.

The Great Himalaya

• Also known as Inner Himalaya, Central Himalaya, or Himadri.

• The average elevation of 6,100 m above sea level and an average width of about
25 km.
• It is mainly formed of the central crystallines (granites and gneisses) overlain
by metamorphosed sediments [limestone].
• The folds in this range are asymmetrical with a steep south slope and gentle
north slope giving ‘hogback (a long, steep hill or mountain ridge)’ topography.
• This mountain arc convexes to the south just like the other two.
• Terminates abruptly at the syntaxial bends. One in the Nanga Parbat in the
north-west and the other in the Namcha Barwa in the north-east.
• This mountain range boasts of the tallest peaks of the world, most of which
remain under perpetual snow.
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 Regional name of Mount Everest Region

Sagarmatha (The Goddess of the Sky) Nepal

Chomlungma (Mother of the World) China (Tibet)

Passes in the Greater Himalayas

• The passes because they are generally higher than 4,570 m above sea level and
are snowbound for most of the year.

State Passes of Greater Himalayas

Burzil Pass
Jammu and Kashmir
Zoji La [La means pass]

Bara Lacha La
Himachal Pradesh
Shipki La

Thaga La
Uttarakhand Niti Pass
Lipu Lekh

Nathu La
Sikkim
Jelep La

The Trans Himalayas

• The Himalayan ranges immediately north of the Great Himalayan range.

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 • Also called the Tibetan Himalaya because most of it lies in Tibet.
• The Zaskar, the Ladakh, the Kailas and the Karakoram are the main ranges.
• It stretches for a distance of about 1,000 km in the east-west direction.
• The average elevation is 3000 m above mean sea level.
• The average width of this region is 40 km at the extremities and about 225 km in
the central part.
• The Nanga Parbat (8126 m) is an important range which is in The Zaskar Range.
• North of the Zaskar Range and running parallel to it is the Ladakh Range. Only a
few peaks of this range attain heights of over 6000 meters.
• The Kailas Range (Gangdise in Chinese) in western Tibet is an offshoot of the
Ladakh Range. The highest peak is Mount Kailas (6714 m). River Indus
originates from the northern slopes of the Kailas range.
• The northernmost range of the Trans-Himalayan Ranges in India is the
Great Karakoram Range also known as the Krishnagiri range.
• Karakoram Range extends eastwards from the Pamir for about 800 km. It is a
range with lofty peaks [elevation 5,500 m and above]. It is the abode of some of
the greatest glaciers of the world outside the polar regions.
• Some of the peaks are more than 8,000 meters above sea level. K2 (8,611
m)[Godwin Austen or Qogir] is the second highest peak in the world and the
highest peak in the Indian Union.
• The Ladakh Plateau lies to the north-east of the Karakoram Range. It has been
dissected into a number of plains and mountains {Soda Plains, Aksai Chin, Lingzi
Tang, Depsang Plains, and Chang Chenmo}.

Purvanchal or Eastern Hills

• Eastern Hills or The Purvanchals are the southward extensions of the

Himalayas running along the north-eastern edge of India.

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 • At the Dihang gorge, the Himalayas take a sudden southward bend and form a
series of comparatively low hills which are collectively called as the Purvanchal.
• Purvanchal hills are convex to the west.
• They run along the India-Myanmar Border extending from Arunachal
Pradesh in the north to Mizoram in the south.
• Patkai Bum hills are made up of strong sandstone; elevation varying from
2,000 m to 3,000 m; merges into Naga Hills where Saramati (3,826 m) is the
highest peak.
• Patkai Bum and Naga Hills form the watershed between India and Myanmar.
• South of Naga Hills is the Manipur hills which are generally less than 2,500
meters in elevation.
• The Barail range separates Naga Hills from Manipur Hills.
• Further south the Barail Range swings to the west into Jaintia, Khasi, and Garo
hills which are an eastward continuation of the Indian peninsular block. They
are separated from the main block by Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers.
• South of the Manipur Hills is the Mizo Hills (previously known as the Lushai
hills) which have an elevation of less than 1,500 meters. The highest point is
the Blue Mountain (2,157 m) in the south.

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www.lotusarise.com
 Longitudinal Division of Himalayas
The Himalayas, the abode to the highest peaks on the earth, are an incredible
mountain system of Asia and a great wall between the Plateau of Tibet to the north
and the alluvial plains of the Indian subcontinent to the south. It is divided
longitudinally into 4 divisions from west to east.

Longitudinal Division of Himalayas

Indian Himalayas are divided longitudinally into 4 divisions from west to east.

1. The Kashmir /Punjab/ Himachal Himalayas

2. The Kumaun Himalayas
3. The Central/ Nepal Himalayas
4. The Assam/ Eastern Himalayas

Kashmir /Punjab/ Himachal Himalayas

• Punjab Himalayas are located b/w Indus gorge and Satluj gorge
• They are 560kms long, width 320kms wide
• It has Zaskar range forming the northern boundary and the Shiwaliks, the
Southern boundary
• The region with ridge and valley topography ( Kashmir Valley is the syncline
basin) which have been formed by the Lacustrine deposits of River Jhelum.
• It has a number of ox-bow lakes like Wular lake, Dal lake, etc
• It is also called “Vail of Kashmir” and Lacustrine deposits are Karewas, which
have special nutrients that help in growing Saffron, from Pulwama to Pampore.
• It receives 100cm rainfall and snow during winters
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 • It is surrounded by slopy mountains of Zaskar and Pir Panjal where
alpine grasslands are called Bugyals or Marg, like Sonmarg, Gulmarg.
• It is also called “Heaven of the Earth”
• Other ranges are Ratanpir, which joins Pir Panjal.
• The only gateway to Kashmir is the Banihal pass which has the Jawahar
tunnel (Second Largest in India)
• There are several passes in Greater Himalayas which connect Kashmir Valley to
Ladakh and other regions like Burzil pass, Zozila pass.

Kumaun Himalayas

• Located b/w Satluj and Kali gorges

• Kumaun Himalayas extend for 320kms
• The major mountain ranges include Nagtiba, Dhaula Dhar, Mussourie, and
parts of the Greater Himalayas.
• Major peaks include Nandadevi, Kamet, Badrinath, Kedarnath, etc.
• There are several glaciers and ice caps especially in Uttarkhand giving rise to a
number of rivers – Gangotri, Yamunotri, Pindari, etc.
• It receives snowfall during winters and have coniferous forests above 3200m
and Deodar forest (Deodar forest) b/w 1600-3200m.
• This region has two important basins Bhagirathi Plain and Doons. Kulu,
Manali, and Kangra are tectonic valleys.
• Hill stations are famous because of their climate and colonial heritage
• This region has 200cm of rainfall and its more vegetated than the Kashmir
Himalayas but prone to Seismicity and landslides because the rocks are
fractured and fragile especially the lesser Himalayas is composed of loose rocks
like shale, limestone, and conglomerates.

Central/ Nepal Himalayas

• Located between river Kali in the west and river Tista in the east.
• It is 800kms long
• Some of the world-famous peaks Mt. Everest(Sagarmatha), Kanchenjunga,
Makalu, Annapurna, Gosainthan, and Dhaulagiri are located here.
• These mountains have orthoclinal plan and have the famous Katmandu valley.
• The Lesser Himalaya is known as Mahabharat Lekh in this region.
• The range is crossed by rivers like Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi, etc.
• In between the Great and the Lesser Himalayas, there are Kathmandu and
Pokhra lacustrine valleys (previously, they were lakes).
• The Shiwalik range comes very close to the lesser Himalaya towards the east
and is almost non-existent beyond Narayani (Gandak).

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Assam/ Eastern Himalayas

• It is 750kms long and is located b/w the Tista river in the west and the
Brahmaputra river(Dihang gorges) in the east.
• Eastern Himalayas occupy mainly the areas of Arunachal Pradesh and Bhutan.
• Greater Himalayas are identifiable at lesser and Shiwaliks are inseparable in
many parts.
• Longitudinal valleys are narrow and rainfall is greater than 200cms.
• The Assam Himalayas show a marked dominance of fluvial erosion due
to heavy rainfall.
• However, ice caps and glaciers were not found because it is close to the
tropics, densely forested but landslides
• Earthquakes are very common as rocks are fractured
• Inhabited by tribes
• The names of ranges are synonymous with tribes
• These mountains are intersected by several ferocious rivers
• This region is very dissected.

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Purvanchal

• Geologically it is considered part of the Himalayas, but there are structural

differences, thus, separated from the main Himalayan ranges.
• The Purvanchal Range lies south of the Brahmaputra valley.
• It has Naga hills where the highest peak Saramati is located
• Manipur hills – Loktak Lake where the only floating national park of the world is
located
• Keibul-Lamjao national park
• Mizo hills – Earlier known as Lushai hills and the highest part is Blue Mountain.
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 • These mountains belong to Arakan Yoma orogenesis.
• They have loose and fragmented sedimentary rocks like shale, mudstone,
sandstone, quartzite
• This section is the most fractured part of the Himalayas.
• It has the Naga fault line, thus prone to earthquakes and landslides
• Rainfall is 150-200 cms, densely forested but due to shifting cultivation
ecology is at stake.

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Trans-Himalayan Ranges

• The Trans-Himalayas Mountain Region or Tibet Himalayan Region is located to

the north of the Great Himalayas which is consists
of Karakoram, Ladakh, Zaskar, and Kailash mountain ranges.
• These mountains were lifted much before the Himalayas b/w Jurassic and
Cretaceous, and geologically they are not part of the Himalayas.
• They emerged from Pamir Knot.
• Karakoram has the largest and highest peak Godwin Austin or K2 which is
the highest peak of India.
• Siachen glacier is the highest battlefield and glacier Baltaro is the largest
mountain glacier.
• Karakoram pass which connects the Aksai Chin which is an erosional
plateau of average height 4000m.
• Ladakh range – The highest point is Rakaposhi and the extension in Tibet is
called Kailash Range from where River Indus originated. Also, the origin of
Brahmaputra is near the great glacier Marium La divides Indus and Tsangpo
rivers. River Indus flows b/w Ladakh and Zascar
• Zaskar Range – Zaskar and the great Himalayas are very well clubbed
together. The highest point is Nanga Parbat separated by Ladakh and
Zaskarbasin.
• Ladakh Plateau – Cold desert and in the northwestern part, the Deosai
mountains are the end of the Trans-Himalayan region.
• Trans Himalayan region generally receives rainfall during winters, mostly barren
and cold desert.

The highest peak in India – K2

The highest peak in India of Himalaya – Kangchenjunga

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 Mountain Peak Height (in meters)

K2 (Godwin-Austen) 8611

Kangchenjunga 8586

Nanda Devi 7816

Kamet 7756

Santoro Kangri 7742

Saser Kangri 7672

Mamostrong Kangri 7516

Rimo 7385

Hardeol 7151

Chaukamba 7138

Trisul 7120

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 Major Mountain Passes in India
Mountain pass is a connectivity route through the mountain run. It is a gateway to
connect different parts of the country and also with neighboring countries for
different purposes.

Mountain pass is a navigable route through a mountain range or over a ridge. Passes
have played a key role in trade, war, and both human and animal
migration throughout history.

At lower elevations it may be called a hill pass.

Mountain Passes are often found just above the source of a river, constituting
a drainage divide. A pass may be very short, consisting of steep slopes to the top of the
pass, or maybe a valley many kilometers long, whose highest point might only be
identifiable by surveying.

Important Mountain Passes in India

Zoji La (Pass)-It is in the Zaskar range of Jammu & Kashmir. The road route from
Srinagar to Leh goes through this pass. It has been created by the Indus River.

Banihal Pass-Banihal Pass is a mountain pass across the Pir Panjal Range at a
maximum elevation of 2,832 m. It connects the Kashmir Valley in the union territory of
Jammu and Kashmir to the outer Himalayas and the plains to the south. In the
Kashmiri language, “Banihāl” means blizzard.

Shipki La (Pass)-Shipki La is a mountain pass and border post with a dozen buildings
of significant size on the India-China border. The river Sutlej enters India near this pass.

Bara-Lacha Pass- Bara-lacha la also known as Bara-lacha Pass, is a high mountain

pass in the Zanskar range, connecting Lahaul district in Himachal Pradesh to Leh
district in Ladakh, situated along the Leh–Manali Highway.

Rohtang Pass-It is a high mountain pass on the eastern end of the Pir Panjal Range of
the Himalayas around 51 km from Manali. It connects the Kullu Valley with the Lahaul
and Spiti Valleys of Himachal Pradesh, India.

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Mana Pass-The pass is one of the highest vehicle-accessible passes in the world,
containing a road constructed in the 2005-2010 period for the Indian military by the
Border Roads Organisation. Mana Pass is the last point between India and China’s
Border.

Niti Pass-The Niti Pass located at 5800 meters connects India with Tibet. The pass
is located in Uttarakhand.

Nathu La (Pass)-Nathu La is a mountain pass in the Himalayas in the East Sikkim

district. It connects the Indian state of Sikkim with China’s Tibet Autonomous
Region. Nathu means “listening ears” and La means “pass” in Tibetan.

Jalep La (Pass)-Jelep La or Jelep Pass, elevation 4,267 m or 13,999 ft, is a high

mountain pass between East Sikkim District, Sikkim, India, and Tibet Autonomous
Region, China. It is on a route that connects Lhasa to India.

Mountain Passes in India (state wise) – Location & Significance

Mountain Passes in Leh & Ladakh

It is the highest motorable pass in the country. It connects Leh and Siachen
Khardung La
glaciers. This pass remains closed during the winter.

Thang La /
It is located in Ladakh. It is the second-highest motorable mountain pass in India.
Taglang La

It is situated to the North of Mount Godwin-Austen in the Karakoram. It connects

Aghil Pass Ladakh with the Xinjiang province of China. It remains closed during the winter
season from November to May.

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 It is a high mountain pass in the Greater Himalayas. It connects Ladakh with
Chang-La
Tibet.

This is located in the Aksai Chin in the Ladakh region. It connects Ladakh and
Lanak La
Lhasa. The Chinese authority has built a road to join Xinjiang with Tibet.

The pass has a difficult geographical terrain and steep slopes. This pass remains
Imis La
closed during the winter season. It connects Ladakh and Tibet.

Bara-La/ Bara- It is situated on the National Highway in the state of Jammu and Kashmir. It
Lacha La connects Manali and Leh.

Mountain Passes in Uttarakhand

It is located in Uttarakhand. It is situated at the end of the Pindari glacier and

Traill’s Pass
connects the Pindari valley to Milam valley. This pass is very steep and rugged.

It is located in Uttarakhand. It connects Uttarakhand with Tibet. This pass is an

Lipu Lekh:
important border post for trade with China. The pilgrims for Manasarovar travel
Uttarakhand-Tibet
through this pass.

Mana Pass: It is located in the Greater Himalayas and connects Tibet with Uttarakhand. It
Uttarakhand-Tibet remains under snow for six months during winter.

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 Mangsha Dhura Pass: The pass which connects Uttarakhand-Tibet is known for landslides. The pilgrims
Uttarakhand-Tibet for Manasarovar cross this route. It’s located in the Kuthi Valley.

It is situated in the north of Gangotri, at an elevation of 5669 m in the Great

Muling La:
Himalayas. This seasonal pass that connects Uttarakhand with Tibet remains
Uttarakhand-Tibet
snow-covered during the winter season.

This pass joins Uttarakhand with Tibet. This also remains snow-covered during
Niti Pass
the winter season.

Debsa Pass: Spiti Valley It joins Spiti Valley and Parvati Valley. It is a high mountain pass in between the
and Parvati Valley Kullu and Spiti of Himachal Pradesh. It is a bypass route of Pin-Parvati Pass.

Rohtang Pass: Kullu- This is located in the state of Himachal Pradesh. It has excellent road
Lahul-Spiti transportation. This pass connects Kullu, Spiti and Lahul.

Mountain Passes in the Northeastern States

The Nathu La Pass is located in the Himalayan Range in the state of Sikkim, India
at an elevation of 4,310 m. The road passing through Nathu La was once an
Nathu La
important auxiliary route making up the ancient Silk Route. It is one of
the trading border posts between India and China.

This pass passes through the Chumbi valley. It connects Sikkim with Lhasa, the
Jelep La
capital of Tibet.

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 Bomdi-La:
The Bomdi-La pass connects Arunachal Pradesh with Lhasa, the capital city of
Arunachal
Tibet. It is located in the east of Bhutan.
Pradesh-Lhasa

Yonggyap pass lies at an altitude of 3962 meters on the Indo-China border and
Yonggyap Pass
joins Arunachal Pradesh with the Tibet region.

Dihang pass:
It is located in the Northeastern states of Arunachal Pradesh. This pass connects
Arunachal
Arunachal Pradesh with Myanmar (Mandalay). At an elevation of more than
Pradesh-
4000 m, it provides passage.
Mandalay

Diphu (Dipher) Pass is a mountain pass around the area of the disputed tripoint
borders of India, China, and Myanmar. Diphu Pass is also a strategic approach to
Diphu pass: eastern Arunachal Pradesh. It lies on the McMahon Line. In October 1960 China
Arunachal and Burma demarcated their border to Diphu Pass, which is 5 miles south of the
Pradesh- watershed of the mountain ranges. However, this caused a diplomatic row with
Mandalay India, which expected the tri-point to be at the watershed. The dispute has
become part of the ongoing border disagreement between China and India
regarding Arunachal Pradesh

Kumjawng Pass also lies on the Indo-Myanmar border at an altitude of 2929

Kumjawng Pass
and joins Arunachal Pradesh with Myanmar.

It is located in the state of Arunachal Pradesh. This pass connects Arunachal

Pradesh and Myanmar. Pangsau Pass or Pan Saung Pass, 3,727 feet (1,136 m) in
altitude, lies on the crest of the Patkai Hills on the India-Burma (Myanmar) border.
Pangsau Pass
The pass offers one of the easiest routes into Burma from the Assam plains. It is
named after the closest Burmese village, Pangsau, that lies 2 km beyond the pass
to the east.

Chaukan Pass This pass connects Arunachal Pradesh with Myanmar.

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Mountain Passes in Kashmir

Banihal Pass (Jawahar

Banihal pass is a popular pass in Jammu and Kashmir. It is situated in
Tunnel): Banihal with
the Pir- Panjal Range. It connects Banihal with Qazigund.
Qazigund

It connects Srinagar with Kargil and Leh. Beacon Force of Border Road
Zoji La: Srinagar- Kargil &
Organization is responsible for clearing and maintaining the road,
Leh
especially during the winter.

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 Burzail pass: Srinagar- This pass joins the Astore Valley of Kashmir with the Deosai Plains of
Kishan Ganga Valley Ladakh.

The Pensi La connects the Kashmir valley with Kargil. It is situated in

Pensi La
the Greater Himalayas.

It is a traditional pass from Jammu to Srinagar. This pass was closed

Pir-Panjal Pass after the partition. It provides the shortest roadway access to Kashmir
valley from Jammu.

Mountain Passes in Deccan Plateau (Central & Southern India)

It is located in the Western Ghats. It joins the Madurai city in Tamil Nadu with the
Shencottah
Kottayam district in Kerala. The second-largest gap in the Western Ghats which is
Gap: Madurai-
situated five kilometers from town is known by its name that is the Shencottah Gap
Kottayam
road-rail lines pass through this gap which connects Shencottah with Punalur.

Bhor Ghat or Bor Ghat or Bhore Ghaut is a mountain passage located

between Palasdari and Khandala for railway and between Khopoliand Khandala on
the road route in Maharashtra, India situated on the crest of the Western Ghats. It is
located at an elevation of four hundred and forty-one meters elevation above sea level.
Bhor Ghat
The ghat has a bit of historical evidence. The ghat was the ancient route developed by
Satavahana to connect the ports of Choul, Revdanda Panvel, etc. on the Konkan coast
and the surrounding areas on the Deccan plateau. Today the ghat plays a massive part
of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway laid from Mumbai to Pune.

Thal Ghat (also called Thul Ghat or Kasara Ghat) is a ghat section (mountain incline or
slope) in the Western Ghats near the town of Kasara in Maharashtra. The Thal Ghat is
Thal Ghat located on the busy Mumbai–Nashik route, and is one of the four major routes, rail,
and road routes, leading into Mumbai. The railway line, which passes through the ghat
is the steepest in India with a gradient of 1 in 37

The Palakkad Gap is located in the Western Ghats between the states of Tamil Nadu
and Kerala. India at an elevation of about 140 m. The mountain pass is located
between Nilgiri Hills in the north and Anaimalai Hills towards the south and connects
Pal Ghat
Coimbatore in Tamil Nadu with Palakkad in Kerala. The mountain pass was an
important instrument for human migration across India’s southern tip throughout
settled history.

Asirgarh Pass Asirgarh Pass is located in the Satpura Range in the state of Madhya Pradesh, India at
(Madhya an elevation of about 260 m. The Asirgarh Pass connects the Narmada and Tapti
Pradesh) Valleys and is also known as the ‘Key to the Deccan’ for being among the most
important routes from northern India to the Deccan. Asirgarh Fort overlooks the

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 mountain pass and during the Mughal era, Hindustan would be the land from Delhi to
Asirgarh and the land beyond would be the Deccan.

Goram Ghat is located in the Aravali Range in the state of Rajasthan. Goram
Ghat connects Mewar and Marwar in Rajasthan through the Aravali Hills and has a
railway line passing through it that crosses 2 tunnels and 172 bridges in total. The
Goram Ghat
terrain is densely forested with Dhok forest and is rich in biodiversity, including
many medicinal plants and a variety of fauna like sloth bears, leopards, wild boars,
etc.

Haldighati Pass is located in the Aravali Range in the state of Rajasthan. The name
Haldighati is derived from the turmeric (‘haldi’ in hindi) colored soil in the mountain
pass. Located about 40 km from Udaipur, the mountain pass is said to be the historic
Haldighati Pass location of the ‘Battle of Haldighati’ between the Mewar king Maharana Pratap and
the Mughals under Emperor Akbar in 1576. The Government of India commissioned
the setting up of the Maharana Pratap National Memorial in 1997 on the site which
included a bronze statue of Maharana Pratap’s horse Chetak.

Jabalpur Gap Jabalpur (formerly Jubbulpore) is a tier 2 city in the state of Madhya Pradesh.

Khandwa Gap Khandwa is a city and a nagar nigam in the Nimar region of Madhya Pradesh.

Burhanpur is a district present in the state of Madhya Pradesh. There are

many geographic features in the state of Madhya Pradesh. The river Tapti and the
Burhanpur Gap presence of Satpura range act as natural boundaries for the Burhanpur district. There
is a gap which is present to the north of the Tapti river and the Satpura range and the
gap is famously called as the Burhanpur gap.

It has picturesque mountain-scapes and a pleasant climate. This region is famous

Amba Ghat for paragliding sport.
Pass State: Maharashtra
Location: Sahyadri Mountains of Western Ghats

This region is famous for the rare species of wolf snake (Lycodon striatus).
Chorla Ghat State: Goa, Karnataka, and Maharashtra.
Pass Location: Sahyadri mountain range of Western Ghats (On the intersection of the
borders of Goa, Karnataka, and Maharashtra)

Malshej Ghat This region is famous for wide variety of birds such as quails, rails, crakes, flamingos,
Pass and cuckoos.

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 State: Maharashtra, India
Location: Sahyadri Range of Western Ghats (Lofty rugged hills of the Western Ghats)

It is also called as Nanaghat or Nana Ghat. It was a part of an ancient trading route. The
name nane means “coin” and ghat means “pass”. The name is given because this path
was used as a tollbooth to collect tolls from traders crossing the hills.
Naneghat Pass
State: Maharashtra, India
Location: Sahyadri Range of Western Ghats
Between/Separating: It connects Pune district to Junnar City.

This region is famous for sprawling green Ghats, misty roads, and cascading waterfalls.
State: Maharashtra, India
Tamhini Ghat
Location: Sahyadri Range of Western Ghats
Between/Separating: It connects the talukas of Mulshi and Tamhini in the Pune district.

This region is for wildlife, dense hilly forests, Hiranyakeshi temple, and a number of
waterfalls.
Amboli Ghat State: Maharashtra, India
Pass Location: Sahyadri Range of Western Ghats
Between/Separating: It connects Sawantwadi of Maharashtra to Belgaum of
Karnataka.

It connects the coastal Ratnagiri district in the Konkan region of Maharashtra with the
Satara District in the Desh region.
Kumbharli Ghat State: Maharashtra, India
Pass Location: Western Ghats
Between/Separating: It connects the coastal Ratnagiri district in the Konkan region of
Maharashtra with the Satara District in the Desh region.

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www.lotusarise.com
Khyber Pass –

• The Khyber Pass is a mountain pass in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province

of Pakistan, on the border with Afghanistan (Nangarhar Province).
• It connects the town of Landi Kotal to the Valley of Peshawar at Jamrud by
traversing part of the Spin Ghar mountains. An integral part of the ancient Silk
Road, it has long had substantial cultural, economic, and geopolitical
significance for Eurasian trade.
• Throughout history, it has been an important trade route between Central
Asia and the Indian subcontinent and a vital strategic military choke point for
various states that came to control it.

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Bolan Pass –

• The Bolān Pass is a mountain pass through the Toba Kakar Range of
Balochistan province in western Pakistan, 120 km from the Afghanistan
border.
• The pass is an 89 km stretch of the Bolan river valley from Rindli in the south to
Darwāza near Kolpur in the north. It is made up of a number of narrow gorges
and stretches.
• Bolan Pass is located in the south-east of Quetta. Mehrgarh is located near the
Bolan Pass. The Toba Kakar Mountains are a southern offshoot of the Himalayas
in the Balochistan region of Pakistan.

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 Important Hill Ranges of India
• Aravalli hills
• Vindhyan range
• Satpura range
• Western Ghat
• Eastern Ghat

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Aravalli hills

• They originate in Gujarat (at Palanpur) and extend till Haryana.

They terminate in the Delhi ridge.
• They have a maximum extent of 800 km
• They are old fold mountain ranges, one of the oldest tectonic mountains in
the world.
• Rocks that make up the Aravallis are more than 2 billion years old.
• Unlike other fold mountains, Aravallis have an average elevation in the range of
400-600m only. This is because throughout their geological history they were
subjected to the processes of weathering and erosion.
• Only a few peaks reach an elevation of above 1000m. These include – Mt.
Gurushikhar (1722m, the highest point of Aravallis), Mt.Abu (1158m, it’s part of
a plateau).
• Geologically, they are mainly made up of Dharwar igneous and metamorphic
rocks.
• They contain the largest marble deposits in India.
• Rivers Banas, Luni, Sabarmati are born in Aravallis. Banas is a tributary of
Chambal. Luni is an ephemeral river that terminates in the Rann of Kutch.
• They contain several passes that cut through them, especially between Udaipur
and Ajmer like Piplighat, Dewair, Desuri, etc.
• They also contain several lakes such as Lake Sambhar (largest inland saline
water body in India), Lake Dhebar (south of Aravallis), Lake Jaisamand (in the
Jaisamand wildlife sanctuary), etc.

Vindhyan range

• These are non-tectonic mountains, they were formed not because of plate
collision but because of the downward faulting of the Narmada Rift Valley
(NRV) to their south.
• They extend for 1200km from Bharuch in Gujarat to Sasaram in Bihar.
• Geologically, they are younger than Aravallis and Satpura hills.
• Their average height is in the range of 300-650m.
• They are made up of older Proterozoic rocks. They are cut across by Kimberlite
piles (diamond deposits)
• They are known by local names such as Panna, Kaimur, Rewa, etc.
• They rise from the NRV in the form of steep, sharp slopes called the
escarpments. These escarpments are well developed in Kaimur and Panna
regions.

Satpura range

• Satpura range is a combination of Satpura, Mahadeo, and Maikala hills.

• Satpura hills are tectonic mountains, formed about 1.6 billion years ago, as a
result of folding and structural uplift. They are a Horst landform.
• They run for a distance of about 900km.
• Mahadeo hills lie to the east of Satpura hills. Pachmarhi is the highest point
of the Satpura range. Dhupgarh (1350m) is the highest peak of Pachmarhi.
• Maikala hills lie to the east of Mahadeo hills. Amarkantak plateau is a part of
the Maikala hills. It is about 1127m.
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 • The plateau has the drainage systems of Narmada and Son, hence it has
drainage into the Bay of Bengal as well as the Arabian sea.
• These are mostly situated in the States of Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh.
• These hills are rich in bauxite, due to the presence of Gondwana rocks.
• Dhuandhar waterfalls over the Narmada is situated in MP.

Read Here – Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats

Image Credit: PMF IAS

Maikal Range Eastern part of the Satpuras range (MP)

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 Kaimur Range Eastern portion of the Vindhya Range in MP, UP & Bihar, Parallel to river son

forms the central part of the Satpura Range, located in MP

Mahadeo Range
Highest peak: Dhoopgarh

Maharashtra, south of river Tapi, sheltering caves of world famous paintings of

Ajanta Range
Gupta period

In Jharkhand made up of lava basaltic rocks

Rajmahal Hills
Point of Ganges bifurcation

Garo Khasi
Continuous mountain range in Meghalaya
Jaintia Hills

a group of hills located to the south of the Kaziranga National Park (Assam) a part of
Mikir Hills
the Karbi Anglong Plateau

Hills of Arunachal Pradesh, near the border with China, bordered by Mishmi and Miri
Abor Hills
Hills drained by Dibang River, a tributary of the Brahmaputra

in Arunachal Pradesh with its northern & eastern parts touching China
Mishmi Hills
Situated at the junction of Northeastern Himalaya and Indo-Burma ranges

Also known as Purvanchal Range, consist of three major hills The Patkai-Bum, the
Patkai Range Garo-Khasi-Jaintia, and Lushai Hills
situated on India’s north-eastern border with Burma

Mizo Hills
part of the Patkai range in Mizoram and partially in Tripura
(Lushai Hills)

Located in Jamshedpur, famous for Dalma national park & minerals like iron ore &
Dalma Hills
manganese.

Dhanjori Hills Jharkhand

Girnar Hills Gujrat

Baba Budan Giri Karnataka

At Pune, acts as a water divide bw Godavari & Krishna

Harishchandra
Hills made up of lava

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 Balaghat range Bw MP & Maharashtra, famous for manganese deposits

Chilpi series MP

Talcher series Odisha, rich in bituminous coal

Champion series Karnataka, Dharawar period, rich in gold (contains kolar mines)

Referred as Blue mountains, a range of mountains in the westernmost part of Tamil

Nadu at the junction of Karnataka and Kerala Hills are separated from the Karnataka
Nilgiri Hills
plateau to the north by the Moyar River and from the Anaimalai Hills & Palni Hills to
the south by the Palghat Gap

The eastward extension of the Western Ghats ranges

Palani Hills adjoin the high Anamalai range on the west, and extend east into the plains of Tamil
Nadu

Also known as Elephant Hill, a range of mountains in the Western Ghats in Tamil
Anamalai Hills
Nadu and Kerala with the highest peak Anamudi

Part of the southern Western Ghats located in southeast Kerala and southwest Tamil
Cardmom Hills
Nadu

Pachamalai Hills also known as the Pachais, The Eastern Ghats in Tamil Nadu

Parasnath is a mountain peak in the Parasnath Range. It is located towards

Parasnath Hill
the eastern end of the Chota Nagpur Plateau in the Giridih district of Jharkhand.

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www.lotusarise.com
 Indo Gangetic Plains: Indo-Gangetic-
Brahmaputra
• The 300m contour line divides the Himalayas and the Gangetic Basin.
• The southern boundary is demarcated by the edge of the peninsula which
coincides with 75m contours in most of its length and 35m in the northeastern
section, towards the delta.
• The plains are extremely flat with a slope of nearly 1:1000 to 1:2000
• The plains are flat and are rolling with monotonous character.

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Formation of Indo–Gangetic–Brahmaputra Plain
• The formation of Indo-Gangetic plain is closely related to the formation of
Himalayas.
• The rivers which were previously flowing into the Tethys sea (Before Indian Plate
collided with Eurasian Plate – continental drift, plate tectonics) deposited a huge
amount of sediments in the Tethys Geosyncline.
• The Himalayas are formed out of these sediments which were uplifted, folded,
and compressed due to the northern movement of the Indian Plate.
• The northern movement of the Indian Plate also created a trough to the south
of the Himalayas.

Depositional Activity

• During the initial stages of upliftment of sediments, the already existing rivers
changed their course several times and they were rejuvenated each time
(perpetual youth stage of rivers.
• The rejuvenation is associated with intense headward and vertical
downcutting of the soft strata overlying the harder rock stratum.
• Headward erosion and vertical erosion of the river valley in the initial stages,
lateral erosion in later stages contributed a huge amount of conglomerates
(detritus)(rock debris, silt, clay, etc.) which were carried downslope.
• Headward erosion — Erosion at the origin of a stream channel, which
causes the origin to move back away from the direction of the streamflow,
and so causes the stream channel to lengthen
• These conglomerates were deposited in the depression (Indo-Gangetic Trough
or Indo-Gangetic syncline) (the base of the geosyncline is hard crystalline
rock) between peninsular India and the convergent boundary (the region of
present-day Himalayas).

New rivers and more alluvium

• The raising of the Himalayas and the subsequent formation of glaciers gave
rise to many new rivers. These rivers along with glacial erosion supplied more
alluvium which intensified the filling of the depression.
• With the accumulation of more and more sediments (conglomerates),
the Tethys sea started receding.
• With the passage of time, the depression was completely filled with alluvium,
gravel, rock debris (conglomerates) and the Tethys completely disappeared
leaving behind a monotonous aggradational plain.
• monotonous == featureless topography;
• aggradational plain == plain formed due to depositional activity.
• Indo-Gangetic plain is a monotonous aggradational plain formed due to fluvial
depositions.
• Upper peninsular rivers have also contributed to the formation of plains, but to a
very small extent.
• During recent times (since few million years), depositional work of three major
river systems viz., the Indus, the Ganga, and the Brahmaputra have become
predominant.

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 • Hence this arcuate (curved) plain is also known as Indo-Gangetic-
Brahmaputra Plain.

Longitudinal Profile – Indo Gangetic Plains

• Bhabhar
• Tarai
• Bangar
• Khadar

Bhabhar Region

• Adjacent to Shiwalik foothills, coarser materials like cobbles, pebbles, gravels,

boulders with coarse sand.
• It is a narrow, porous, northernmost stretch of the Indo-Gangetic plain.
• It is about 8-16 km wide running in an east-west direction along the
foothills (alluvial fans) of the Shiwaliks.
• They show a remarkable continuity from the Indus to the Tista.
• Rivers descending from the Himalayas deposit their load along the foothills in
the form of alluvial fans.
• These alluvial fans have merged together to build up the bhabar belt.

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 • The porosity of bhabar is the most unique feature.
• The porosity is due to the deposition of a huge number of pebbles and rock
debris across the alluvial fans.
• The streams disappear once they reach the bhabar region because of this
porosity.
• Therefore, the area is marked by dry river courses except in the rainy season.
• The Bhabar belt is comparatively narrow in the east and extensive in the
western and north-western hilly region.
• Bhabhar zones stretches from Punjab to Assam Himalayas
• It has a complex profile and general slope of 1:6000
• The area is not suitable for agriculture and only big trees with large roots
thrive in this belt.

Terai Plains

• Marshy near the Bhabhar zone, extremely flat marshy lands, densely
deforested and parallel to the mountains from Punjab to Assam
• Terai is an ill-drained, damp (marshy) and thickly forested narrow tract to the
south of Bhabar running parallel to it.
• The Terai is about15-30 km wide.
• Widest along Bihar and eastern UP and the narrowest in the east.
• The underground streams of the Bhabar belt re-emerge in this belt.
• The Terai is more marked in the eastern part than in the west because the
eastern parts receive a comparatively higher amount of rainfall.
• Most part is deforested for agriculture.
• Tarai soils are Nitrogen-rich and have a humus content
• Most of the Terai land, especially in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, and Uttarakhand, has
been turned into agricultural land which gives good crops of sugarcane, rice,
and wheat.

Bangar Region

• It extends over the whole Gangetic plain.

• The Bhangar is the older alluvium along the river beds forming terraces higher
than the flood plain.
• The terraces are often impregnated with calcareous concretions known
as ‘KANKAR’.
• ‘The Barind plains’ in the deltaic region of Bengal and the ‘bhur formations’ in
the middle Ganga and Yamuna doab are regional variations of Bhangar.
• Bhur denotes an elevated piece of land situated along the banks of the
Ganga river especially in the upper Ganga-Yamuna Doab. This has been
formed due to the accumulation of wind-blown sands during the hot dry
months of the year.
• Bhangar contains fossils of animals like rhinoceros, hippopotamus, elephants,
etc.
• It has Kankar deposits which are fragments of Limestone, thus natural
supplements of bases to the soil.
• It has been seriously degraded in several parts of UP where it is
called Usar (Infertility due to salinization) are very less.

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Barind Tract (Barind Plains)

• Barind Tract (alternately called the Varendra Tract in English and Borendro
Bhumi in Bengali) is the largest Pleistocene era physiographic unit in the Bengal
Basin. Barind Tract is the geographic region in parts of
northwestern Bangladesh and north-central West Bengal state, India.
• It lies northwest of the confluence of the upper Padma (Ganga) and Jamuna
(the name of the Brahmaputra in Bangladesh) rivers and is bordered by the
floodplains of the Mahananda River to the west and the Karatoya River to the
east—tributaries of the upper Padma and of the Jamuna, respectively.
• Barind is a comparatively high, undulating region, with reddish and yellowish
clay soils.
• It has long been recognized as a unit of old alluvium.

Khadar Region

• The Khadar is composed of newer alluvium and forms the flood plains along
the river banks.
• A new layer of alluvium is deposited by river flood almost every year.
• This makes them the most fertile soils of Ganges.

Reh or Kollar

• Reh or Kollar comprises saline efflorescences of drier areas in Haryana.

• Reh areas have spread in recent times with an increase in irrigation (capillary
action brings salts to the surface).

Transverse Profile – Indo Gangetic Plains

• Rajasthan Plains
• Punjab Plains
• Gangetic Plain
• Assam Plain (Brahmaputra Plain)

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Rajasthan Plain

• The Ghaghar basin in North, Aravallis in East

• It is a part of the Thar desert but it has alluvial deposits of Indus and its
tributaries
• In the wake of the Himalayas’ upliftment, these channels shifted to west.
• This plain is an undulating plain (wave-like) whose average elevation is about
325 m above mean sea level.
• 25cm isohyte divides the plain into marusthali in the west and Rajasthan
Bagar in the east.
• Marusthali is a desert with shifting sand dunes called Dhrian.
• This entire Marushatli region receives a rainfall of 25cm and the only tree is
Khejri (the Bishnoi tribe is associated with it).
• Rajasthan Bagar – It is semi-arid fertile tracts or green patches called ROHI.
• In the north of Luni, a sandy desert is known as THALI.

Saline Lakes

• North of the Luni, there is inland drainage having several saline lakes. They are a
source of common salt and many other salts.
• Sambhar, Didwana, Degana, Kuchaman, etc. are some of the important lakes.
The largest is the Sambhar lake near Jaipur.

Punjab Plain

• This plain is formed by five important rivers of the Indus system.

• The plain is primarily made up of ‘doabs’ —the land between two rivers.
• There are 5 doabs (Chaj, Rechna, Bist, Bari and Sindsagar).
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 • The depositional process by the rivers has united these doabs giving a
homogenous appearance.
• Punjab literally means “(The Land of) Five Waters” referring to the
following rivers: the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, and Beas.
• Extremely fertile plains but poor drainage and flood-prone.
• The total area of this plain is about 1.75 lakh sq km.
• The average elevation of the plain is about 250 m above mean sea level.
• It is bounded by 291m contour line running parallel to Delhi–Ambala ridge
which separates it from the Gangetic basin.
• The eastern boundary of the Punjab Haryana plain is marked by
subsurface Delhi-Aravali ridge.
• The northern part of this plain has been intensively eroded by numerous streams
called Chos. This has led to enormous gullying.
• To the south of the Satluj river, there is Malwa plain of Punjab.
• The area between the Ghaggar and the Yamuna rivers lies in Haryana and often
termed as ‘Haryana Tract’. It acts as a water-divide between the Yamuna and
the Satluj rivers.
• The only river between the Yamuna and the Satluj is the Ghaggar which is
considered to be the present-day Successor of the legendary Saraswati River.

Gangetic Plain

• This is the largest unit of the Great Plain of India stretching from Delhi to Kolkata
(about 3.75 lakh sq km).
• The Ganga along with its large number of tributaries originating in the
Himalayans have brought large quantities of alluvium from the mountains and
deposited it here to build this extensive plain.
• The peninsular rivers such as Chambal, Betwa, Ken, Son, etc. joining the Ganga
river system have also contributed to the formation of this plain.
• The general slope of the entire plain is to the east and south east.
• Rivers flow sluggishly in the lower sections of Ganges as a result of which the
area is marked by local prominences such as levees, bluffs, oxbow lakes,
marshes, ravines, etc. {Fluvial Landforms, Arid Landfroms}
• Almost all the rivers keep on shifting their courses making this area prone to
frequent floods. The Kosi river is very notorious in this respect. It has long been
called the ‘Sorrow of Bihar’.

Divisions of Ganga plains

• Upper Gangetic Plain

• Middle Gangetic Plain
• Lower Gangetic Plain

Upper Gangetic Plain

• 291m contour in the west, 300m contour in the North, 75m in South and 100m
contour in east forms the boundary.
• It includes
• Rohilkhand Plains: Rohila Tribe (Afghan), Bareilly, Muzaffarnagar. It is very
fertile. It has Sharda and Ramganga doabs

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 • Ganga-Yamuna Doab: Largest doab of India. It has fine dust deposits by
the aeolian process. It is famous for sugarcane cultivation.
• Yamuna – Chambal Basin: Badland region because of gully erosions,
ravines. The worst soil degraded area of India and largest degraded area.

Middle Gangetic Plain

• It is transitional plain par excellence. It is the most fertile tract of the world, which
alone can sustain the major population of India.
• It includes 3 sections :
1. Awadh Plain: B/w Ghaghra and Gomti, east UP, Flood Prone
2. Mithila Plain: B/w Gandak and Kosi, Flood Prone
3. Magadh Plain: Located east of R.Son, not flood-prone
• These transitional plains have perfect loam deposits and the groundwater level is
very high

Lower Gangetic Plain

1. Paradelta in North which is erosion bound looks like an inverted triangle,

North part of WB
2. Rarh Plains: Western section adjacent to Chota Nagour plateau, Laterite
deposits. 35m contour line separates it from Chota Nagar Plateau
3. Delta Plains: Most Extensive part of Sunderbans(1/3 in India). The braided
channel, lakes, and marshes. It is famous for inland fishing and it is known for
Jute cultivation. Sunderbans or Mangrove forests or Tidal Forests are located
towards the coastline.

Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta

• This is the largest delta in the world.

• The Ganga river divides itself into several channels in the delta area. The slope of
the land here is a mere 2 cm per km. Two-thirds of the area is below 30 m above
mean sea level. [Highly vulnerable to sea-level changes]
• The seaward face of the delta is studded with a large number of estuaries, mud
flats, mangrove swamps, sandbanks, islands, and forelands.
• A large part of the coastal delta is covered tidal forests. These are called
the Sunderbans because of the predominance of the Sundri tree here.

Brahmaputra Plain

• This is also known as the Brahmaputra valley or Assam Valley or Assam Plain as
most of the Brahmaputra valley is situated in Assam.
• Its western boundary is formed by the Indo-Bangladesh border as well as the
boundary of the lower Ganga Plain. Its eastern boundary is formed
by Purvanchal hills.
• It is an aggradational plain built up by the depositional work of the
Brahmaputra and its tributaries.
• The innumerable tributaries of the Brahmaputra river coming from the north
form a number of alluvial fans. Consequently, the tributaries branch out in many
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 channels giving birth to river meandering leading to the formation of the bill and
ox-bow lakes.
• There are large marshy tracts in this area. The alluvial fans formed by the coarse
alluvial debris have led to the formation of terai or semi-terai conditions.

Significance of the Plain

• This one-fourth of the land of the country hosts half of the Indian population.
• Fertile alluvial soils, flat surface, slow-moving perennial rivers, and favorable
climate facilitate intense agricultural activity.
• The extensive use of irrigation has made Punjab, Haryana, and the western part
of Uttar Pradesh the granary of India (Prairies are called the granaries of the
world).
• The entire plain except the Thar Desert has a close network of roads and railways
which has led to large-scale industrialization and urbanization.
• Cultural tourism: There are many religious places along the banks of the sacred
rivers like the Ganga and the Yamuna which are very dear to Hindus. Here
flourished the religions of Budha and Mahavira and the movements of Bhakti
and Sufism.

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 Indian Peninsular Plateau (Deccan Plateau)
Plateau is an area of raised land that is flat on top. Plateaus are often by themselves
with no surrounding plateau. National Geographic describes plateaus as flat and
elevated landform that rises sharply above the surrounding area on at least one
side.

Features of the Peninsular Plateau

• Roughly triangular in shape with its base coinciding with the southern edge of
the great plain of North India. The apex of the triangular plateau is at
Kanniyakumari.
• It covers a total area of about 16 lakh sq km (India as a whole is 32 lakh sq km).
• The average height of the plateau is 600-900 m above sea level (varies from
region to region).
• Most of the peninsular rivers flow west to east indicating it’s the general slope.
• Narmada-Tapti is the exception that flows from east to west in a rift (rift is
caused by a divergent boundary (Go back to Interaction of plates).
• The Peninsular Plateau is one of the oldest landforms of earth.
• It is a highly stable block composed mostly of the Archaean gneisses and
schists.
• It has been a stable shield that has gone through little structural changes since
its formation.
• Since a few hundred million years, the Peninsular block has been a land area and
has never been submerged beneath the sea except in a few places.
• Peninsular Plateau is an aggregation of several smaller plateaus, hill ranges
interspersed with river basins and valleys.

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Minor Plateaus in the Peninsular Plateau

Marwar Plateau or Mewar Plateau

• It is the plateau of eastern Rajasthan. [Marwar plain is to the west of Aravalis

whereas Marwar plateau is to the east].
• The average elevation is 250-500 m above sea level and it slopes down
eastwards.
• It is made up of sandstone, shales, and limestones of the Vindhayan period.
• The Banas River, along with its tributaries [Berach river, Khari rivers] originate
in the Aravali Range and flow towards northwest into the Chambal river. The
erosional activity of these rives makes the plateau top appear like a rolling plain.
• Rolling Plain: ‘Rolling plains’ are not completely flat: there are slight
rises and falls in the landform. Ex: Prairies of USA

Central Highland

• Also called the Madhya Bharat Pathar or Madhya Bharat Plateau.

• It is to the east of the Marwar or Mewar Upland.
• Most of the plateau comprises the basin of the Chambal river which flows in
a rift valley.
• The Kali Sindh, flowing from Rana Pratap Sagar, The Banas flowing through
Mewar plateau, and The Parwan and the Parbati flowing from Madhya Pradesh
are its main tributaries.
• It is a rolling plateau with rounded hills composed of sandstone. Thick forests
grow here.
• To the north are the ravines or badlands of the Chambal river [They are typical
to Chambal river basin].

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 ravines or badlands

Bundelkhand Upland

• Yamuna river to the north, Madhya Bharat Pathar to the west, Vindhyan
Scarplands to the east and south-east, and Malwa Plateau to the south.
• It is the old dissected (divided by a number of deep valleys) upland of the
‘Bundelkhand gneiss’ comprising of granite and gneiss.
• Spreads over five districts of Uttar Pradesh and four districts of Madhya
Pradesh.
• An average elevation of 300-600 m above sea level, this area slopes down from
the Vindhyan Scarp toward the Yamuna River.
• The area is marked by a chain of hillocks (small hill) made of granite and
sandstone.
• The erosional work of the rivers flowing here have converted it into an
undulating (wave-like surface) area and rendered it unfit for cultivation.
• The region is characterized by senile (characteristic of or caused by old age)
topography.
• Streams like Betwa, Dhasan, and Ken flow through the plateau.

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Malwa Plateau

• The Malwa Plateau roughly forms a triangle based on the Vindhyan Hills,
bounded by the Aravali Range in the west and Madhya Bharat Pathar to the
north, and Bundelkhand to the east.
• This plateau has two systems of drainage; one towards the Arabian sea
(The Narmada, the Tapi, and the Mahi), and the other towards the Bay of Bengal
(Chambal and Betwa, joining the Yamuna).
• In the north, it is drained by the Chambal and many of its right bank tributaries
like the Kali, the Sindh, and the Parbati. It also includes the upper courses of
the Sindh, the Ken, and the Betwa.
• It is composed of the extensive lava flow and is covered with black soils.
• The general slope is towards the north [decreases from 600 m in the south to
less than 500 m in the north]
• This is a rolling plateau dissected by rivers. In the north, the plateau is marked by
the Chambal ravines.

Baghelkhand

• North of the Maikal Range is the Baghelkhand.

• Made of limestones and sandstones on the west and granite in the east.
• It is bounded by the Son river on the north.
• The central part of the plateau acts as a water divide between the Son drainage
system in the north and the Mahanadi river system in the south.
• The region is uneven with general elevation varying from 150 m to 1,200 m.
• The Bharner and Kaimur are located close to the trough-axis.
• The general horizontality of the strata shows that this area has not undergone
any major disturbance.

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Rohtas Plateau

• The Rohtas Plateau (also referred to as Kaimur Plateau) is a plateau that lies in
the south-western part of Bihar.
• The Rohtas Plateau or Kaimur Plateau comprises about 800 square
miles (2,100 km2). It is an undulating table land. At Rohtasgarh it attains a
height of 1,490 feet (450 m) above sea level.
• Surrounding geography: A series of fluvial plateaux that run along the Kaimur
Range consist of a series of descending plateaux, starting with the Panna
Plateau in the west, followed by Bhander Plateau and Rewa Plateau and ending
with Rohtas plateau in the east.

Bhander Plateau

• The Bhander Plateau is a plateau in the state of Madhya Pradesh in India. It

has an area of 10,000 square kilometres.
• It links the Deccan Plateau to the south with the Indo-Gangetic Plains and
the Chota Nagpur Plateau to the north and east respectively.
• The plateau is part of the Vindhya Range in central India.
• A series of plateaux runs along the Kaimur Range. These fluvial plateaux consist
of a series of descending plateaux, starting with the Panna Plateau in the west,
followed by Bhander Plateau and Rewa Plateau, and ending with Rohtas
Plateau in the east.

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Chotanagpur Plateau

• Chotanagpur plateau represents the north-eastern projection of the Indian

Peninsula.
• Mostly in Jharkhand, the northern part of Chhatisgarh and Purulia district of
West Bengal.
• The Son River flows in the north-west of the plateau and joins the Ganga.
• The average elevation of the plateau is 700 m above sea level.
• This plateau is composed mainly of Gondwana rocks.
• The plateau is drained by numerous rivers and streams in different directions
and presents a radial drainage pattern. {Drainage Pattern}
• Rivers like the Damodar, the Subarnrekaha, the North Koel, the South
Koel, and the Barkar have developed extensive drainage basins.
• The Damodar River flows through the middle of this region in a rift valley from
west to east. Here are found the Gondwana coal fields which provide the bulk of
coal in India.
• North of the Damodar river is the Hazaribagh plateau with an average elevation
of 600 m above mean sea level. This plateau has isolated hills. It looks like a
peneplain due to large scale erosion.
• The Ranchi Plateau to the south of the Damodar Valley rises to about 600 m
above mean sea level. Most of the surface is rolling where the city of Ranchi (661
m) is located.
• At places, it is interrupted by monadnocks (an isolated hill or ridge of erosion-
resistant rock rising above a peneplain. Ex: Ayers Rock in Australia) and conical
hills.
• The Rajmahal Hills forming the northeastern edge of the Chotanagpur Plateau
are mostly made of basalt and are covered by lava flows {Basaltic Lava}.
• They run in the north-south direction and rise to an average elevation of 400 m
(the highest mount is 567 m). These hills have been dissected into separate
plateaus.

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Meghalaya Plateau

• The peninsular plateau extends further east beyond the Rajmahal hills to
from Meghalaya or the Shillong plateau.
• Garo-Rajmahal Gap separates this plateau from the main block.
• This gap was formed by down-faulting (normal fault: a block of earth slides
downwards). It was later filled by sediments deposited by the Ganga and
Brahmaputra.
• Down warping along Rajmahal–Garo hills = ‘Malda gap’
• Ganga-Brahmaputra flow through the Malda gap.
• The plateau is formed by Archaean quartzites, shales, and schists.
• The plateau slopes down to Brahmaputra valley in the north and the Surma and
Meghna valleys in the south.
• Its western boundary more or less coincides with the Bangladesh border.
• The western, central, and eastern parts of the plateau are known as the Garo
Hills (900 m), the Khasi-Jaintia Hills (1,500 m), and the Mikir Hills (700 m).
• Shillong (1,961 m) is the highest point of the plateau.

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www.lotusarise.com
Deccan Plateau
• It covers an area of about five lakh sq km.
• It is triangular in shape and is bounded by the Satpura and the Vindhya in the
north-west, the Mahadev and the Maikal in the north, the Western Ghats in the
west, and the Eastern Ghats in the east.
• Its average elevation is 600 m.
• It rises to 1000 m in the south but dips to 500 m in the north.
• Its general slope is from west to east which is indicated by the flow of its major
rivers.
• Rivers have further subdivided this plateau into a number of smaller plateaus.

Maharashtra Plateau

• The Maharashtra Plateau lies in Maharashtra.

• It forms the northern part of the Deccan Plateau.
• Much of the region is underlain by basaltic rocks of lava origin [Most of the
Deccan Traps lies in this region].
• The area looks like a rolling plain due to weathering.
• The horizontal lava sheets have led to the formation of typical Deccan Trap
topography [step like].

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 • The broad and shallow valleys of the Godavari, the Bhima, and the Krishna are
flanked [bordered on the opposite sides] by flat-topped steep-sided hills and
ridges.
• The entire area is covered by black cotton soil known as regur.

Karnataka Plateau

• The Karnataka Plateau is also known as the Mysore plateau.

• Lies to the south of the Maharashtra plateau.
• The area looks like a rolling plateau with an average elevation of 600-900 m.
• It is highly dissected by numerous rivers rising from the Western Ghats.
• The general trend of the hills is either parallel to the Western Ghats or across it.
• The highest peak (1913 m) is at Mulangiri in Baba Budan Hills in the
Chikmaglur district.
• The plateau is divided into two parts called Malnad and Maidan.
• The Malnad in Kannada means the hill country. It is dissected into deep valleys
covered with dense forests.
• The Maidan on the other hand is formed of a rolling plain with low granite hills.
• The plateau tapers between the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats in the
south and merges with the Niligiri hills there.

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Telangana plateau

• The Telangana plateau consists of Archaean gneisses.

• It is made up of Dharwar rocks. Gondwana rocks are also found in the Godavari
valley, famous for its coal fields.
• Because of the Dharwar rock strata, the plateau is rich in mineral resources.
• Its average elevation is 500-600 m.
• The southern part is higher than its northern counterpart.
• The region is drained by three river systems, the Godavari, the Krishna, and the
Penner.
• The entire plateau is divided into Ghats and the Peneplains (a vast featureless,
undulating plain which the last stage of the deposition process).

Bastar Plateau

• Bastar is a district in the southernmost region in the state of Chhattisgarh.

• It is a forested mineral rich region.
• Southern part of Chhattisgarh between the Mahanadi and Godavari rivers.
• Bisected into two parts by the Indravati River.
• Tribal dominated region.
• Under the strong grip of Naxalism.

Chhattisgarh Plain

• The Chhattisgarh plain is the only plain worth the name in the Peninsular
plateau.
• It is a saucer-shaped depression drained by the upper Mahanadi.
• The whole basin lies between the Maikala Range and the Odisha hills.
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 • The region was once ruled by Haithaivanshi Rajputs from whose thirty-six forts
(Chhattisgarh) it derives its name.
• The basin is laid with nearly horizontal beds of limestone and shales.
• The general elevation of the plain ranges from 250 m in the east to 330 m in the
west.

Dandakaranya Plateau

• Dandakaranya is a historical region in India, mentioned in Ramayana. It is

located in the Bastar region of the present-day state of Chhattisgarh in the
central part of India.
• Dandakaranya is a physiographic region in the central part of India. Extending
over a neighborhood of about 35600 square miles, it includes the Abujhmad
Hills within the west and borders the Eastern Ghats within the east.
• Abujmarh is a hilly forest area in Chhattisgarh, covering Narayanpur
district, Bijapur district, and Dantewada district. It is home to indigenous
tribes of India, including Gond, Muria, Abuj Maria, and Halbaas.
• The Dandakaranya includes parts of the Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Telangana,
and Andhra Pradesh states. It’s a dimension of about 200 miles from north to
south and about 300 miles from east to west.

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 The Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats
The Deccan plateau of India is one of the main landmasses and is studied as one of
India’s physiographic divisions. It is bordered by the Western Ghats on its west and
the Eastern Ghats on its east. The Western Ghats are continuous mountain
ranges called Sahyadri; While the Eastern Ghats are discontinuous mountain
ranges.

Western Ghats (or The Sahyadris)

The Western Ghats have been formed by the subduction of the Arabian basin and
tilting of the peninsula in east and northeast during Himalayan uplift. Thus, it wears
the look of block mountains in the west and the slope appears to be escarpments
and stairway formation.

Thus along the west coast, they look like Treppen.

The eastern section, however, is a rolling plateau with an extremely low slope and
gradually merges with the sudden plateau.

The Western Ghats is one of the eight hotspots of biological diversity in the world and
is spread across six states—Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and
Kerala.

It is a UNESCO World Heritage site. It is one of the eight “hottest hot-spots”

of biological diversity in the world. According to UNESCO, the Western Ghats are
older than the Himalayas. They influence Indian monsoon weather patterns by
intercepting the rain-laden monsoon winds that sweep in from the south-west during
late summer.

• block mountains

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 •

• block mountains – Treppen

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 • It stretches from Tapi valley to Kanyakumari.
• It is called Sahyadri till 11° N.
• It has three sections.
• Northern Western Ghats
• Middle Sahyadri(Central Western Ghats)
• Southern Western Ghats

Northern Western Ghats

• Northern Western Ghats – located B/N Tapi valley and 16° N lat. It has
a basaltic lava cover. The highest point is Kalsubai. Highly rugged and
dissected by rivers.
• The northern section of the Ghats from Tapi valley to a little north of Goa is made
of horizontal sheets of Deccan lavas (Deccan Traps).
• The average height of this section of the Ghats is 1,200 m above mean sea level,
but some peaks attain more heights.
• Kalasubai (1,646 m), Salher (1,567 m) about 90 km north of Nashik,
Mahabaleshwar (1,438 m) and Harishchandragarh (1,424 m) are important peaks.
• Thal ghat and Bhor ghat are important passes that provide passage by road and
rail between the Konkan Plains in the west and the Deccan Plateau in the east.

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The Middle Sahyadri

• The Middle Sahyadri runs from 16°N latitude up to Nilgiri hills.

• This part is made of granites and gneisses.
• This area is covered with dense forests.
• The western scarp is considerably dissected by headward erosion of the west-
flowing streams.
• The average height is 1200 m but many peaks exceed 1500 m.
• The Vavul Mala (2,339 m), the Kudremukh (1,892 m), and Pashpagiri (1,714
m) are important peaks.
• The Nilgiri Hills which join the Sahyadris near the trijunction of Karnataka, Kerala,
and TN, rises abruptly to over 2,000 m.
• They mark the junction of the Western Ghats with the Eastern Ghats.
• Doda Betta (2,637 m) and Makurti (2,554 m) are important peaks of this area.
• Central Western Ghats (B/w 16° – 11° N)- It has a granitic structure. In Karnataka,
the highest point is Mulangiri in Baba Budan Hill. This section has developed
nick points, waterfalls like Gersoppa/jog Falls over Sharavathi River
• This section has two distinctive features – Malnad, are highlands and Maidan,
plateau surface. River Kaveri emerges from Brahmagiri Hills – the lake is called
Talkaveri Lake.

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The Southern section

• The southern part of the Western Ghats is separated from the main Sahyadri
range by Pal ghat Gap (Palakkad Gap).
• It is also called the southern mountain complex.
• The high ranges terminate abruptly on either side of this gap.
• Pal ghat Gap is a rift valley. This gap is used by a number of roads and railway
lines to connect the plains of Tamil Nadu with the coastal plain of Kerala.
• It is through this gap that moist-bearing clouds of the southwest monsoon
can penetrate some distance inland, bringing rain to the Mysore region.
• South of the Pal ghat Gap there is an intricate system of steep and rugged
slopes on both the eastern and western sides of the Ghats.
• Anai Mudi (2,695 m) is the highest peak in the whole of southern India.
• Three ranges radiate in different directions from Anai Mudi. These ranges are
the Anaimalai (1800-2000 m) to the north, the Palani (900-1,200 m) to the
north-east, and the Cardamom Hills or the Ealaimalai to the south.

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 • Southern Western Ghats has 3 parallel ranges to the coast namely–
• Nilgiris
• Annamalai
• Cardamon and
• Transverse range – Palani
• Palghat gap is B/W the southern part of the Western Ghats and the main
Sahyadri
• These mountains have an average elevation of 1600 – 2500m.
• Dodabetta is the highest peak of Nilgiris
• Anamudi is the highest peak of Annamalai and South India.
• Agasti malai is the highest peak of Cardamom hills.

Eastern Ghats
• The Eastern Ghats run almost parallel to the east coast of India leaving broad
plains between their base and the coast.
• It is a chain of highly broken and detached hills starting from the Mahanadi in
Odisha to the Vagai in Tamil Nadu. They almost disappear between the Godavari
and the Krishna.
• They neither have structural unity nor physiographic continuity. Therefore
these hill groups are generally treated as independent units.
• It is only in the northern part, between the Mahanadi and the Godavari that the
Eastern Ghats exhibit true mountain character. This part comprises
the Maliya and the Madugula Konda ranges.
• The peaks and ridges of the Maliya range have a general elevation of 900-1,200
m and Mahendra Giri (1,501 m) is the tallest peak here.
• The Madugula Konda range has higher elevations ranging from 1,100 m and
1,400 m with several peaks exceeding 1,600 m. Jindhagada Peak (1690

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 m) in Araku Valley Arma Konda (1,680 m), Gali Konda (1,643 m), and Sinkram
Gutta (1,620 m) are important peaks.
• Between the Godavari and the Krishna rivers, the Eastern Ghats lose their hilly
character and are occupied by Gondwana formations (KG Basin is here).
• The Eastern Ghats reappear as more or less a continuous hill range in
Cuddapah and Kurnool districts of Andhra Pradesh where they are called
as Nallamalai Range {Naxalite hideout in AP} with a general elevation of 600-850
m.
• The southern part of this range is called the Palkodna range.
• To the south, the hills and plateaus attain very low altitudes; only Javadi
Hills and the Shevroy-Kalrayan Hills form two distinct features of 1,000 m
elevation.
• The Biligiri Rangan Hills in Karnataka (at its border with Tamil Nadu) attain a
height of 1,279 m.
• Further south, the Eastern Ghats merge with the Western Ghats.

• Geologically they are Precambrian fold mountains and the younger

contemporary to Aravalli.
• Presently they are highly dissected, fragmented and appear as hills of
denudation running roughly along the eastern coast
• Average Elevation – 150-300m ( Very low)
• They are made of different rock systems.
• Khondelite series is the major rock system, found in the central part of AP,
Orissa.
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 • Southern Part in TN has Granitic Gneiss.
• Peninsular rivers have carved out wide U shaped valleys. Thus, these mountains
are scattered.
• In TN, they are called Shevaroy Hills, Javadi Hills.
• In AP, they are caled Palkonda range, Vellikonda range and Nalamallai hills
• It is called Northern Circars b/w Godavari and Mahanadi basin, which are the
highest part of the Eastern Ghats.
• In Orissa, the highest point is Mahendragiri in Ganjam District.
• These mountains are hardly watershed, thus no rivers except R.Indravati
emerge from the Eastern Ghats.

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Difference between Western Ghats vs Eastern Ghats
Western Ghats Eastern Ghats

600 – 1200m, still higher in South 150-300 m

Rock System – Chernochete Gneiss, Khondalite, Dharwar

Due to tilting, further upliftment Further subdued

The most important watershed in southern India –

Poor Watershed
all east-flowing rivers emerging

Treppen – Like formation, look like block Ancient fold mountains and presently
mountains in the west mountains of denudation

Less Forested – Mostly dry deciduous

DenselyForested
to moist deciduous

Laterite Soils found Red Sandy soil

100cm isohyte is the crest of Western Ghats. It

Rainfall 60-100 cm
rains 150cm+ all along the west coast

Significance of the Peninsular Plateau

• There are huge deposits of iron, manganese. copper, bauxite, chromium, mica,
gold, etc.
• 98 percent of the Gondwana coal deposits of India are found in the Peninsular
Plateau.
• Besides, there are large reserves of slate, shale, sandstones, marbles, etc.
• A large part of the northwest plateau is covered with fertile black lava
soil which is extremely useful for growing cotton.
• Some hilly regions in south India are suitable for the cultivation of plantation
crops like tea, coffee, rubber, etc..
• Some low-lying areas of the plateau are suitable for growing rice.
• The highlands of the plateau are covered with different types of forests that
provide a large variety of forest products.
• The rivers originating in the Western Ghats offer great opportunities for
developing hydroelectricity and providing irrigation facilities to the agricultural
crops.
• The plateau is also known for its hill resorts such as Udagamangalam (Ooty),
Panchmarhi, Kodaikanal, Mahabaleshwar, Khandala, Matheron, Mount
Abu, etc.

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 Western and Eastern Coastal Plains of India
The Indian coastline which is 7516.6 km long covers 6100 km of mainland
coastline along with the Andaman, Nicobar, and the Lakshadweep islands.

The straight and regular coastline of India is the result of the faulting of the Gondwana
land during the Cretaceous period.

The coastline of India touches 13 states and Union Territories. The western coastal
plains are along the Arabian Sea whereas the eastern coastal plains are located
along the Bay of Bengal.

India is a country that is surrounded by the sea on three of its sides. The coastal plains
in India are along the west and east of the country. Extending up to 7516.6 km, the
coastal plains in India are of two types:

1. Western Coastal Plains of India

2. Eastern Coastal Plains of India

West Coast of India

• The west coast strip extends from the Gulf of Cambay (Gulf of Khambhat) in the
north to Cape Comorin (Kanniyakumari).
• Starting from north to south, it is divided into (i) the Konkan coast, (ii)
the Karnataka coast and (iii) the Kerala cost.
• It is made up of alluvium brought down by the short streams originating from
the Western Ghats.

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 • It is dotted with a large number of coves (a very small bay), creeks (a narrow,
sheltered waterway such as an inlet in a shoreline or channel in a marsh) and a
few estuaries. {Marine Landforms}
• The estuaries, of the Narmada and the Tapi are the major ones.
• The Kerala coast (Malabar Coast) has some lakes, lagoons and backwaters, the
largest being the Vembanad Lake.

Western Coastal Plains of India

• Rann of Kachchh in the north to Kanniyakumari in the South.
• These are narrow plains with an average width of about 65 km.
• Western coast is mainly divided into four categories
• Kachchh and Kathiawar coast
• Konkan coast
• Kanada coast
• Malabar coast

Kutch and Kathiawar region

• Kutch and Kathiawar, though an extension of Peninsular plateau (because

Kathiawar is made of the Deccan Lava and there are tertiary rocks in the Kutch
area), they are still treated as integral part of the Western Coastal Plains as they
are now levelled down.
• The Kutch Peninsula was an island surrounded by seas and lagoons. These seas
and lagoons were later filled by sediment brought by the Indus River which used

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 to flow through this area. Lack of rains in recent times has turned it into arid and
semi-arid landscape.
• Salt-soaked plain to the north of Kutch is the Great Rann. Its southern
continuation, known as the Little Rann lies on the coast and south-east of
Kachchh.
• The Kathiawar Peninsula lies to the south of the Kachchh. The central part is a
highland of Mandav Hills from which small streams radiate in all directions
(Radial Drainage). Mt. Girnar (1,117 m) is the highest point and is of volcanic
origin.
• The Gir Range is located in the southern part of the Kathiawar peninsula. It is
covered with dense forests and is famous as home of the Gir lion.

Gujarat Plain

• The Gujarat Plain lies east of Kachchh and Kathiawar and slopes towards the
west and south west.
• Formed by the rivers Narmada, Tapi, Mahi and Sabarmati, the plain includes the
southern part of Gujarat and the coastal areas of the Gulf of Khambhat.
• The eastern part of this plain is fertile enough to support agriculture, but the
greater part near the coast is covered by windblown loess (heaps of sand).

Konkan Plain

• The Konkan Plain south of the Gujarat plain extends from Daman to Goa (50 to
80 km wide).
• It has some features of marine erosion including cliffs, shoals, reefs and islands in
the Arabian Sea.
• The Thane creek around Mumbai is an important embayment (a recess in a
coastline forming a bay) which provides an excellent natural harbour.

Karnataka Coastal Plain

• Goa to Mangalore.
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 • It is a narrow plain with an average width of 30-50 km, the maximum being 70
km near Mangalore.
• At some places the streams originating in the Western Ghats descend along
steep slopes and make waterfalls.
• The Sharavati while descending over such a steep slope makes an impressive
waterfall known as Gersoppa (Jog) Falls which is 271 m high. [Angel falls (979
m) in Venezuela is the highest waterfall on earth. Tugela Falls (948 m) in
Drakensberg mountains in South Africa is the second highest.]
• Marine topography is quite marked on the coast.

Malabar Plain (Kerala Plain)

• The Kerala Plain is also known as the Malabar Plain.

• Between Mangalore and Kanniyakumari.
• This is much wider than the Karnataka plain. It is a low-lying plain.
• The existence of lakes, lagoons, backwaters, spits, etc. is a significant
characteristic of the Kerala coast.
• The backwaters, locally known as kayals are the shallow lagoons or inlets of the
sea, lying parallel to the coastline.
• The largest among these is the Vembanad Lake which is about 75 km long and
5-10 km wide and gives rise to a 55 km long spit {Marine Landforms}.

East Coast of India

• Lies between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal.
• It extends from the Ganga delta to Kanniyakumari.
• It is marked by deltas of rivers like the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna, and
the Cauvery.
• Chilka lake and the Pulicat lake (lagoon) are the important geographical features
of the east coast.

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Eastern Coastal Plains of India
• Extending from the Subarnarekha river along the West Bengal-Odisha border
to Kanniyakumari.
• A major part of the plains is formed as a result of the alluvial fillings of the littoral
zone (relating to or on the shore of the sea or a lake) by the rivers Mahanadi,
Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery comprising some of the largest deltas.
• In contrast to the West Coastal Plains, these are extensive plains with an
average width of 120 km.
• This plain is known as the Northern Circars between the Mahanadi and the
Krishna rivers and Carnatic between the Krishna and the Cauvery rivers.
• Eastern coast is divided into three categories-
• Utkal coast
• Andhra coast
• Coromandel coast

Utkal Plain

• The Utkal Plain comprises coastal areas of Odisha.

• It includes the Mahanadi delta.
• The most prominent physiographic feature of this plain is the Chilka Lake.
• It is the biggest lake in the country and its area varies between 780 sq km in
winter to 1,144 sq km in the monsoon months.
• South of Chilka Lake, low hills dot the plain.

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Andhra Plain

• South of the Utkal Plain and extends upto Pulicat Lake. This lake has been
barred by a long sand spit known as Sriharikota Island (ISRO launch facility).
• The most significant feature of this plain is the delta formation by the rivers
Godavari and Krishna.
• The two deltas have merged with each other and formed a single physiographic
unit.
• The combined delta has advanced by about 35 km towards the sea during the
recent years. This is clear from the present location of the Kolleru Lake which
was once a lagoon at the shore but now lies far inland {Coastline of Emergence}.
• This part of the plain has a straight coast and badly lacks good harbours with the
exception of Vishakhapatnam and Machilipatnam.

Tamil Nadu Plain

• The Tamil Nadu Plain stretches for 675 km from Pulicat lake to Kanniyakumari
along the coast of Tamil Nadu. Its average width is 100 km.
• The most important feature of this plain is the Cauvery delta where the plain is
130 km wide.
• The fertile soil and large scale irrigation facilities have made the Cauvery delta
the granary of South India.

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Coastlines of Emergence and Submergence
• Coastline of emergence is formed either by an uplift of the land or by the
lowering of the sea level. Coastline of submergence is an exact opposite case.
• Bars, spits, lagoons, salt marshes, beaches, sea cliffs and arches are the
typical features of emergence. {Marine Landforms}
• The east coast of India, especially its south-eastern part (Tamil Nadu coast),
appears to be a coast of emergence.
• The west coast of India, on the other hand, is both emergent and submergent.
• The northern portion of the coast is submerged as a result of faulting and the
southern portion, that is the Kerala coast, is an example of an emergent coast.

• Coromandel coast (Tamil Nadu) – Coastline of emergence

• Malabar coast (Kerala Coast) – Coastline of emergence
• Konkan coast (Maharashtra and Goa Coast) – Coastline of submergence.

Significance of Indian Coastlines

The coastlines of India extend up to 7516.6 km including the island groups Andaman
and Nicobar and Lakshadweep.

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As a result, the areas that are covered under the Indian coastlines enjoys a favorable
climate with no extreme temperature which is ideal for human development. Some of
the major significance of the coastal plains in India are mentioned below:

1. The coastal plains in India are mostly covered by fertile soils which are best for
cultivations. Rice is the major crop that is cultivated in these regions.
2. The big and small ports along the Indian coastlines help in carrying out trade.
3. The sedimentary rocks of these coastal plains are said to contain large deposits
of mineral oil which can be used as a source of marine economy.
4. Fishing has become an important occupation of the people living in coastal
areas.
5. The coastal plains in India are rich in coastal and marine ecosystems which
also include a wide range of mangroves, coral reefs, estuaries, and lagoons
serving as great tourism potential.

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 Islands of India: Andaman & Nicobar,
Lakshadweep

Islands of India (Indian Islands)

• India has a total of 1,382 off-shore identified islands.
• The major island groups of India are the Andaman and Nicobar archipelago in
the Bay of Bengal and the Lakshadweep Islands in the Arabian Sea.
• Andaman and Nicobar Islands were formed due to a collision between the
Indian Plate and Burma Minor Plate [part of Eurasian Plate][Similar to the
formation of Himalayas].
• Andaman and Nicobar Islands are a southward extension of the Arakan Yoma
range [Myanmar][Arakan Yoma in itself is an extension of Purvanchal Hills].
• Lakshadweep Islands are coral islands. These islands are a part of Reunion
Hotspot volcanism.
• Other than these two groups there are islands in the Indo-Gangetic Delta [they
are more a part of delta than islands] and between India and Sri
Lanka [Remnants of Adams Bridge or Rama’s Bridge or Rama Setu; formed
due to submergence].

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Andaman and Nicobar Islands

• Andaman and Nicobar Islands situated in the Bay of Bengal, run like a narrow
chain in the north-south direction extending between 6° 45′ N to 13° 45′ N.
• This archipelago is composed of around 265 big and small islands [203 Andaman
islands + 62 Nicobar Islands]
• The Andaman and Nicobar islands extend from 6° 45′ N to 13° 45′ N and from 92°
10′ E to 94° 15′ E for a distance of about 590 km.
• The Andaman islands are divided into three main islands i.e. North,
Middle, and South.
• Duncan passage separates Little Andaman from South Andaman.
• The Great Andaman group of islands in the north is separated by the Ten
Degree Channel from the Nicobar group in the south.

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 • The Grand Channel is between the Great Nicobar islands and the Sumatra
islands of Indonesia.
• The Coco Strait is between the North Andaman islands and the Coco Islands
of Myanmar.
• Port Blair, the capital of Andaman Nicobar Islands lies in the South Andaman.
• Among the Nicobar islands, the Great Nicobar is the largest. It is the
southernmost island and is very close to Sumatra island of Indonesia. The Car
Nicobar is the northernmost.
• Most of these islands are made of tertiary sandstone, limestone, and shale
resting on basic and ultrabasic volcanoes [Similar to the Himalayas].
• The BARREN and NARCONDAM Islands, north of Port Blair, are volcanic islands
[these are the only active volcanoes in India][There are no active volcanoes
in mainland India].
• Some of the islands are fringed with coral reefs. Many of them are covered with
thick forests. Most of the islands are mountainous.
• Saddle peak (737 m) in North Andaman is the highest peak.
• The Andaman and Nicobar Island has a tropical marine climate influenced by
the seasonal flow of monsoon winds.
• The region is under dense tropical rain forests. The coastal regions have
mangrove forests.
• Coconut fruit is the staple food of the people. Fisheries, piggery is also followed.
• The Islands are also famous for the largest and rarest species of crab, the Giant
Robber Crab. It can climb the coconut trees and break the hard shell of the fruit.
• Many islands are uninhabited. The inhabited islands are also sparsely
populated.
• The entire region is vulnerable to earthquakes as it is in the major earthquake
zone.
• The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are also known as the Emerald Islands.
• Andaman islands are home to the only known paleolithic people the
Sentinelese. The Sentinelese are one of the last humans on earth who remain
untouched by modern civilization.
• State Animal of Andaman is the dugong (sea mammal) really endemic to
Indo-Pacific seacoast areas, especially to the Andaman Islands. [Sea-cow is
a herbivorous marine mammal].

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Ritchie’s Archipelago

• Ritchie’s Archipelago is a cluster of smaller islands which lie 20 km east of

Great Andaman, the main island group of the Andaman Islands.
• Neil Island and Havelock Island is in Ritchie’s Archipelago.
• Ross Island was renamed Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose Dweep, Neil Island as
Shaheed Dweep, and the Havelock Island as Swaraj Dweep.
• Ross Island is in the South Andaman region and 3km east of Port Blair.

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Lakshadweep Islands

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 • Lakshadweep Islands situated in the Arabian Sea is a group of 36
islands having an area of 32 square kilometers and extending between 8 N and
12 N latitude.
• The main islands under the Lakshadweep Islands group are:
• Kavaratti
• Agatti
• Minicoy
• Amini
• These islands were earlier known as Laccadive, Minicoy, and Amindivi Islands.
• The name Lakshadweep was adopted on 1 November 1973
• These islands are separated from one another by very narrow straits.
• The Lakshadweep Islands group is a Union Territory administered by the
President through a Lt. Governor.
• It is the smallest Union Territory of India.
• Kavaratti is the administrative capital of the Lakshadweep Islands. It is also the
principal town of the Union Territory.
• It is a uni-district Union Territory and is comprised of 12 atolls, three reefs, five
submerged banks, and ten inhabited islands.
• The name Lakshadweep in Malayalam and Sanskrit means ‘a hundred thousand
islands‘.
• The Lakshadweep Islands are located at a distance of 280 km to 480 km off the
Kerala coast.
• These islands are a part of Reunion Hotspot volcanism.
• The entire Lakshadweep island group is made up of coral deposits.
• Fishing is the main occupation on which livelihoods of many people depend.
• The Lakshadweep islands have storm beaches consisting of unconsolidated
pebbles, shingles, cobbles, and boulders.
• Minicoy Island, located to the south of the nine-degree channel is the largest
island among the Lakshadweep group.
• 8 Degree Channel ( 8 degrees north latitude) separates islands of Minicoy and
Maldives.
• 9 Degree Channel ( 9 degrees north latitude) separates the island of Minicoy
from the main Lakshadweep archipelago.
• In the Lakshadweep region, there is an absence of forests.
• Pitti Island is an important breeding place for sea turtles and for a number of
pelagic birds such as the brown noddy, lesser crested tern, and greater crested
tern. The Pitti island has been declared a bird sanctuary.
• Most of the islands have low elevation and do not rise more than five meters
above sea level (Extremely Vulnerable to sea-level change).
• Their topography is flat and relief features such as hills, streams, valleys, etc.
are absent.

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New Moore Island

• New Moore, also known as South Talpatti and Purbasha Island is a small
uninhabited offshore sandbar landform (Marine Landforms) in the Bay of
Bengal, off the coast of the Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta region.
• It emerged in the Bay of Bengal in the aftermath of the Bhola cyclone in
November 1970. It keeps on emerging and disappearing.
• Although the island was uninhabited and there were no permanent settlements
or stations located on it, both India and Bangladesh claimed sovereignty over
it because of speculation over the existence of oil and natural gas in the
region.
• The issue of sovereignty was also a part of the larger dispute over the Radcliffe
Award methodology of settling the maritime boundary between the two
nations.

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Diu Island

• It is located off the south coast of Kathiawar. Diu is an offshore island on the
western coast, off the Gulf of Cambay, bordering the Junagarh district. It is
separated from the Gujarat Coast by a tidal creek.
• The coast has limestone cliffs, rocky coves, and sandy beaches, the best of which
are at Nagoa.
• Diu Island is famous for the historical Diu fort and beautiful beaches. A massive
fort built by the Portuguese dominates the skyline.
• Nagoa beach is the most famous in Diu. Another beautiful beach is Ghoghla
beach.

Mājuli Island

• Mājuli is a large river island in the Brahmaputra river, in Assam.

• It was formed due to course changes by the river Brahmaputra and its
tributaries, mainly the Lohit.
• It was originally a piece of land between the Brahmaputra River (north) and
Burhidihing river (south). Due to earthquakes back in medieval times, the
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 change of the Brahmaputra river course caused the formation of the Majuli
Island.
• Mājuli is also the abode of the Assamese neo-Vaisnavite culture.
• A wetland, Mājuli is a rich biodiversity spot and is home to many rare and
endangered avifauna species including migratory birds that arrive in the winter
season. Among the birds seen here are: the Greater Adjutant Stork, Pelican,
Siberian Crane, and the Whistling Teal.

Islands Off Mumbai: Butcher Island

• Butcher Island (Jawahar Dweep) is an island off the coast of Mumbai.

• It has an oil terminal used by the port authorities to offload it from oil tankers.
• The crude oil is stored in oil containers on the island. From there they are
piped to Wadala, in Mumbai where they are refined.
• This keeps the city relatively safe from a mishap. It is a restricted area and most
of the island is covered with dense vegetation.
• A hillock rises from the center of the island. It is located 8.25 kilometers (5.13 mi)
from the Gateway of India.

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Islands Off Mumbai: Elephanta Island

• Elephanta Island or Gharapuri Island is in Mumbai Harbour. It is home to the

Elephanta Caves that have been carved out of the rock.

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Islands Off Mumbai: Oyster Rock

• Oyster Rock is an island in the Mumbai harbour, Mumbai, India. It is fortified, and
owned by the Indian Navy.

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Islands off andhra pradesh: Sri Harikota

• Sriharikota is a barrier island off the coast of Andhra Pradesh.

• It houses India’s only satellite launch center in the Satish Dhawan Space Centre
(also known as SHAR) and is used by the Indian Space Research Organization to
launch satellites using multi-stage rockets such as the Polar Satellite Launch
Vehicle and the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle.
• Sriharikota separates the Pulicat Lake from the Bay of Bengal and is home to the
town of Pulicat.

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Islands Off Tamil Nadu: Pamban Island

• It is located between India and Sri Lanka in the Gulf of Mannar and in the
Ramanathapuram district of the state of Tamil Nadu.
• It is also known as Rameswaram Island.
• Most of Pamban Island is covered with white sand.
• The chain formed by Pamban Island, the shoals of Adam’s Bridge, and Mannar
Island of Sri Lanka separate Palk Bay and the Palk Strait in the northeast from
the Gulf of Mannar in the southwest.
• Pamban Island extends for around 30 kilometers in width from the township of
Pamban in the west to the remains of Dhanushkodi towards the south-east.

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Other Islands of India

• Abdul Kalam Island/ Wheeler Island- Abdul Kalam Island is located off the
Odisha coast. It is India’s most advanced missile testing site. The island was
earlier named after an English commandant Lieutenant Wheeler.
• Sagar Island-It is located in the Ganga delta in the Bay of Bengal. It is a large
island. It is also an important place of Hindu pilgrimage.
• Halliday Island-It is located in the state of West Bengal and is part of the
Sunderbans region. It is located in the river Malta. It is also designated as a
wildlife sanctuary.
• Phumdis/Floating Islands-They is located in the state of Manipur. It is part of
the Keibul Lamjao National Park. It is famous for the Eld’s deer/ Sangai.
• Munroe Island – is an inland island group located at the confluence of
Ashtamudi Lake and the Kallada River, in Kollam district, Kerala, South India.
It is a group of eight small islets comprising a total area of about 13.4 km².

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Offshore Islands

• There are numerous islands in the delta region of Ganga and in the Gulf of
Mannar.
• Among the Western coast islands Piram, Bhaisala (Kathiawar}, Diu, Vaida, Nora,
Pirtan, Karunbhar (Kachchh coast), Khadiahet, Aliabet (Narmada·Tapi mouths),
Butchers, Elephanta, Karanja, Cross (near Mumbai), Bhatkal, Pegioncock, St.
Mary {Mangalore coast), Vypin near Kochi, Pamban, Crocodile, Adunda (Gulf of
Mannar), Sri Harikota (mouth of Pulicat Lake, Pairkud (mouth of Chilka Lake),
Short, Wheeler (Mahanadi·Brahmani mouth), and New Moore, and Ganga-Sagar
and Sagar (Ganga Delta).
• Many of these islands are uninhabited and administered by the adjacent
states.

Katchatheevu Island

• It is an uninhabited off-shore island in the Palk Strait originally owned by a

king of Ramnad (present-day Ramanathapuram, Tamil Nadu).
• The island is used by fishermen to dry their nets.
• During the British rule, it was administered jointly by India and Sri Lanka.
• In the early 20th century, Sri Lanka claimed territorial ownership over the islet,
so in 1974 India ceded the island to Sri Lanka, through a joint agreement.
• Two years later through another accord, India further gave up its fishing
rights in the region.

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 Indian River System (Drainage Systems of India)

Indian River System

Most of the rivers discharge their waters into the Bay of Bengal. Some of the rivers flow
through the western part of the country and merges into the Arabian Sea. The
northern parts of the Aravalli range, some parts of Ladakh, and arid regions of the Thar
Desert have inland drainage. All major rivers of India originate from one of the three
main watersheds-

• The Himalaya and the Karakoram range

• The Chota Nagpur plateau and Vindhya and Satpura range
• The Western Ghats

Classification of Drainage Systems of India

Drainage Systems Based on the Size of the Catchment Area

Division Size of catchment area in sq km

Major river 20,000

Medium river 20,000 – 2,000

Minor river 2,000 and below

Drainage Systems Based on Origin

• The Himalayan Rivers: Perennial rivers: Indus, the Ganga, the Brahmaputra, and
their tributaries.
• The Peninsular Rivers: Non-Perennial rivers: Mahanadi, the Godavari, the
Krishna, the Cauvery, the Narmada, and the Tapi and their tributaries.

Drainage Systems Based on the Type of Drainage

The river systems of India can be classified into four groups viz.

• Himalayan rivers, Deccan rivers, and Coastal rivers that drain into the sea.
• Rivers of the inland drainage basin (endorheic basin). Streams like the Sambhar
in western Rajasthan are mainly seasonal in character, draining into the inland
basins and salt lakes. In the Rann of Kutch, the only river that flows through the
salt desert is the Luni.

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Drainage Systems Based on Orientation to the sea

• The Bay of Bengal drainage (Rivers that drain into the Bay of Bengal)(East
flowing rivers)
• Arabian sea drainage (Rivers that drain into the Arabian sea)(West flowing rivers).
• The rivers Narmada (India’s holiest river) and Tapti flow almost parallel to each
other but empty themselves in opposite directions (West flowing). The two rivers
make the valley rich in alluvial soil and teak forests cover much of the land.

The Bay of Bengal drainage Arabian Sea drainage

Rivers that drain into Bay of Bengal Rivers that drain into Arabian sea

East flowing rivers West flowing rivers

~ 77 per cent of the drainage area of the

~ 23 per cent of the drainage area of the country is
country is oriented towards the Bay of
oriented towards the Arabian sea
Bengal

The Ganga, the Brahmaputra, the Mahanadi, The Indus, the Narmada, the Tapi, the Sabarmati,
the Godavari, the Krishna, the Cauvery, the the Mahi and the large number of swift flowing
Penneru, the Penneiyar, the Vaigai, etc. western coast rivers descending from the Sahyadris.

• The area covered by The Bay of Bengal drainage and Arabian Sea drainage are
not proportional to the amount of water that drains through them.

Over 90 per cent of the water drains into the Bay of Bengal; the rest is drained into
the Arabian Sea or forms inland drainage.

Contribution of Water by Various Rivers

River % Contribution of water

Brahmaputra ~ 40

Ganga ~ 25

Godavari ~ 6.4

Mahanadi ~ 3.5

Krishna ~ 3.4

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 Narmada ~ 2.9

Rest ~ 20

Major River System or Drainage Systems in India

Himalayan River systems

• Indus River System

• Brahmaputra River System
• Ganga River System

Peninsular River Systems

• Godavari River System

• Krishna River System
• Cauvery River System
• Mahanadi River System

West Flowing Peninsular River Systems

• Narmada River System

• Tapti River System
• Sabarmati River
• Mahi River
• Luni River

The Indus River System

The Indus arises from the northern slopes of the Kailash range in Tibet near Lake
Manasarovar.

• It has a large number of tributaries in both India and Pakistan and has a total
length of about 2897 km from the source to the point near Karachi where it falls
into the Arabian Sea out of which approx 700km lies in India.
• It enters the Indian Territory in Jammu and Kashmir by forming a picturesque
gorge.
• In the Kashmir region, it joins with many tributaries – the Zaskar, the Shyok, the
Nubra and the Hunza.
• It flows between the Ladakh Range and the Zaskar Range at Leh.
• It crosses the Himalayas through a 5181 m deep gorge near Attock, which is lying
north of Nanga Parbat.

The major tributaries of the Indus River in India are Jhelum, Ravi, Chenab, Beas, and
Sutlej.

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The Brahmaputra River System
The Brahmaputra originates from Mansarovar Lake, which is also a source of the
Indus and Sutlej.

• It is 3848kms long, a little longer than the Indus River.

• Most of its course lies outside India.
• It flows parallel to the Himalayas in the eastward direction. When it reaches
Namcha Barwa, it takes a U-turn around it and enters India in the state of
Arunachal Pradesh.
• Here it is known as the Dihang River. In India, it flows through the states of
Arunachal Pradesh and Assam and is connected by several tributaries.
• The Brahmaputra has a braided channel throughout most of its length in Assam.

The river is known as the Tsangpo in Tibet. It receives less volume of water and has
less silt in the Tibet region. But in India, the river passes through a region of heavy
precipitation, and as such, the river carries large amounts of water during rainfall and a
significant amount of silt. It is considered one of the largest rivers in India in terms of
Volume. It is known for creating the calamity in Assam and Bangladesh.

Ganga River System

• The Ganga originates as the Bhagirathi from the Gangotri glacier.

• Before it reaches Devprayag in the Garhwal Division, the Mandakini, Pindar, the
Dhauliganga and the Bishenganga rivers merge into the Alaknanda, and the
Bheling drain into the Bhagirathi.
• The Pindar River rises from East Trishul and Nanda Devi unite with the
Alaknanda at Karan Prayag. The Mandakini meets at Rudraprayag.
• The water from both Bhagirathi and the Alaknanda flows in the name of the
Ganga at Devprayag.

The concept of Panch Prayag

1. Vishnuprayag: where the river Alaknanda meets river Dhauli Ganga

2. Nandprayag: where river Alaknanda meets river Nandakini
3. Karnaprayag: where river Alaknanda meets river Pinder
4. Rudraprayag: where river Alaknanda meets river Mandakini
5. Devprayag: where river Alaknanda meets river Bhagirathi -GANGA

The principal tributaries of the Ganga are Yamuna, Damodar, Sapta Kosi, Ram Ganga,
Gomati, Ghaghara, and Son. The river after traveling a distance of 2525 km from its
source meets the Bay of Bengal.

Yamuna River System

• The Yamuna River is the largest tributary of the Ganga River.

• It originates from the Yamunotri glacier, at the Bandarpoonch peak in
Uttarakhand.
• The main tributaries joining the river include the Sin, Hindon, Betwa Ken, and
Chambal.
• The Tons is the largest tributary of the Yamuna.
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 • The catchment of the river extends to the states of Delhi, Himachal Pradesh,
Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Madhya Pradesh.

The Narmada River System

• The Narmada is a river located in central India.

• It rises to the summit of the Amarkantak Hill in Madhya Pradesh state.
• It outlines the traditional frontier between North India and South India.
• It is one of the major rivers of peninsular India. Only the Narmada, the Tapti, and
the Mahi rivers run from east to west.
• The river flows through the states of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and Maharashtra.
• It drains into the Arabian Sea in the Bharuch district of Gujarat.

The Tapi River System

• It is a central Indian river. It is one of the most important rivers of peninsular

India with the run from east to west.
• It originates in the Eastern Satpura Range of southern Madhya Pradesh state.
• It flows in a westward direction, draining some important historic places like
Madhya Pradesh’s Nimar region, East Vidarbha region and Maharashtra’s
Khandesh in the northwest corner of the Deccan Plateau and South Gujarat
before draining into the Gulf of Cambay of the Arabian Sea.
• The River Basin of Tapi River lies mostly in eastern and northern districts
Maharashtra state.
• The river also covers some districts of Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat as well.
• The principal tributaries of Tapi River are Waghur River, Aner River, Girna River,
Purna River, Panzara River and Bori River.

The Godavari River System

• The Godavari River is the second-longest course in India with brownish

water.
• The river is often referred to as the Dakshin (South) Ganga or Vriddh (Old) Ganga.
• It is a seasonal river, dried during the summers, and widens during the
monsoons.
• This river originates from Trimbakeshwar, near Nasik in Maharashtra.
• It flows southeast across south-central India through the states of Madhya
Pradesh, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Orissa, and drains into the Bay of
Bengal.
• The river forms a fertile delta at Rajahmundry.
• The banks of this river have many pilgrimage sites, Nasik(MH),
Bhadrachalam(TS), and Trimbak. Some of its tributaries include Pranahita
(Combination of Penuganga and Warda), Indravati River, Bindusara, Sabari, and
Manjira.
• Asia’s largest rail-cum-road bridge which links Kovvur and Rajahmundry is
located on the river Godavari.

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The Krishna River System

• Krishna is one of the longest rivers of India, which originates from

Mahabaleshwar in Maharashtra.
• It flows through Sangli and drains the sea in the Bay of Bengal.
• The river flows through the states of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana and
Andhra Pradesh.
• Tungabhadra River is the main tributary which itself is formed by the Tunga and
Bhadra rivers that originate in the Western Ghats.
• Dudhganga Rivers, Koyna, Bhima, Mallaprabha, Dindi, Ghataprabha, Warna,
Yerla, and Musi are some of the other tributaries.

The Cauvery River System

• The Cauvery is also known as Ganges of South India “Dakshi Bharat ki

Ganga”.
• It originates from Talakaveri located in the Western Ghats.
• It is a famous pilgrimage and tourist place in the Kodagu district of Karnataka.
• The headwaters of the river are in the Western Ghats range of Karnataka state,
and from Karnataka through Tamil Nadu.
• The river drains into the Bay of Bengal. The river supports irrigation for
agriculture and is considered as a means of support of the ancient kingdoms
and modern cities of South India.
• The river has many tributaries called Arkavathy, Shimsha, Hemavati, Kapila,
Shimsha, Honnuhole, Amaravati, Lakshmana Kabini, Lokapavani, Bhavani,
Noyyal, and Tirtha.

The Mahanadi River System

• The Mahanadi originates from the Satpura Range of central India and it is a river
in eastern India.
• It flows east to the Bay of Bengal. The river drains of the state of Maharashtra,
Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Orissa.
• The largest dam, the Hirakud Dam is built on the river.

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 Ganga River System
The Ganga river system outspreads in India, Tibet (China), Nepal and Bangladesh. It is
the largest river basin in India and accounts for about one-fourth of the total area of
the country. It covers states of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Bihar, West
Bengal, Uttarakhand, Jharkhand, Haryana, Chhattisgarh, Himachal Pradesh and Union
Territory of Delhi.

Ganga River System

• The Ganga is formed from the 6 headstreams and their five confluences.
• The Alaknanda River meets the Dhauliganga River at Vishnuprayag, the
Nandakini River at Nandprayag, the Pindar River to form the Ganga main
stream.
• The Bhagirathi, considered to be the source stream: rises at the foot of
Gangotri Glacier, at Gaumukh, at an elevation of 3892m and fanning out into
the 350km wide Ganga delta, it finally empties into the Bay of Bengal.
• From Devapryag the river is called as Ganga.
• Ganga debouches [emerge from a confined space into a wide, open area] from
the hills into the plain area at It is joined by the Yamuna at Allahabad.
• Near Rajmahal Hills it turns to the south-east.
• At Farraka, it bifurcates into Bhagirathi-Hugli in West Bengal and Padma-
Meghna in Bangladesh (it ceases to be known as the Ganga after Farraka).
• Brahmaputra (or the Jamuna as it is known here) joins Padma-Meghna at.
• The total length of the Ganga river from its source to its mouth (measured along
the Hugli) is 2,525 km.
• Haridwar, Kanpur, Soron, Kannauj, Allahabad, Varanasi, Patna, Ghazipur,
Bhagalpur, Mirzapur, Ballia, Buxar, Saidpur, and Chunar are the important
towns.
• It has long been considered holy by Hindus and worshipped as the goddess
Ganga in Hinduism.

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The Five Prayags

1. Devaprayag, the place of confluence of Bhagirathi river and Alaknanda river.

2. Rudraprayag, the place of confluence of Mandakini river and Alaknanda river.
3. Nandaprayag, the place of confluence of Nandakini river and Alaknanda river.
4. Karnaprayag, the place of confluence of Pindar river and Alaknanda river.
5. Vishnuprayag, the place of confluence of Dhauliganga river and Alaknanda river.

Ganga–Brahmaputra Delta

• Before entering the Bay of Bengal, the Ganga, along with the Brahmaputra,
forms the largest delta of the world between the Bhagirathi/Hugli and
the Padma/Meghna covering an area of 58,752 sq km.
• The coastline of the delta is a highly indented area.
• The delta is made of a web of distributaries and islands and is covered by dense
forests called the
• A major part of the delta is a low-lying swamp that is flooded by marine water
during high tide.

ALAKNANDA

• It is one of the headstreams of the Ganga.

• It rises at the confluence and feet of the Satopanth and Bhagirath glaciers in
Uttarkhand.
• It meets the Bhagirathi River at Devprayag after which it is called as the
Ganga.
• Its main tributaries are the Mandakini, Nandakini, and Pindar rivers.
• The Alaknanda system drains parts of Chamoli, Tehri, and Pauri districts
• The Hindu pilgrimage center of Badrinath and the natural spring Tapt Kund lie
along the banks of the Alaknanda River
• At Its origin, Lake Satopanth is a triangular lake located at a height of 4402m
and named after the Hindu trinity Lord Brahma, Lord Vishnu, and Lord Shiva.

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BHAGIRATHI

• It is one of the two most important headstreams of the Ganga which meets
the Alaknanda at Devprayag to form the Ganga
• It rises at the foot of Gangotri Glacier, at Gaumukh, at an elevation of 3892m
at the base of Chaukhamba peak in the Uttarkashi district of Uttarakhand
• The upper catchment of the river is glaciated
• It cuts spectacular gorges in its middle course where it has cut through granites
and crystalline rocks of the central Himalayan axis
• Gangotri, Uttarkashi, and Tehri are important settlements along the river.

Dhauliganga

• It originates from Vasudhara Tal, perhaps the largest glacial lake in

Uttarakhand.
• Dhauliganga is one of the important tributaries of Alaknanda, the other being
the Nandakini, Pindar, Mandakini and Bhagirathi.
• Dhauliganga is joined by the Rishiganga river at Raini.
• It merges with the Alaknanda at Vishnuprayag.
• There it loses its identity and the Alaknanda flows southwest through
Chamoli, Maithana, Nandaprayag, Karnaprayag until it meets the
Mandakini river, coming from the north at Rudraprayag.
• After subsuming Mandakini, the Alaknanda carries on past Srinagar,
before joining the Ganga at Devprayag.
• Alaknanda then disappears and the mighty Ganga carries on its journey, first
flowing south then west through important pilgrimage centres such as
Rishikesh and finally descending into the Indo-Gangetic plains at Haridwar.
• Tapovan Vishnugad Hydropower Project being constructed on the
Dhauliganga.

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Rishiganga River

• It is a river in the Chamoli district, Uttarakhand.

• It springs from the Uttari Nanda Devi Glacier on the Nanda Devi Mountain.
• It is also fed from the Dakshini Nanda Devi Glacier.
• It flows through the Nanda Devi National Park and merges into
the Dhauliganga River near the village Raini.

Major Tributaries of the Ganga River

• Right Bank Tributaries of the Ganga River
• Yamuna River
• Chambal River
• Banas River
• Sind River
• Betwa River
• Ken River
• Son River
• Damodar River
• Left Bank Tributaries of the Ganga River
• Ramganga River
• Gomti River
• Ghaghra River
• Kali River
• Gandak River
• Burhi Gandak
• Kosi River
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In this article, We will read mainly Left Bank Tributaries of The Ganga River. In the
next article, we will read about Right Bank Tributaries (i.e Yamuna River System).

RAMGANGA

• A tributary of the Ganga river, it drains south-western Kumaun.

• Ramganga River originates in the southern slopes of Dudhatoli Hill in the
Chamoli district of Uttarakhand.
• It is fed by springs emanating from the reservoirs of underground water
• The prominent geomorphic features found in its tract across the lower
Himalayan hills of Almora district are incised meanders, paired and unpaired
terraces, interlocking spurs, waterfalls, rock benches, cliffs, and towering ridges
• It also flows through the dun valley of Corbett National Park.
• There is a dam built across the Ramganga at Kalagarh
• It finally meets the Ganga near Kannauj.
• Bareilly city is situated on its banks.

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GOMTI

• It originates from Gomat Taal which formally is known as Fulhaar jheel, near
Madho Tanda, Pilibhit in UP.
• It extends 900km through UP and meets the Ganges River in Ghazipur.
• At the Sangam of Gomti and Ganga, the famous Markandey Mahadeo temple
is situated.
• The most important tributary is the Sai River, which joins near Jaunpur
• The cities of Lucknow, Lakhimpur Kheri, Sultanpur and Jaunpur are located on
the banks of Gomti
• The river cuts the Jaunpur city into equal halves and becomes wider in Jaunpur.

GHAGHARA

• The Ghaghara originates in the glaciers of Mapchachungo.

• Alternatively known as Karnali or Kauriala, it is a trans-boundary perennial
river originating from the Tibetan plateau near Lake Mansarovar.
• It cuts through the Himalayas in Nepal and is joined by the Sharda River at
Brahmaghat in India
• It is a major left-bank tributary of the Ganga and joins it at Chhapra in Bihar.
• Its total length is 1080km
• This river is the main source of water in Bara-Banki District of UP.
• Rapti, Chhoti Gandak, Sharda, and Sarju are the major tributaries of this river.

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SHARDA

• The Sarda river rises in the Milam glacier in the Nepal Himalayas where it is
known as the Goriganga.
• The Sharda originates from the Greater Himalayas at Kalapaani at an altitude of
3600m in the Pithoragarh District of Uttarakhand.
• Kalapaani is situated on the route of Kailash Manasarovar Yatra tour
• It is named as River Mahakali in Nepal and the name is after the Goddess Kali
whose temple is situated in Kalapaani near the Lipu-Lekh pass at the border
between India and the Tibet
• The river borders the Nepalese Mahakali Zone and Uttarkhand.
• The river flows in a gorge section in the upper region.
• The Mahakali after it descends into the plains into India is known as Sarda,
which meets the Ghaghara.

SARAYU

• (Also called Sarju). It is a river that flows through UP.

• Sarayu is a river that originates at a ridge south of Nanda Kot mountain in
Bageshwar district in Uttarakhand.
• This river is of ancient significance, finding mentions in Vedas and Ramayana
• It is a left-bank tributary of River Ghaghara
• On Ram Navami, the festival that celebrates the birthday of Lord Ram,
thousands of people take a dip in the sacred river Sarayu at Ayodhya.
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RAPTI

• The Rapti rises south of a prominent E-W ridgeline midway b/w the western
Dhaulagiri Himalaya and the Mahabharat Range in Nepal
• The mainstream of this river rises as a spring in the southern slopes of the
Lower Himalayas
• The river is essentially fed by underground water
• It has the tendency of recurrent floods that led to its nickname “Gorakpur’s
Sorrow”
• Lungri Khola, Jhimruk Khola, Ami River, Rohini River are the major left-bank, and
Arun Khola is the right bank tributary of the Rapti.

GANDAK

• It is formed by the union of the Kali and Trisuli rivers, which rise in the Great
Himalayan Range in Nepal
• From this junction to the Indian border the river is called the Narayani
• It enters the Ganga river opposite Patna in a place called Sonepur after a
winding course of 765 km
• The Burhi Gandak flows parallel to and east of the Gandak River
• The upper catchment area of the river is bleak and desolate lying in the rain
shadow area of the Himalayan range

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 • The middle and the lower courses of the river flows through the V-shaped
valleys, incised meanders, and have paired and unpaired terraces on either sides.

BURHI GANDAK

• This 320km long river originates from Chautarva Chaur near Bisambharpur in
the district of West Champaran district of Bihar
• It initially flows through the East Champaran district.
• After flowing for a distance of about 56km the river takes a southerly turn where
two rivers – the Dubhara and the Tour- join it.
• Thereafter, the river flows in a south-easterly direction through the Muzaffarpur
district for about 32km.
• It flows parallel to and east of the Gandak River in an old channel.
• The main tributaries of the Burhi Gandak are – Masan, Balor, Pandai, Sikta,
Tilawe, Tiur, Dhanauti, Kohra, and Danda
• Samastipur is situated on it.
• There is no major or medium project over the Burhi Gandak river system.

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KOSI

• Aka Saptakoshi for its 7 Himalayan tributaries, it is an antecedent

transboundary river flowing through Nepal and India
• Some of the rivers of the Kosi system, such as the Arun, the Sun Kosi, and the
Bhote Koshi, originate in the Tibet
• This 729km long river is one of the largest tributaries of the Ganga and joins it
at Kursela in Kathiar district
• The highest peak in the world, Mt.Everest and the Kanchenjunga are in the
Kosi catchment.
• Bagmati is an important tributary of the Kosi.
• Over the last 250 years, the Kosi river has shifted its course over 120km from east
to west
• Its unstable nature has been attributed to the heavy silt it carries during the
monsoon season, Due to this, it is also termed as “The Sorrow of Bihar”.

SON RIVER

• The Son, 784km long, originates near Amarkantak in MP, just east of the
headwater of the Narmada River, and flows north-northwest through MP
before turning sharply eastward where it encounters the southwest-northeast
running Kaimur Range

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 • The Son parallels the Kaimur hills, flowing east-northeast through UP,
Jharkhand, and Bihar states to join the Ganga just above Patna
• Geologically. The lower valley of the Son is an extension of the Narmada Valley,
and the Kaimur Range an extension of the Vindhya Range
• Dehri is the major town situated on Son River.
• Tributaries of Son river
• Right – Gopad Rive, Rihand River, Kanhar River, North Koel River
• Left – Ghaggar River, Johila River, Chhoti Mahanadi River
• Its chief tributaries are the Rihand and the North Koel. It is largely forested
and sparsely populated.

Son river tributaries

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RIHAND

• The Rihand rises from Matiranga Hills in the region southwest of the Mainpat
plateau, which is about 1000m in Chhatisgarh
• The Rihand and its tributaries form a fertile plain in the central part of the district
stretching from around Ambikapur to Lakhanpur and Pratappur
• Thereafter, it flows north into Sonbhadra district of UP, where it joins the Son.
• Its principal tributaries are the Mahan, the Morana(Morni), the Geur, the Gagar,
the Gobri, the Piparkachar, the Ramdia, and the Galphulla
• The Rihand Dam was constructed across the Rihand River near Pipri in
Sonbadra district of Mirzapur division in 1962 for hydropower generation: the
reservoir impounded behind the dam is called Govind Ballabh Pant Sagar.

NORTH KOEL

• This 260km long river rises on the Ranchi plateau and enters Palamau division
below Netarhat near Rud
• After flowing nearly due west for about 30km, it turns north at an almost
complete right angle through a gorge at Kutku and flows through the centre of
the district till it falls into the Son a few miles northwest of Haidamagar
• The North Koel, along with its tributaries, meanders through the northern
part of Betla National Park
• The principal tributaries are the Auranga, the Amanat, and the Burha.

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Namami Gange Yojana
• Namami Gange Project or Namami Ganga Yojana is an ambitious Union
Government Project which integrates the efforts to clean and protect the
Ganga river in a comprehensive manner.
• It its maiden budget, the government announced Rs. 2037 Crore towards this
mission.
• The project is officially known as the Integrated Ganga Conservation Mission
project or ‘Namami Ganga Yojana’. This project aims at Ganga Rejuvenation by
combining the existing ongoing efforts and planning under it to create a
concrete action plan for the future.
• It is being operated under the Department of Water Resources, River
Development, and Ganga Rejuvenation, Ministry of Jal Shakti.
• It has an Rs. 20,000-crore, centrally-funded, non-lapsable corpus and
consists of nearly 288 projects.
• Will cover 8 states, 47 towns & 12 rivers under the project.
• Over 1,632-gram panchayats on the banks of Ganga to be made open
defecation-free by 2022.
• Several ministries are working with the nodal Water Resources Ministry for this
project includes – Environment, Urban Development, Shipping, Tourism & Rural
Development Ministries.
• The prime focus will be on involving people living on the river’s banks in this
project.
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 • The program is being implemented by the National Mission for Clean Ganga
(NMCG), and its state counterpart organizations i.e., State Program
ManagementGroups (SPMGs).
• NMCG is the implementation wing of National Ganga Council (set in 2016;
which replaced the National Ganga River Basin Authority (NRGBA).
• Setting river centric urban planning process to facilitate better citizen connects,
through interventions at Ghats and Riverfronts.
• Expansion of coverage of sewerage infrastructure in 118 urban habitations on
banks of Ganga.
• Enforcement of Ganga specific River Regulatory Zones.
• Development of rational agricultural practices & efficient irrigation methods.
• Setting Ganga Knowledge Centre.
• Pollution will be checked through
• Treatment of wastewater in drains by applying the bio-remediation method.
• Treatment of wastewater through in-situ treatment.
• Treatment of wastewater by the use of innovative technologies.
• Treatment of wastewater through municipal sewage & effluent treatment plants.
• Introducing immediate measures to arrest the inflow of sewage.
• Introducing PPP approach for pollution control.
• Introduction of 4-battalion of Territorial Army Ganga Eco-Task Force.

Other Initiatives Taken

• Ganga Action Plan: It was the first River Action Plan that was taken up by the
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change in 1985, to improve the
water quality by the interception, diversion, and treatment of domestic sewage.
• The National River Conservation Plan is an extension to the Ganga Action
Plan. It aims at cleaning the Ganga river under Ganga Action Plan phase-2.
• National River Ganga Basin Authority (NRGBA): It was formed by the
Government of India in the year 2009 under Section-3 of the Environment
Protection Act, 1986.
• It declared the Ganga as the ‘National River’ of India.
• Clean Ganga Fund: In 2014, it was formed for cleaning up of the Ganga, setting
up of waste treatment plants, and conservation of biotic diversity of the river.
• Bhuvan-Ganga Web App: It ensures the involvement of the public in the
monitoring of pollution entering into the river Ganga.
• Ban on Waste Disposal: In 2017, the National Green Tribunal banned the
disposal of any waste in the Ganga.

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 Yamuna River System
• It originates from the Yamunotri Glacier on the southwestern slopes
or Banderpoonch peak in the Mussoorie range of the lower Himalayas.
• Flows along states of Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana enters Delhi and
merges with the Ganga near Triveni Sangam, Allahabad(Prayagraj).
• The largest tributary of the Ganga in the northern plains.
• Its main affluent in the upper reaches is the Tons which also rises from
the Bandarpunch glacier.
• It joins the Yamuna below Kalsi before the latter leaves the hills.
• At this site, the water carried by the Tons is twice the water carried by the
Yamuna.
• The total length of the Yamuna from its origin till Allahabad is 1,376 km.
• It creates the highly fertile alluvial, Yamuna-Ganges Doab region between itself
and the Ganges in the Indo-Gangetic plain.
• The cities of Bhagpat, Delhi, Noida, Mathura, Agra, Firozabad, Etawah, Hamirpur,
and Allahabad lie on its banks.

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Major Tributaries of Yamuna River
• Tons
• Giri
• Hindon
• Chambal
• Banas
• Kali Sindh
• Parbati
• Sind
• Betwa
• Dashan
• Ken

Tons River

• The Tons is the longest tributary of the Yamuna River and its flows
through Garhwal, the western part of the Himalayan state of Uttaranchal.
• The river originates at an elevation of 3900 m and joins the Yamuna below Kalsi
near Dehradun, Uttarakhand.
• It is one of the most major perennial Indian Himalayan rivers. It is the biggest
tributaries of the Yamuna.

Giri River

• The river Giri is an important tributary of the Yamuna River. It is the main
source of water in the South-Eastern Himachal Pradesh.
• The Giri is famous in the Jubbal, Rohru hills that rise from Kupar peak just above
Jubbal town after flowing across the heart of Shimla hills and then flows down in
the southeastern direction dividing the Sirmaur district into equal parts that are
known as Cis-Giri and Trans-Giri region and join Yamuna upstream of Paonta
below Mokkampur.
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Hindon River

• Hindon River is an important tributary of the Yamuna River. In fact, this river
is sand-witch between two major rivers: Ganga on the left and Yamuna on
the right.
• Hindon originates from upper Shiwalik (Lower Himalayas). It is a purely rain-fed
river with a catchment area of about 7,083 sq. km.
• This river has a total run of about 400 km.
• The width of the Hindon River ranges from 20 m to 160 m.

Chambal River

• Chambal River is also known as Charmanwati orCharmawati

• The 960km long Chambal river originates from Janapao Hilis of the Vindhya
range.
• 15km West-South-West of Mhow in Indore district in Madhya Pradesh.
• Utilized for hydropower generation at Gandhi Sagar dam, Rana Pratap Sagar
dam, Jawahar Sagar Dam and the Kota Barrrage.
• The river flows much below its banks due to severe erosion because of poor
rainfall and numerous deep ravines have been formed in the Chambal Valley,
giving rise to badland topography. {Arid Landforms}

Dams on the Chambal

• The Gandhi Sagar dam is the first of the four dams built on the Chambal River,
located on the Rajasthan-Madhya Pradesh border.

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 • The Rana Pratap Sagar dam is a dam located 52 km downstream of Gandhi
Sagar dam on across the Chambal River in Chittorgarh district in Rajasthan.
• The Jawahar Sagar Dam is the third dam in the series of Chambal Valley
Projects, located 29 km upstream of Kota city and 26 km downstream of Rana
Pratap Sagar dam.
• The Kota Barrage is the fourth in the series of Chambal Valley Projects, located
about 0.8 km upstream of Kota City in Rajasthan.
• Water released after power generation at Gandhi Sagar dam, Rana Pratap Sagar
dam and Jawahar Sagar Dams, is diverted by Kota Barrage for irrigation in
Rajasthan and in Madhya Pradesh through canals.

Keoladeo National Park is supplied with water from Chambal river irrigation project.

Banas River

• Also known as ‘Van Ki Asha'(Hope of forest),

• Originates in the Aravalli Range in Rajsamand District of Rajasthan.
• The cities of Nathdwara, Jawanpur, and Tonk lie on the river.
• Its entire, course is in Rajasthan only.

Kali Sindh

• Flows in the Malwa region of Madhya Pradesh, that joins the Chambal River
near Sawai Madhopur In Rajasthan
• Kali Sindh originates in Madhya Pradesh.

Parbati

• Originates in the northern slopes of the Vindhya Range in Madhya Pradesh,

flows through Kota District and Jhalawar District of Rajasthan.
• Runs for about 436km and has a catchment area of nearly 3,070 sq miles.
• Joins the right bank of the Chambal
• The city of Guna (MP) lies on it.

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Sindh

• The Sindh originates on the Malwa Plateau in Vidisha district,

• Flows north-northeast through the districts of Guna, Ashoknagar, Shivpuri, Datia,
Gwalior, and Bhind in MadhyaPradesh
• Join the Yamuna River in Etawah District, Uttar Pradesh
• Flows through Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh.

Betwa

• Also called as Vetravati

• Rises in the Vindhya Range north of Hoshangabad in Madhya Pradesh.
• The confluence of the Betwa and the Yamuna Rivers takes place in
the Hamirpur town in Uttar Pradesh.
• Dhasan is the main tributary.
• Rajghat Dam located on the river.

Dhasan River

• It is a right-bank tributary of the Betwa River.

• Originates in Raisen District in Madhya Pradesh.
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 • Flows through Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.

Ken River

• The Ken River originates from the slopes of Kaimur Range in Jabalpur district
in Madhya Pradesh
• Merge with the Yamuna near Fatehpur in UP.
• The Ken valley separates the Rewa Plateau from the Satna Plateau.
• The Ken River passes through Penna National Park.

Important cities through which Yamuna passes

State Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Delhi

Cities Delhi, Noida, Mathura, Agra, Firozabad, Etawah, Kalpi, Hamirpur, and Prayagraj lie on its banks.

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 Brahmaputra River System
• The Brahmaputra (meaning the son of Brahma).
• The Brahmaputra’s source is the Chemayungdung glacier in
southwestern Tibet. It’s source is very close to the sources of Indus and Satluj.
• Mariam La separates the source of the Brahmaputra from the Manasarovar
Lake.
• In Tibet, it passes through the depression formed by the Indus-Tsangpo
Structure Zone between the Great Himalayas in the south and the Kailas Range
in the north.
• Inspite of the exceptionally high altitude, the Tsangpo has a gentle slope. The
river is sluggish and has a wide navigable channel for about 640 km.
• It receives a large number of tributaries in Tibet. The first major tributary is the
Raga Tsangpo meeting the Tsangpo near Lhatse Dzong.
• It flows as the Yarlung Tsangpo River across southern Tibet to break through
the Himalayas in great gorges and into Arunachal Pradesh where it is known
as Dihang.
• Just west of the town of Sadiya, the Dihang turns to the southwest and is
joined by two mountain streams, the Lohit and the Dibang.
• Below the confluence, the river is known as the Brahmaputra.
• It flows through Bangladesh as the Jamuna where it merges with
the Ganga to form a vast delta, the Sunderbans.
• The biggest and the smallest river islands in the world, Majuli, and
Umananda respectively, are in the river in the state of Assam.
• Dibrugarh, Pasighat, Neamati, Tezpur, and Guwahati are the important urban
centers on the river.

Region Name

Tibet Tsangpo (meaning ‘The Purifier’)

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 China Yarlung Zangbo Jiangin

Assam Valley Dihang or Siong, South of Sadiya: Brahmaputra

Bangladesh Jamuna River

Bangladesh Padma River: Combined Waters of Ganga and Brahmaputra

Bangladesh Meghana: From the confluence of Padma and Meghna

Major Tributaries of the Brahmaputra River

Left bank – Dhansiri, Lohit, Dibang

Right Bank – Subansiri, Kameng, Manas, Sankosh

Subansiri River

• Subansiri River is also called as Gold River as it is famous for its gold dust.
• It flows through the Lower Subansiri District in Arunachal Pradesh.
• Subansari, a swift river offers excellent kayaking opportunities.
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Kameng River

• Kameng River in the eastern Himalayan mountains originates in the Tawang

district
• Flows through West Kameng District, Arunachal Pradesh, and Sonitpur
District of Assam.
• The Kameng forms the boundary between East Kameng District and West
Kameng Districts.
• The Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary and the Kaziranga National Park are located
near the Kameng River.

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Manas River

• Manas River is a transboundary river in the Himalayan foothills between

southern Bhutan and India.
• The total length of the river is 376 km, flows through Bhutan for 272 km and then
through Assam for 104 km before it joins the mighty Brahmaputra River at
Jogighopa
• The river valley has two major reserve forest areas, namely the Royal Manas
National Park in Bhutan and the contiguous Manas Wildlife Sanctuary.

Sankosh River

• It rises in northern Bhutan and empties into the Brahmaputra in the state of
Assam
• The upper catchment of the river is glaciated. The middle and the lower courses
flow along V-shaped valleys that have been carved by running water
• The entire catchment of the river is covered with forests.

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Teesta River

• The river originates from Tso Lhamo lake in North Sikkim at an elevation of
5330 m in the Himalayas.
• Rangeet River is the major tributary of the Teesta River. Rangeet river is the
largest river in Sikkim. Rangeet river joins Teesta river at a place known as
Tribeni.
• The river then flows past the town of Rangpo where it forms the border between
Sikkim and West Bengal up to Teesta Bazaar.
• The river flows through Jalpaiguri and then to Rangpur District of Bangladesh,
before finally merging with the mighty Brahmaputra.

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Dibang River

• The river Dibang is one of the principal tributaries of the Brahmaputra river
• Originating from the snow-covered southern flank of the Himalayas close to the
Tibet border at an altitude of more than 5000 m.
• It emerges from the hills to enter the plain area near Nizamghat in the Lower
Dibang Valley district of Arunachal Pradesh
• The Mishmi hills are found along the upper course of the Dibang River.

Lohit River

• The River Lohit originates in eastern Tibet.

• The river flows through the Mishmi hills to meet the Siang at the head of
Brahmaputra valley
• The valley of Lohit is thickly forested, covered with alpine and sub-tropical
vegetation
• A large variety of medicinal plants are also found here.

Dhansiri River

• It is the main river of Golaghat District of Assam and Dimapur District of

Nagaland
• It originates from Nagaland
• There are numerous perennially waterlogged swampy regions associated
with this river.

Kopili River

• Kopili River is an interstate river in Northeast India that flows through the states
of Meghalaya and Assam and is the largest south bank tributary of
the Brahmaputra in Assam.

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 • Carissa Kopilii (Plant Species) is distributed sparsely along the Kopili riverbed.
The plant is threatened by a hydroelectric project on the river and water
turned acidic because of coal mining in Meghalaya upstream.

Important cities on Brahmaputra

Major River Valley Projects/Dams/Barrages associated with the Brahmaputra river

system-
In the state of Arunachal Pradesh-

• Tawang Hydel Power Project

• Subansiri Lower Hydel Power Project
• Ranganadi Hydel Power Project
• Paki Hydel Power Project
• Papumpap Hydel Power Project
• Dhinkrong Hydel Power Project
• Upper Lohit Hydel Power Project
• Damway Hydel Power Project
• Kameng Hydel Power Project

In the state of Sikkim-

• Rangit Hydel Power Project

• Teesta Hydel Power Project

In the state of Assam-

• Kopli Hydel Power Project

In the state of Meghalaya-

• New Umtru Hydel Power Project

In the state of Nagaland-

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 • Doyang Hydel Power Project

In the state of Manipur-

• Loktak Hydel Power Project

• Tipaimukh Hydel Power Project

In the state of Mizoram-

• Tuibai Hydel Power Project

• Tuirial Hydel Power Project
• Dhaleshwari Hydel Power Project

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 Indus River System (and its tributaries)
The Indus river is one of the world’s largest river basins. It is also known as
Sindhu. The river flows through China (Tibet region), India, and Pakistan. In Tibet, it is
known as Singi Khambai or Lion’s mouth.
Himalayan River Systems

• The Indus, the Ganga, and the Brahmaputra comprise the Himalayan river
systems.
• The Himalayan Rivers existed even before the formation of the Himalayas i.e.
before the collision of the Indian Plate with the Eurasian plate. {Antecedent
Drainage}
• They were flowing into the Tethys Sea. These rivers had their source in the
now Tibetan region.
• The deep gorges of the Indus, the Satluj, the Brahmaputra, etc. clearly indicate
that these rivers are older than the Himalayas.
• They continued to flow throughout the building phase of the Himalayas; their
banks rising steeply while the beds went lower and lower due to vertical erosion
(Vertical down cutting was significant and was occurring at a rate faster than the
rising of Himalayas), thus cutting deep gorges.
• Thus, many of the Himalayan Rivers are typical examples of antecedent
drainage.

Indus River System

• It originates from a glacier near Bokhar Chu in the Tibetan region at an
altitude of 4,164 m in the Kailash Mountain range near the Mansarovar Lake.
• The river flows northwest and enters in Ladakh region in India from a place
called Demchok, after entering India Indus river flows in between Karakoram
and Ladakh range but more closer to the Ladakh range.
• At a place called Dungti, the river takes a sharp southwest turn and cuts through
the Ladakh range and then takes a northwestern course and continues to flow
towards the Leh region of Ladakh along with the Ladakh range. After reaching
Leh river countinues the northwestern course and reaches the town of Batalik
which is in the Kargil district.
• It is joined by the Zaskar River at Leh.
• Near Skardu, it is joined by the Shyok at an elevation of about 2,700 m.
• The Gilgit, Gartang, Dras, Shiger, Hunza are the other Himalayan
tributaries of the Indus.
• Now the Indus River enters into the Baltistan region through the city of sakardu
and countinues to flow northwest towards the city of Gilgit, Upon reaching the
city of Gilgit the river takes a south bend and then turns west and then fully
enters the northwest frontier province of Pakistan which is called Khyber
Pakhtunkhawa.
• The Kabul River empties into the Indus River near Attock, Pakistan. It is
the main river in eastern Afghanistan and the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
province of Pakistan.

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 • The river then takes a southwestern course and countinues to flow across the
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province.
• It then flows through the plain in western and southern Punjab province of
Pakistan, the river countinues to head towards the Sindhu province of Pakistan.
• Just above Mithankot, the Indus receives from Panjnad (Panchnad), the
accumulated waters of the five eastern tributaries—the Jhelum, the Chenab, the
Ravi, the Beas, and the Satluj.
• In Sindh Province river accumulates a lot of sediments and forms the Indus
river delta before draining into the Arabian sea near Karachi.
• The blind Indus River Dolphin, a sub-species of dolphin, is found only in the
Indus River.

Left and Right bank tributaries

• Zaskar river, Suru river, Soan river, Jhelum River, Chenab River, Ravi River, Beas
river, Satluj river, Panjnad river are its major left-bank tributaries.
• Shyok River, Gilgit river, Hunza river, Swat river, Kunnar river, Kurram river, Gomal
River, and Kabul river are its major right-bank tributaries.

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Shyok River

• Rising from the Karakoram Range, it flows through the Northern Ladakh region
in J&K
• It has a length of about 550km.
• A tributary of the Indus River, it originates from the Rimo Glacier.
• The river widens at the confluence with the Nubra River
• Shyok River marks the south-eastern fringe of the Karakoram ranges by forming
a V-shaped bend around it.

Nubra River

• It is the main tributary of the Shyok River.

• It originated from the Nubra Glacier, in a depression to the east of Saltoro Kangri
Peak
• Nubra River meanders towards the southeast to join the Shyok River
downstream of Shyok Valley at the base of the Ladakh range
• Nubra Valley, situated at an altitude of 3048m, is formed out of the Nubra River
• The catchment area is devoid of vegetation and human habitation due to high
elevation and lack of rainfall.

Shigar River

• It is a small right-bank tributary of the Indus River in its course through the
Ladakh region of J&K
• It rises from the Hispar Glacier.
• It joins Indus at Skardu.
• The Shigar River descends down a very steep gradient
• Its entire catchment has been influenced by the action of glaciers.

Gilgit River

• It is an important right-bank tributary of the Indus River in its course through the
Ladakh region of J&K
• It originates from a glacier near the extreme northwestern boundary of the
Himalayas
• The entire catchment area of the Gilgit River is bleak and desolate
• Bunji is the main human settlement along the river
• Ghizar and Hunza are the major right and left bank tributaries respectively.

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Hunza River

• It is an important left-bank tributary of the Gilgit River

• It rises from a glacier north of the Karakoram Range in the northwestern part of
J&K
• It flows southeast and cuts across the Karakoram Range through a spectacular
gorge
• Downstream, the Hunza River follows a southwesterly direction in its middle
course
• Then it cuts across an offshoot of the Karakoram range and changes course to
the southeast in its lower course before merging with the Gilgit a little upstream
of Bunji where the latter river empties itself into the Indus.

Zanskar River

• It is one of the important left blank tributaries of the Indus

• Human settlements are sparse.

Chenab River

• The Chenab originates from near the Bara Lacha Pass in the Lahul-Spiti part of
the Zaskar Range.
• Chenab river is formed by the confluence of the Chandra and Bhaga rivers at
Tandi located in the upper Himalayas in the Lahul and Spiti District of Himachal
Pradesh
• In its upper reaches, it is also known as the Chandrabhaga
• It flows through the Jammu region of J&K into the plains of Punjab in Pakistan
• The waters of the Chenab are allocated to Pakistan under the terms of the Indus
Water Treaty
• Baghliar Dam has been constructed on this river
• The river is crossed in J&K by the world’s highest railways bridge name Chenab
Bridge.

Jhelum River

• It is a tributary of the Chenab River and has a total length of 813km

• The river Jhelum rises from a spring at Verinag situated at the foot of the Pir
Panjal in the southeastern part of the valley of Kashmir in India.
• The Kishenganga (Neelum) River, the largest tributary of Jhelum, joins it.
• The Chenab merges with the Sutlej to form the Panjnad River which joins the
Indus River at Mithankot
• The waters of the Jhelum are allocated to Pakistan under the terms of the Indus
WatersTreaty
• It ends in a confluence with the Chenab in Pakistan.

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Kishanganga River

• It originates at Drass in the Kargil district of J&K

• The Neelam River enters Pakistan from India near the Line of Control and then
runs west till it meets the Jhelum River
• It is also called as Neelam River (Neelum) either due to its sky cold water or due
to the precious stone “ruby (Neelam)” that is found in this area
• It is famous for ice-cold water and trout fish.

Ravi River

• The Ravi River originates Dhauladhar range of the Himalayas in the Chamba
district of HP. Ravi has its source in Kullu hills near the Rohtang Pass in
Himachal Pradesh.
• It follows a northwesterly course and is a perennial river having a total length of
about 720km
• The waters of the Ravi River are allocated to India under the Indus Waters
Treaty
• The major multipurpose project built on the river is the Ranjit Sagar Dam ( Thein
dam as it is located in Theinvillage)
• Chamba town is situated on the right bank of the river.
• The right bank tributaries of the Ravi are the Budhil, Tundahan Beljedi, Saho
and Siul; and its left bank tributary worth mentioning is Chirchind Nala.
• The Ujh river is a tributary of the Ravi River that flows through the Kathua
district in the Indian union territory of Jammu and Kashmir.
• Ujh Multipurpose Project is planned to be constructed in Kathua
District of Jammu & Kashmir on the River Ujh.
• Shahpurkandi Dam project is located on the Ravi River in Pathankot district,
Punjab, downstream from the existing Ranjit Sagar Dam.
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Sutlej River

• The Sutlej is sometimes known as the Red River.

• It rises from beyond the Indian borders in the southern slopes of the Kailash
Mountain near Mansarover Lake from Rakas Lake.
• It enters HP at Shipki La and flows in the South-westerly direction through
Kinnaur, Shimla, Kullu, Solan, Mandi, and Bilaspur districts.
• It leaves HP to enter the plains of Punjab at Bhakra, where the world’s highest
gravity dam- Bhakra Nangal Dam, has been constructed on this river.
• The waters of the Sutlej are allocated to India under the Indus Water Treaty b/w
India and Pakistan and is mainly used for power generation and irrigation of
many large canals draw water from it
• Across the river, there are many hydroelectric and irrigation projects such as
the Kol Dam, Nathpa Jhakri project.

Beas River

• Beas River, an important river of the Indus River System, emerges from Rohtang
pass in HP
• The river before entering Pakistan merges with the Sutlej River at Hari-Ke-
Pattan in Punjab
• The total length of this river is 460km and the river covers 256km through HP
• The tourist resorts of Manali is situated on the right banks of the River Beas.

Indus Waters Treaty 1960

• The Indus system comprises of main Indus River, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas,
and Sutlej. The basin is mainly shared by India and Pakistan with a small share
for China and Afghanistan.
• Under the treaty signed between India and Pakistan in 1960, all the waters
of three rivers, namely Ravi, Sutlej, and Beas ( Eastern Rivers) were allocated
to India for exclusive use.
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 • While, the waters of Western rivers – Indus, Jhelum, and
Chenab were allocated to Pakistan except for specified domestic, non-
consumptive, and agricultural use permitted to India as provided in the
Treaty.
• India has also been given the right to generate hydroelectricity through the run
of the river(RoR) projects on the Western Rivers which, subject to specific criteria
for design and operation is unrestricted.

Present Developments

• To utilize the waters of the Eastern rivers which have been allocated to India for
exclusive use, India has constructed the following dams:
• Bhakra Dam on Satluj,
• Pong and Pandoh Dam on Beas and
• Thein (Ranjit Sagar) on Ravi.
• Other works like Beas-Sutlej Link, Madhopur-Beas Link, Indira Gandhi Nahar
Project, etc has helped India utilize nearly the entire share (95 %) of the waters of
Eastern rivers.
• However, about 2 Million Acre Feet (MAF) of water annually from Ravi is
reported to be still flowing unutilized to Pakistan below Madhopur.
• To stop the flow of these waters that belong to India for its utilization in India, the
following steps have been taken:
• Shahpurkandi Project: This project will help in utilizing the waters coming
out from the powerhouse of Thein dam for irrigation and power
generation in J&K and Punjab. The construction work is being undertaken
by the Govt of Punjab under the monitoring of the Govt of India.
• Construction of Ujh multipurpose project: This project will create storage
of water on river Ujh, a tributary of Ravi for irrigation and power generation
in India. This project is a National Project whose completion period will be
6 years from the beginning of the implementation.
• The 2nd Ravi Beas link below Ujh: This project is being planned to tap
excess water flowing down to Pakistan through river Ravi, even after
construction of Thein Dam, by constructing a barrage across river Ravi for
diverting water through a tunnel link to Beas basin. Govt. of India declared
this project as National Project.
• The above three projects will help India to utilize its entire share of waters given
under the Indus Waters Treaty 1960.

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www.lotusarise.com
 Mahanadi River System
The Mahanadi River system is the third largest of peninsular India and the largest river
of Odisha state. The word Mahanadi is a compound of the two Sanskrit
words maha which means”great” and nadi which means”river”.

Mahanadi River system

• The Mahanadi basin extends over states of Chhattisgarh and Odisha and
comparatively smaller portions of Jharkhand, Maharashtra, and Madhya
Pradesh, draining an area of 1.4 lakh Sq.km.
• It is bounded by the Central India hills on the north, by the Eastern Ghats on
the south and east, and by the Maikala range on the west.
• The Mahanadi (“Great River”) follows a total course of 560 miles (900 km).
• It has its source in the northern foothills of Dandakaranya in Raipur District of
Chhattisgarh at an elevation of 442 m.
• The Mahanadi is one of the major rivers of the peninsular rivers, in water
potential and flood producing capacity, it ranks second to the Godavari.
• Other small streams between the Mahanadi and the Rushikulya draining directly
into the Chilka Lake also forms the part of the basin.
• The major part of the basin is covered with agricultural land accounting to
54.27% of the total area.
• It is one of the most-active silt-depositing streams in the Indian subcontinent.
• After receiving the Seonath River, it turns east and enters Odisha state.
• At Sambalpur, the Hirakud Dam (one of the largest dams in India) on the river
has formed a man-made lake 35 miles (55 km) long.
• It enters the Odisha plains near Cuttack and enters the Bay of Bengal at False
Point by several channels.
• Puri, at one of its mouths, is a famous pilgrimage site.

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Tributaries of Mahanadi River
• Its upper course lies in the saucer-shaped basin called the ‘Chhattisgarh Plain’.
• This basin is surrounded by hills on the north, west, and south as a result of
which a large number of tributaries join the main river from these sides.
• Left bank Tributaries: The Seonath, the Hasdeo, the Mand, and the Ib.
• Right bank Tributaries: The Ong, the Tel, and the Jonk.

SEONATH

• It originates from Panabaras Hill (625 m) and flows towards the north-east.
• The river feeds the inhabitants and industries of Durg District.
• The total length of the Sheonath River is 345km.

HASDEO

• The River originates from Chhattisgarh

• The total length of the river is 333km and the drainage areais9856sqkm
• The river flows towards the south of Chhattisgarh, through Bilaspur and
Korba Districts
• Along the river lie rocks and hilly areas, thin forest areas.

MAND

• It is a left-bank tributary of Mahanadi

• Joins Mahanadi in Chandrapur before the river reaches Hirakud dam, the
total length of the river is 241sqkm
• It drains an area in the range of 5200sqkm
• Mand River dam has been constructed in the Raigarh district of Chhattisgarh.

IB

• It is a left-bank tributary of Mahanadi River,

• Originates in hills in Raigarh district of Chhattisgarh
• The river runs for a distance of about 252km and drains an area of 12,447sqkm
• Ib river valley is famous for its rich coal belt.

ONG

• It is a right-bank tributary of the Mahanadi river.

• Flows across Orissa and joins Mahanadi at Sambalpur 11km up-stream of
Sonepur where Tel merges.
• It drains an area of about 5128sqkm.

TEL

• Originating in the Nabarangpur district.

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 • Flows through the Kalahandi, balangir, and Sonpur districts of Orissa
• It is the second-largest river of Orissa.

Important cities

Projects on Mahanadi River

• Two important projects completed during pre-plan period in the basin are
the Mahanadi main canal and Tandula reservoir in Chhattisgarh.
• During the plan period, the Hirakud dam, Mahanadi delta project, Hasdeo
Bango, Mahanadi Reservoir Project were completed.

The Hirakud Dam– It is one of the first major multipurpose river valley projects started
after India’s independence. The dam aims at controlling floods in the Mahanadi basin,
providing water for irrigation and municipal water supply. The dam is located near
Sambalpur in the state of Odisha.

The Gangrel Dam– It is also known by the name of R.S. Sagar Dam. The dam is built
across the Mahanadi river in Dhamtari district in the state of Chhattisgarh.

The Dhudhwa Dam– The dam is constructed across the Mahanadi river in Dhamtari
district in the state of Chhattisgarh.

Industry in Mahanadi River Basin

• Three important urban centes in the basin are Raipur, Durg and Cuttack.
• Mahanadi basin, because of its rich mineral resource and adequate power
resource, has a favorable industrial climate.
• The Important industries presently existing in the basin are the Iron and Steel
plant at Bhilai, aluminium factories at Hirakud and Korba, paper mill near
Cuttack and cement factory at Sundargarh.

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 • Other industries based primarily on agricultural produce are sugar and textile
mills.
• Mining of coal, iron and manganese are other industrial activities.

Floods in Mahanadi River Basin

• The basin is subject to severe flooding occasionally in the delta area due to the
inadequate carrying capacity of the channels.
• The multi-purpose Hirakud dam provides some amount of flood relief by storing
part of floodwater.
• However, the problem still persists and a lasting solution needs to be evolved.

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 Godavari River System
• The Godavari river is the largest river in Peninsular India. It is known as the
Dakshin Ganga or Vridha Ganga (old Ganga) because of its age, size, and
length. It is navigable in the delta region.
• Source of origin of the Godavari river: It rises from a place called Trimbak
located in the Western Ghats in Nashik district in the state of Maharashtra.
• Confluence or mouth of the Godavari river: It drains into the Bay of Bengal
before forming a large delta below Rajahmundry.
• The Godavari basin extends over states of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh, and Odisha in addition to smaller parts in Madhya Pradesh,
Karnataka, and the Union Territory of Puducherry (Yanam) having a total area of
~ 3 lakh Sq.km.
• The basin is bounded by Satmala hills, the Ajanta range, and the Mahadeo
hills on the north, by the Eastern Ghats on the south and the east, and by the
Western Ghats on the west.
• The total length of Godavari from its origin to outfall into the Bay of Bengal is
1,465 km.
• Rajahmundry is the largest city on the banks of Godavari.
• The Sri Ram Sagar project which was constructed on this river (1964-69) serves
the irrigation needs of Adilabad, Nizamabad. Karimnagar and Warangal districts.

• The Pravara, Indravati, Wainganga, Wardha, Pench, Kanhan, Penganga,

Manjira, Bindusara and sabari rivers are its important tributaries.
• Nashik, Trimbakeshwar, Nanded, Aurangabad, Nagpur, Bhadrachalam,
Nizamabad, Rajamundry, Balaghat, Yanam, and Kovvur are the
important urban centers on its bank.

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Tributaries of Godavari River
• The left bank tributaries are more in number and larger in size than the right
bank tributaries.
• The Manjra (724 km) is the only important right-bank tributary. It joins the
Godavari after passing through the Nizam Sagar.
• Left Bank Tributaries: Dharna, Penganga, Wainganga, Wardha,
Pranahita [conveying the combined waters of Penganga, the Wardha and
Wainganga], Pench, Kanhan, Sabari, Indravati etc.
• Right Bank Tributaries: Pravara, Mula, Manjra, Peddavagu, Maner etc.
• Below Rajahmundry, the river divides itself into two main streams, the Gautami
Godavari on the east and the Vashishta Godavari on the west, and forms a large
delta before it pours into the Bay of Bengal.
• The delta of the Godavari is of lobate type with a round bulge and many
distributaries.

MANJRA

• It is a right-bank tributary of the river Godavari.

• It originates in the Balaghat range, near Ahmednagar, at an altitude of 823 m.
• Manjra River flows through the Latur District of Maharashtra and the Bidar
District of Karnataka before entering Medak District in Andhra Pradesh.
• It flows for about 96km in Medak District through Narayankhed, Jahirabad.
Sangareddy and Narsapur Talukas.
• Ultimately, it drains into the Godavari River at Basara near Nizamabad.

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 • Valdi river is a tributary of Marijira, Nizam Sagar was constructed across the
Manjra River between Achampeta and Banjapalle villages of the Niamabad
district in Andhra Pradesh.
• The most outstanding feature of the project is the gigantic masonry dam
sprawling across the river for 3km with a motorable road of 14feet width.

PAINGANGA

• (Penganga or Panuganga) It originates in the Ajantha ranges in the

Aurangabad district in Maharashtra.
• It then flows through Buldhana and Washim districts.
• Then it acts as a boundary between Yavatma and Nanded districts.
• It then flows along the state border between Maharashtra and AP.
• It joins the Wardha River near a small village called Wadha in Wani Tehsil of
Yavatmal district
• It is deeply entrenched and not able to be navigated.
• The river provides irrigation to the Washim and Yavatmal districts in
Maharashtra.
• There are two dams being constructed on the river, namely Upper Painganga
and Lower Painganga.
• Also, this dam is known as the “Isapur Dam”.
• Adan river is the major tributary.
• It passes through the Painganga Wildlife Sanctuary.
• Sahastrakund waterfalls are situated on it.

WARDHA

• It is one of the biggest rivers in the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra.

• It originates at an altitude of 777 meters in Satpura Range near Multai in Betul
District of Madhya Pradesh, about 70 miles north-west of Nagpur
• From the origin, it flows 32 km in Madhya Pradesh and then enters into
Maharastra
• After traversing 528km, it joins Wainganga and together they are called
Pranhita, which ultimately flows into the Godavari River
• Kar, Wena, Jam, Erai are the left tributaries
• Madu, Bembla. Penganga are the right tributaries
• A huge dam (Upper Wardha Dam) is built on Wardha River near Morshi and
considered a lifeline for Amravati city.

WAINGANGA

• It literally means “the arrow of water“.

• It originates about 12 km, from Mundara village of Sconi district in the southern
slopes of the Mahadeo Hills of the Satpura Range of Madhya Pradesh and
flows south through Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra in a very winding course
of approximately 4 360 miles
• After joining the Wardha, the united stream, known as the Pranahitha,
ultimately falls into the river Godavari.
• It drains the Chandrapur. Gadchiroli, Bhandara, Gondia, and Nagpur districts of
Maharashtra.
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 • The main tributaries of the Wainganga River are the Thel,
Thanwar, Bagh, Chulband, Garhavi, Khobragadi, and Kathani, which meet on
the left bank; and the Hirri, Chandan, Bawanthari, Kanhan, and Mul joining on
the right bank.
• Kamptee, Bhandara, Tumsar, Balaghat, and Pauna are the major urban and
industrial centers along the river.

Nag River

• The Nagpur city derives its name from the Nag river which passes through the
city.
• The Nag river originates from the Ambazari Lake in west Nagpur.
• Major Tributaries – Pili river.
• Endpoint – confluence with Kanhan River, and further Kanhan River confluence
with Pench river and Forming a Kanhan-Pench river system.
• The Kanhan River is an important right-bank tributary of the Wainganga
River draining a large area lying south of the Satpura range in
central India.

INDRAVATI

• Indravati River originates from Thuamul Rampur rises in the Eastern Ghats in
Kalahandi in Orissa.
• Then it flows through Bastar District in Chhattisgarh for about 380km
• While in Bastar, Indravati is the largest and the most significant.
• It also forms the boundary between Maharashtra and Chhattisgarh states at
places.
• Later this river merges with the Godavari River at Bhadrakali in Dantewada
District.
• The Indravati is sometimes known as the lifeline of the Bastar district.
• The rocky bedded river is not good for navigation except near its confluence with
the Godavari.
• The largest tributary of the river is Pamer Chinta.
• Indravati and her tributaries never dry up in summer.

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 • The Chitrakoot Falls is located on the Indravati River, some 40lm from
Jagdalpur.
• Indravati National Park and Tiger Reserves are located in the adjoining region of
Chattisgarh.

Projects on Godavari River

• Important projects completed duing the plan period are Srirama Sagar,
Godavari barrage, Upper Penganga, Jaikwadi, Upper Wainganga, Upper
Indravati, Upper Wardha.
• Among the on-going projects, the prominent ones are Prnahita-
Chevala and Polavaram.

Industry in Godavari Basin

• The major urban Centers in the basin are Nagpur, Aurangabad, Nashik,
Rajhmundry.
• Nashik and Aurangabad have a large number of industries
especially automobiles.
• Other than this, the industries in the basin are mostly based on agricultural
produce such as rice milling, cotton spinning and weaving, sugar, and oil
extraction.
• Cement and some small engineering industries also exist in the basin.

Floods and Droughts in Godavari Basin

• Godavari basin faces flooding problems in its lower reaches.

• The coastal areas are cyclone-prone.
• The delta areas face drainage congestion due to flat topography.
• A large portion of Maharashtra falling (Marathwada) in the basin is drought-
prone.

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Godavari and Cauvery River Interlinking Project

• The project envisages the diversion of 247 thousand million cubic feet (tmcft) of
unutilized water in the Indravati sub-basin of the Godavari basin to meet the
requirements between the Godavari and the Cauvery rivers.
• Water will be diverted from the Godavari River to Nagarjuna Sagar dam
(through lifting) and further south to meet the demands of Krishna, Pennar,
and Cauvery basins.
• The Godavari – Cauvery link comprises three components namely,
• the Godavari (Inchampalli/Janampet) – Krishna (Nagarjunasagar),
• the Krishna (Nagarjunasagar) – Pennar (Somasila) and
• the Pennar (Somasila)–Cauvery.
• The project will provide irrigation facilities to 3.45 to 5.04 lakh hectares in the
Prakasam, Nellore, Krishna, Guntur, and Chittoor districts of Andhra Pradesh.

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 Krishna River System
• The Krishna is the second-largest east-flowing river of the Peninsula.
• Krishna river rises at Mahabaleshwar at an altitude of I336 m near the Jor
village in the extreme north of district Satara, Maharashtra in the west, and
meets the Bay of Bengal in Andhra Pradesh, on the east coast.
• Ecologically, this is one of the disastrous rivers in the world, in that it
causes heavy soil erosion during the monsoon season.
• It is bounded by the Balaghat range on the north, by the Eastern Ghats on the
south and the east, and by the Western Ghats on the west.
• The total length of the river from origin to its outfall into the Bay of Bengal is
1,400 km.
• The major part of the basin is covered with agricultural land accounting to
75.86% of the total area.
• The Krishna forms a large delta with a shoreline of about 120 km.
• Almatti Dam, Srisailam Dam, Nagarjuna Sagar Dam, and Prakasham
Barrage are some of the major dams constructed on the river.
• Because it is fed by seasonal monsoon rains, the river’s flow undergoes great
fluctuation during the year, limiting its usefulness for irrigation.
• Satara, Karad, Sangli, Bagalkot. Srisailant, Amaravati, and Vijayawada are
some of the important urban and tourist centers on the bank of the river.

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Tributaries of Krishna River
• Right bank: Venna, Koyna, Panchganga, Dudhganga, Ghataprabha,
Malaprabha and Tungabhadra are the major right-bank tributaries
• Left Bank: Bhima, Dindi, Peddavagu, Halia, Musi, Paleru, and Munneru are the
major left-bank tributaries
• The Koyna is a small tributary but is known for Koyna Dam. This dam was
perhaps the main cause of the devastating earthquake (6.4 on Richter scale) in
1967 that killed 150 people.
• The Bhima originates from the Matheron Hills and joins the Krishna near
Raichur after for a distance of 861 km.
• The Tungabhadra is formed by the unification of the Tunga and
the Bhadra originating from Gangamula in the Central Sahyadri. Its total length
is 531 km.
• At Wazirabad, it receives its last important tributary, the Musi, on whose banks
the city of Hyderabad is located.

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BHIMA

• It originates in Bhimashankar hills near Karjat on the western side of Western

Ghats (known as Sahyadri), in Maharashtra.
• Bhima flows southeast for 725 km through Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra
Pradesh states.
• Bhimashankar (one of the twelve esteemed Jyotirlinga shrines); Siddhatek,
Siddhivinayak Temple of Ashtavinayak Ganesh: Pandharpur Vithoba Temple: Sri
Dattatreya Temple: and Sri Kshetra Rasangi Balibheemasena Temple are some
of the important temples located on the banks of the river.

MUSI

• Also known as the Muchukunda river in the olden days, the Musi River, a
tributary of Krishna River, originates in Anantagiri Hills near Vikarabad,
Rangareddi district, 90km west of Hyderabad
• In 1920, the Osmansagar reservoir was constructed across the river at Gandipet
village
• Another important dam is Himayat Sagar, Hussain Sagar Lake was built on a
tributary of the River Musi, Together they act as a source of water for
Hyderabad.
• Musi River is also the bowl for water festivals such as boating races, decorated
boating contest, and river swimming tournament.

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KOYNA

• It rises in Mahabaleshwar in Satara district of Maharashtra and is a tributary of

the Krishna River
• Unlike most of the other rivers in Maharashtra which flow East-West direction,
the Koyna River flows in a North-South direction
• The Koyna River is famous for the Koyna Dam which is the largest
hydroelectric project in Maharashtra
• The reservoir – Shivasagar Lake, is a huge lake of 50 km in length
• The dam is situated in Koyna Nagar in the Western Ghats
• The river meets the Krishna River at Karad
• The river is just about 100 in width and is slow-flowing.

PANCHGANGA

• The Panchganga River flows through the borders of Kolhapur.

• The Panchganga is formed by four streams: the Kasari, the Kumbhi, the Tulsi,
and the Bhogawati.
• The Prayag Sangam confluence marks the beginning of the Panchganga River
proper which after receiving the waters of the four tributaries continues in a
larger pattern with the flow of waters received from the rivers, From North of
Kolhapur, it has a wide alluvial plain.
• After developing this plain the river resumes its course eastwards. It falls into
the Krishna at Kurundvad.

DUDHGANGA

• It is a right-bank tributary of the-river Krishna

• It is an important river of the Kolhapur district
• The Kallammawadi Dam has been built on the Dudhganga River in
collaboration with the Karnataka State.

GHATAPRABHA

• Ghataprahha River originates in the Western Ghats at an altitude of 884 m

and flows eastward for a distance of 283 km across Karnataka and Maharashtra
states before its confluence with the Krishna River at Almatti.
• The Gokak waterfall on the river in Belgaum District is a noted tourist attraction
• The Ghataprabha Project is a hydroelectric and irrigational dam across the river.

MALAPRABHA

• Malaprabha originates in Kanakumbi of Belgaum District in Karnataka, at an

altitude of 792 m in the Sahyadris
• It flows for a distance of 304 km and joins the Krishna River at an altitude of 488
m at Kudalasangama in Bagalkot district in Karnataka
• The Navilatirtha Dam is constructed near Munavalli in Belgaum District. Its
reservoir is called Renukasagara

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 • Famous temples of Aihole Pattadakal and Badami are located on the Banks of
this river. These are listed as World Heritage sites by UNESCO.

TUNGABHADRA

• The ancient name of the river was Pampa

• The Tungabhadra river is formed by the confluence of two rivers, the Tunga
River and the Bhadra River, which flow down the eastern slope of the Western
Ghats in the state of Karnataka
• From there, Thungabhadra meanders through the plains to a distance of 531 km
and mingles with the Krishna at Gondimalla, near the famous Alampur
Jn in Mahaboobnagar District of Andhra Pradesh.
• Varada, Hagari, and Handri are the main tributaries of the Tungabhadra
• The wedge of land that lies north of the Tungabhadra River, between the
Tungabhadra and the Krishna, is known as the Raichur Doab.
• Harihar, Hospet. Hampi, Mantralayam, and Kurnool are the major urban
centers on the river.

Projects on Krishna River

• Important ones are the Tungabhadra, Ghataprabha, Nagarjunasagar,

Malaprabha, Bhima, Bhadra and Telugu Ganga.
• The major Hydro Power stations in the basin are Koyna, Tungabhadara, Sri
Sailam, Nagarjuna Sagar, Almatti, Naryanpur, Bhadra.
• Tunagabhadra is a major inter-States project in the basin. In order to operate the
project and to regulate the flows among the beneficiary States of Karnataka and
Andhara Pradesh.
• The Tungabhadra Project– The project aims at producing hydro-
electricity, providing irrigation water and municipal water supply, and
controlling floods in the region. Under this project, a dam has been
constructed across the Tungabhadra river near Hospet in the state of
Karnataka.
• The Srisailam Project– Under the project, a large dam has been
constructed across the Krishna river in Kurnool district in the state of
Andhra Pradesh. It has created a reservoir named as Srisailam Sagar or
Neelam Sanjjeva Reddy Sagar.
• The Nagarjuna Sagar Dam– The construction of the dam started in 1950,
being one of the earliest large infrastructure projects of India, aimed at
bringing the Green Revolution. The dam has been constructed across the
Krishna river straddling the borders of the Nalgonda and Guntur districts.
• The Prakasam Barrage– The Prakasam Barrage was conceptualized by
Major Cotton of the East India Company. It is constructed across the
Krishna river near Vijayawada in the state of Andhra Pradesh.
• The Ghatprabha Project– The project has been executed across the
Ghatprabha river near Chandgad in Kolhapur district in the state of
Maharashtra in the Krishna river basin.
• The Bhima Project– The project has been executed across the Bhima river
in the Solapur district in the state of Maharashtra in the Krishna river basin.
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Resources in Krishna Basin

• The basin has rich mineral deposits and there is good potential for industrial
development.
• Iron and steel, cement, sugar cane vegetable oil extraction, and rice milling are
important industrial activities at present in the basin.
• Recently oil has been struck in this basin which is bound to have an effect on
the future industrial scenario of this basin.

Industry in Krishna Basin

• The major Urban Centers in the Basin are Pune, Hyderabad.

• Hyderabad is the state capital of Telangana and is now a major IT hub.
• Pune in Maharashtra has number of automobile and IT industry and is major
education centre.

Drought and Floods in Krishna Basin

• Some parts of the basin, especially the Rayalaseema area of Andhra Pradesh,
Bellary, Raichur, Dharwar, Chitradurga, Belgaum, and Bijapur districts of
Karnataka and Pune, Sholapur, Osmanabad, and Ahmedanagar districts of
Maharashtra are drought-prone.
• The delta area of the basin is subject to flooding. It has been observed that the
river bed in the delta area is continuously raised due to silt deposition resulting
in a reduction in the carrying capacity of the channel.
• The coastal cyclonic rainfall of high intensity and short duration makes the
flood problem worse.

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 Cauvery River System (Kaveri River)
• The Cauvery River (Kaveri) is designated as the ‘Dakshi Bharat ki
Ganga’ or ‘the Ganga of the South’.
• The Cauvery River rises at an elevation of 1,341 m at Talakaveri on
the Brahmagiri range near Cherangala village of Kodagu (Coorg) district of
Karnataka.
• The total length of the river from origin to an outfall is 800 km.
• It flows in a southeasterly direction for 705 km through the states of Karnataka
and Tamil Nadu and descends the Eastern Ghats in a series of great falls.
• Before emptying into the Bay of Bengal south of Cuddalore, Tamil Nadu the
river breaks into a large number of distributaries forming a wide delta called the
“garden of southern India”
• The Cauvery basin extends over states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, and
Union Territory of Puducherry draining an area of 81 thousand Sq.km.
• It is bounded by the Western Ghats on the west, by the Eastern Ghats on the
east and the south, and by the ridges separating it from the Krishna basin and
Pennar basin on the north.
• The Nilgiris, an offshore of Western ghats, extend Eastwards to the Eastern
ghats and divide the basin into two natural and political regions i.e., Karnataka
plateau in the North and the Tamil Nadu plateau in the South.
• Physiographically, the basin can be divided into three parts – the Westen
Ghats, the Plateau of Mysore, and the Delta.
• The delta area is the most fertile tract in the basin. The principal soil types found
in the basin are black soils, red soils, laterites, alluvial soils, forest soils, and mixed
soils. Red soils occupy large areas in the basin. Alluvial soils are found in the
delta areas.
• The basin in Karnataka receives rainfall mainly from the S-W Monsoon and
partially from N-E Monsoon. The basin in Tamil Nadu receives good flows from
the North-East Monsoon.
• Its upper catchment area receives rainfall during summer by the south-west
monsoon and the lower catchment area during the winter season by the
retreating north-east monsoon.
• It is, therefore almost a perennial river with comparatively fewer fluctuations in
flow and is very useful for irrigation and hydroelectric power generation.
• Around Sivasamudram are the scenic Sivasamudram Falls, plunging a total of
100 m and reaching a width of 300 m in the rainy season
• The falls supply hydroelectric power to Mysore, Bengaluru, and the Kolar
Gold Fields.
• Thus the Cauvery is one of the best-regulated rivers and 90 to 95 percent of its
irrigation and power production potential already stands harnessed.
• The river drains into the Bay of Bengal. The major part of the basin is covered
with agricultural land accounting to 66.21% of the total area.

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Tributaries of the Cauvery River
• Left Bank: the Harangi, the Hemavati, the Shimsha, and the Arkavati.
• Right Bank: Lakshmantirtha, the Kabbani, the Suvarnavati, the Bhavani,
the Noyil, and the Amaravati joins from the right.
• The river descends from the South Karnataka Plateau to the Tamil Nadu Plains
through the Sivasamudram waterfalls (101 m high).
• At Shivanasamudram, the river branches off into two parts and falls through a
height of 91 m. in a series of falls and rapids.
• The falls at this point is utilized for power generation by the power station at
Shivanasamudram.
• The two branches of the river join after the fall and flow through a wide gorge
which is known as ‘Mekedatu’ (Goats leap) and continues its journey to form
the boundary between Karnataka and the Tamil Nadu States for a distance of 64
km.
• At Hogennekkal Falls, it takes a Southerly direction and enters the Mettur
Reservoir.
• A tributary called Bhavani joins Cauvery on the Right bank about 45 Kms
below Mettur Reservoir. Thereafter it enters the plains of Tamil Nadu.
• Two more tributaries Noyil and Amaravathi join on the right bank and here the
river widens with a sandy bed and flows as ‘Akhanda Cauvery’.
• Immediately after crossing Tiruchirapalli district, the river divides into two parts,
the Northern branch being called ‘The Coleron’ and Southern branch remains
as Cauvery and from here the Cauvery Delta begins.
• After flowing for about 16 Kms, the two branches join again to form ‘Srirangam
Island’.

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 • On the Cauvery branch lies the “Grand Anicut” said to have been constructed
by a Chola King in 1st Century A.D.
• Below the Grand Anicut, the Cauvery branch splits into two, Cauvery
and Vennar.
• These branches divide and sub-divide into small branches and form a network
all over the delta.

HEMAVATI

• It is an important tributary of the Kaveri River

• It rises from the Western Ghats at an elevation of about 1219m near Ballalarayana
Durga in the Chikmagalur District of Karnataka and flows through
Chikkamagalooru, Hassan District, and Mysore district before joining the Kaveri
near Krishnarajasagara
• It is approximately 245 km long. A large reservoir has been built on the river at
Gorur in the Hassan district.

SHIMSHA

• It originates at an altitude of 914 m from the Devarayanadurga hills in the

Tumkur District of Karnataka
• It is one of the tributaries of the river Kaveri
• Maddur is a major town that lies on this river
• Markonahalli Dam is a dam built across the river Shimsha in the Kunigal Taluk of
Tumkur district
• Shimsha has a waterfall at Shimshapura in Malavalli Taluk
• This is also the location of the Shimsha Hydro Electric Project.

ARKAVATHY RIVER

• This 161 km long river originates at Nandi Hills of Chikkaballapur district of

Karnataka

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 • It is a tributary of the Kaveri River, which it joins at Kanakapura,
called Sangama in Kannada, after flowing through Kolar District and Bangalore
Rural district
• The river drains into the Chikkarayappanahalli Lake near Kanivenarayanapura
• The picturesque Chunchi waterfall on the Arkavathi River at Sangama near
Kanakapura attracts numerous tourists
• The water is taken from two reservoirs built on the river, the Hesaraghatta (or
Hesseraggatta), and the Tippagondanahalli Reservoir (or T G Halli).

LAKSHMANA TIRRTHA

• It rises from the Irupu Falls (also Iruppu Falls), located in the Brahmagiri Range
in the Kodagu district of Karnataka, bordering the Wayanad district of Kerala.
• It then flows eastward and joins the Kaveri River in the Krishna Raja Sagara
Lake.
• Ramathirtha is its major tributary.

KABINI

• Kabini (also called Kabani and Kapila) originates from Pakramthalam hills in
Wayanad District of Kerala from the confluence of the Panamaram River and
Mananthavady River
• The backwaters of the Kabini reservoir are very rich in wildlife especially in
summer when the water level recedes to form rich grassy meadows
• After traversing two kilometers from the confluence of the Panamaram
river, Kabini forms an island called Kuruva Island, spreading over 520 acres
with diverse flora and fauna.

SUVARNAVATHY

• This 88km long river rises from the Nasrur ghat Range of Karnataka
• It is a tributary of the Kaveri River
• This river has a catchment area of about 1787 sq km
• The Suvarnavathy dam is located across Suvarnavathy River near Attigulipura in
the village, Chamarajanagar Taluk at a distance of about 3 km away from
the Chikkahole reservoir Project.

NOYYAL RIVER

• Its original name was Kanchinadi but changed later to the name of the place
where it drains into the Kaveri River
• It rises from the Vellingiri hills in the Western Ghats in Tamil Nadu and drains
into the Kaveri River
• Noyyal joins with river Cauvery at Kodumudi in Erode District. The place is also
called Noyyal.
• The 173 km long tributary of the Kaveri River filled 32 tanks
• These interconnecting tanks held the water flowing from the Noyyal.

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AMARAVATHI

• Also known as Pournami, this 175km long river begins at the Kerala/Tamil Nadu
border at the bottom of Manjampatti Valley between the Annamalai Hills and
the Palni hills in Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park.
• It descends in a northerly direction through Amaravathi Reservoir and
Amaravathi Dam at Amaravathinagar
• This river nourishes the agriculture of Erode District
• The Amaravathi River and its basin, especially in the vicinity of Karur, are heavily
used for industrial processing water and waste disposal and as a result, are
severely polluted due to a large amount of textile dyeing and bleaching units.

Distributaries of the Cauvery River

Kollidam River ( also called Coleroon River)

• The Kollidam is a river in southeastern India. The Kollidam is the

northern distributary of the Kaveri River as it flows through the delta of
Thanjavur.
• It splits from the main branch of the Kaveri River at the island of Srirangam and
flows eastward into the Bay of Bengal. The distribution system in Kollidam lies
at Lower Anaicut which is an island of river Kollidam.
• The town of Chidambaram lies on its banks.

Vennar or Vennaaru River

• The Vennar River or Vennaaru is a river and distributary of the Kaveri River in
the Kaveri delta.
• It flows through the Thanjavur, Tiruvarur, and Nagapattinam districts of Tamil
Nadu.
• The river begins at the Grand Anaicut at the eastern end of Srirangam
Island, where it branches off from the Kaveri. After diverging from the Kaveri, the
Vennar flows east.
• Northwest of Thennankudi, at the Thenperambur dam, the Vennar splits into a
northern and southern branch. The northern branch becomes the Vettar River,
while the southern branch continues east as the Vennar.
• Northwest of Needamangalam, there is another dam across the river, and the
river splits again, into three branches. The Pamaniyar and Koraiyar
Rivers begin as the two southern branches created by this divergence, while
the Vennar continues through the northern branch.

Arasalar River

• The river Arasalar is a river that flows through Tamil Nadu and Pudducherry,
and a distributary of Kaveri river which splits into 5 different rivers when it enters
into Thanjavur district from Trichy.
• The river takes is course from Thiruvaiyaru of Thanjavur where it branches from
Kaveri and emptying itself into the sea of Bay of Bengal at Karaikal, east of
Akalanganni.

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 • Karaikal once served as a river port till the 19th century where the
yachts and Marakkalam ships of Karaikal Marakkayar harbored in and,
loaded and unloaded the goods towards exports and imports.
• The river is polluted by high concentrations of nitrate and chromium due to
the mixing of sewage water into the river stream and industrial activities (in
2013).

Floods in Cauvery Basin

• The Cauvery basin is fan shaped in Karnataka and leaf shaped in Tamil Nadu. The
run-off does not drain off quickly because of its shape and therefore no fast
raising floods occur in the basin.

Projects on Cauvery River

• During the pre-plan period many projects were completed in this basin which
included Krishnarajasagar in Karnataka, Mettur dam and Cauvery delta
system in Tamil Nadu.
• Lower Bhavani, Hemavati, Harangi, Kabini are important projects completed
duing the plan period.

Industry in Cauvery Basin

• The city of Bangalore is situated just outside this basin.

• Important industries in the basin include the cotton textile industry in
Coimbatore and Mysore, cement factories in Coimbatore and Trichinapally, and
industries based on minerals and metals.
• The Salem steel plant and many engineering industries in Coimbatore and
Trichinapally are also situated in this basin.

Cauvery River Disputes

• Historically, Tamil Nadu used about 602 TMC of the total yield of the river i.e. the
available water in a particular year.
• As a result, only about 138 TMC was available for Karnataka until the turn of the
20th century.
• In 1924, Tamil Nadu built the Mettur dam across the Cauvery river.
• Subsequently, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu signed an agreement effective for 50
years.
• Accordingly, Tamil Nadu was allowed to expand its agricultural area by 11 lakh
acres from the existing 16 lakh acres.
• Karnataka was authorized to increase its irrigation area from 3 lakh acres to 10
lakh acres.
• The Cauvery River thus primarily served the needs of farmers in Tamil Nadu.
• On completing 50 years, the accord lapsed in 1974.
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 • Subsequently, Karnataka claimed that the agreement restricted its ability to
develop farming activities along the Cauvery basin.
• To make up the lost ground, Karnataka attempted to expand farming
activities in the Cauvery basin.
• It started building reservoirs.
• With this, the Cauvery river water sharing issue emerged.
• It is now a major water sharing dispute among Tamil Nadu, Karnataka,
Puducherry, and Kerala.
• Tribunal – By Tamil Nadu’s demand, the Union government formed the
Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal (CWDT) in 1990.
• The dispute was adjudicated by the Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal(CWDT)
in 2007.
• Both Tamil Nadu and Karnataka challenged the tribunal’s order.
• The court reserved its order in September 2017.
• ………………………………………………..

Major Inter-State River Disputes

River (s) States

Ravi and Beas Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan

Narmada Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan

Krishna Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Telangana

Vamsadhara Andhra Pradesh & Odisha

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 Cauvery Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Puducherry

Godavari Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha

Mahanadi Chhattisgarh, Odisha

Mahadayi Goa, Maharashtra, Karnataka

Periyar Tamil Nadu, Kerala

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 East Flowing Rivers in India

East Flowing Rivers in India

• Rivers have been of fundamental importance throughout human
history. Water from rivers is a basic natural resource, essential for various
human activities.
• Therefore, riverbanks have attracted settlers from ancient times. Using rivers
for irrigation, navigation, and hydropower generation is of special
significance — particularly to a country like India, where agriculture is the
major source of livelihood of the majority of its population.
• The major east-flowing rivers are the Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery, Mahanadi,
Pennar, Subarnarekha, Brahamani, Ponnaiyar, Vaigai River, etc.
• East flowing rivers:
• flow into the Bay of Bengal
• have many tributaries
• forms Deltas
• carry larger sediments than West flowing rivers.

Pennar River

• The Pennar (also known as Uttara Pinakini) is one of the major rivers of the
peninsula.
• The Pennar rises in the Chennakasava hill of the Nandidurg range,
in Chikkaballapura district of Karnataka, and flows towards the east eventually
draining into the Bay of Bengal.
• The total length of the river from origin to its outfall in the Bay of Bengal is 597
km.
• Located in peninsular India, the Pennar basin extends over states of Andhra
Pradesh and Karnataka having an area of ~55 thousand Sq.km
• The fan-shaped basin is bounded by the Erramala range on the north, by
the Nallamala and Velikonda ranges of the Eastern Ghats on the east, by
the Nandidurg hills on the south, and by the narrow ridge separating it from the
Vedavati valley of the Krishna Basin on the west.
• The other hill ranges in the basin to the south of the river are the Seshachalam
(famous for Red Sanders) and Paliconda ranges.
• The major part of the basin is covered with agriculture accounting to 58.64% of
the total area.

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Tributaries of Pennar River

• Left Bank: the Jayamangali, the Kunderu and the

• Right bank: the Chiravati, the Papagni, etc.

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Projects on Pennar River

• Tungabhadra high-level canal in Krishna basin irrigated areas in Pennar basin

also. The major project in the basin is the Somasila project, Mylavaram
Dam, Penna Ahobilam Balancing Reservoir (PABR Dam).

Palar River

• Palar is a river of southern India. It rises in the Nandi Hills in Chikkaballapura

district of Karnataka state and flows in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil
Nadu before reaching its confluence into the Bay of Bengal at Vayalur.
• The Cheyyar and the Ponnai in Tamil Nadu are the major tributaries of this
river Palar.
• Palar river water from Palar anicut is diverted to the Poondi reservoir located in
the Kosasthalaiyar River basin and to Chembarambakkam Lake located in
the Adayar River basin.

Subarnarekha River

• The Subarnarekha originates from the Ranchi Plateau in Jharkhand forming

the boundary between West Bengal and Odisha in its lower course.
• It joins the Bay of Bengal forming an estuary between the Ganga and
Mahanadi deltas. Its total length is 395 km.

Tributaries of Subarnarekha River

• Left bank: Dulang River

• Right bank: Kanchi River, Kharkai, Karkari River, Raru River, Garru River

Hundru Falls

• Hundru Falls is created on the course of the Subarnarekha, where it falls

from a height of 98 metres (322 ft).

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Brahamani River

• The Brahmani river comes into existence by the confluence of the Koel and
the Sankh rivers near Rourkela. It has a total length of 800 km.
• The basin is bounded in the North by the Chhotanagpur plateau, in the West
and South by the Mahanadi basin, and in the East by the Bay of Bengal.
• The basin flows through Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and the Orissa States and
drains into the Bay of Bengal.
• Together with the river Baitarani, it forms a large delta before emptying into
the Bay of Bengal at Dhamra.

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Rengali Dam

• Rengali dam is a dam located in Odisha, India. It is constructed across the

Brahmani River in Rengali village, located 70 km from Angul in Angul district.

Baitarni River

• The Baitarani River is one of the major rivers of Orissa.

• The basin lies mostly in the State of Orissa excluding 736
km2 in Singhbhum District of Jharkhand State.
• The Baitarani River originates from Guptaganga hills in Keonjhar District
of Orissa.

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 • Initially the river flows in northern direction for about 80 km and then takes a
sudden right turn. In this reach, the river serves as a boundary
between Jharkhand and Orissa states up to the confluence of Kangira River.

Damodar Rive

• The Damodar River rises in the Palamau hills of Chota Nagpur at an elevation of
about 609.75 m and flows through a rift valley.
• It flows in a south-easterly direction entering the deltaic plains below Raniganj.
Near Burdwan, the river abruptly changes its course to a southerly direction
and joins Hooghly about 48.27 km below Calcutta.
• It has a number of tributaries and subtributaries, such
as Barakar, Konar, Bokaro, Haharo, Jamunia, Ghari, Guaia, Khadia and Bhera.
• The biggest tributary of the Damodar River is the Barakar. The source of
Barakar is located in the vicinity of the Padma in the Hazaribagh district.
• Earlier known as the Sorrow of Bengal because of its ravaging floods in the
plains of West Bengal.
• At present, the Damodar is the most contaminated river in India, due to
the various industries that have mushroomed on its riverbanks, which are good
resources of minerals. There are a number of coal-oriented industries that are
scattered over the Damodar basin.

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Ponnaiyar River

• The South Pennar River is known as Dakshina Pinakini in Kannada

and Thenpennai in Tamil. It is also referred as Ponnaiyar.
• The river originates in the Nandi Hills in the Chikkaballapura district of
Karnataka and flows through Tamil Nadu before emptying into the Bay of
Bengal.
• It covers a small area in the state of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Andhra
Pradesh.
• The Basin is bounded on the North -West, and South by various ranges of the
Eastern Ghats like the Velikonda Range, the Nagari hills, the Javadu hills, the
Shevaroy hills, the Chitteri hills, and the Kalrayan hills, and in the East by the
Bay of Bengal.
• The Krishnagiri dam and Sathanur Dam are also built across this river.
Moongilthuraipattu Sugar Factory is situated on the bank of the river.

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Vaigai River

• The Vaigai is a river in the Tamil Nadu state of southern India.

• It originates in Varusanadu Hills, the Periyar Plateau of the Western
Ghats range, and flows northeast through the Kambam Valley, which lies
between the Palani Hills to the north and the Varushanad Hills to the south.
• The Vattaparai Falls are located on this river.
• The river empties into the Palk Strait near Uchipuli, close to the Pamban
bridge in Ramanathapuram District.
• Its main tributaries are Suruliyaru, Mullaiyaru, Varahanadhi, Manjalaru,
Kottagudi, Kridhumaal and Upparu.
• The Suruliyar and the Manjalar, the two important left-bank
tributaries together account for nearly 20 percent of the total catchment
area of the Vaigai.
• The Suruliyar, the principal tributary of the Vaigai also rises in the
Eastern slopes of the Varushanadu hills and flows in the North and
North-Easterly direction.
• The Manjalar another major tributary rises in the Palani hills and
flows generally in the Easterly direction before joining the Vaigai
below the Vaigai dam.

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 • The Vaigai also receives another minor tributary namely, the
Varahanadhi (Varaha River) on its left bank below the Vaigai dam.
• The Vaigai was the river that flowed through the noted city of Madurai,
the capital (4th-11th century CE) of the ancient and prosperous Pandya
kingdom located in southern Tamil Nadu.
• The river finds a mention in Sangam literature dated to 300 before the
Common Era.

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 West flowing Rivers in India (Narmada, Tapti)
India is a geographical paradise with a multitude of rivers flowing across the country.
While most of the rivers in the country are east flowing in nature, i.e. they join the Bay
Of Bengal, there are a few rivers that defy the odds and are west flowing, These
west-flowing rivers ultimately end up in the Arabian Sea.

West Flowing Rivers of Peninsular India

• The west-flowing rivers of Peninsular India are fewer and smaller as compared to
their east-flowing counterparts.
• The two major west-flowing rivers are the Narmada and the Tapi.
• This exceptional behavior is because these rivers didn’t form valleys and instead
they flow through faults (linear rift, rift valley, trough) created due to the bending
of the northern peninsula during the formation process of the Himalayas.
• These faults run parallel to the Vindhyas and the Satpuras.
• The Sabarmati, Mahi, and Luni are other rivers of Peninsular India which flow
westwards.
• Hundreds of small streams originating in the Western Ghats flow swiftly
westwards and join the Arabian Sea.
• It is interesting to note that the Peninsular rivers which fall into the Arabian
Sea do not form deltas, but only estuaries.
• This is due to the fact that the west-flowing rivers, especially the Narmada and
the Tapi flow through hard rocks and hence do not carry any good amount of
silt.
• Moreover, the tributaries of these rivers are very small and hence they don’t
contribute any silt.
• Hence these rivers are not able to form distributaries or a delta before they enter
the sea.
• A few rivers in Rajasthan do not drain into the sea. They drain into salt lakes and
get lost in the sand with no outlet to the sea. Besides these, there are the Desert
Rivers which flow for some distance and are lost in the desert. These are Luni
and others such as, Machhu, Rupen, Saraswati, Banas, and Ghaggar.

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Estuary

• An estuary is a partially enclosed body of water along the coast where freshwater
from rivers and streams meets and mixes with saltwater from the ocean.
(Primary productivity in estuaries is very high. Fishing is a dominant occupation
around estuaries. Most of the estuaries are good bird sanctuaries).
• Estuaries and the lands surrounding them are places of transition from land to
sea and freshwater to saltwater.
• Although influenced by the tides, they are protected from the full force of ocean
waves, winds, and storms by such landforms as barrier islands or peninsulas.
• Estuarine environments are among the most productive on earth, creating more
organic matter each year than comparably-sized areas of forest, grassland, or
agricultural land.
• The tidal, sheltered waters of estuaries also support unique communities of
plants and animals especially adapted for life at the margin of the sea.
• Estuaries have important commercial value and their resources provide
economic benefits for tourism, fisheries, and recreational activities.
• The protected coastal waters of estuaries also support important public
infrastructure, serving as harbors and ports vital for shipping and transportation.
• Estuaries also perform other valuable services. Water draining from uplands
carries sediments, nutrients, and other pollutants to estuaries. As the water flows
through wetlands such as swamps and salt marshes, much of the sediments
and pollutants are filtered out.
• Saltmarsh grasses and other estuarine plants also help prevent erosion and
stabilize shorelines Mangroves.

Narmada River
• Narmada is the largest west flowing river of peninsular India.
• Narmada flows westwards through a rift valley between the Vindhyan
Range on the north and the Satpura Range on the south.
• It rises from the Maikala range near Amarkantak in Madhya Pradesh, at an
elevation of about 1057 m.
• Narmada basin extends over states of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra,
and Chhattisgarh having an area ~1 Lakh Sq.km.
• It is bounded by the Vindhyas on the north, Maikala range on the east,
Satpuras on the south, and by the Arabian Sea on the west.
• Its total length from its source in Amarkantak to its estuary in the Gulf of
Khambhat is 1,310 km.
• The hilly regions are in the upper part of the basin, and lower-middle reaches are
broad and fertile areas well suited for cultivation.
• Jabalpur is the only important urban center in the basin.
• The river slopes down near Jabalpur where it cascades (a small waterfall,
especially one in a series) 15 m into a gorge to form the Dhuan Dhar (Cloud of
Mist) Falls.
• Since the gorge is composed of marble, it is popularly known as the Marble
Rocks.
• It makes two waterfalls of 12 m each at Mandhar and Dardi. Near Maheshwar,
the river again descends from another small fall of 8 m, known as
the Sahasradhara Falls.

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 • There are several islands in the estuary of the Narmada of which Aliabet is the
largest.
• The Narmada is navigable up to 112 km from its mouth.

Tributaries of Narmada River

• Right bank tributaries are the Barna, Hiran River, Tendoni River, Choral
River, Kolar River, Man River, Uri River, Hatni River, Orsang River
• Left bank tributaries – Burhner River, Banjar River, Sher River, Shakkar
River, Dudhi River, Tawa River, Ganjal River, Chhota Tawa River, Kaveri River,
Kundi River, Goi River, Karjan River
• The major Hydro Power projects in the basin are Indira Sagar, Sardar Sarovar,
Omkareshwar, Bargi & Maheshwar.

Tawa River

• The river rises from the Satpura Range of Betul in MP.

• This river is the longest tributary of River Narmada.

Tapti River
• The Tapti (also known as the Tapi) is the second-largest west flowing river of
Peninsular India and is known as ‘the twin’ or ‘the handmaid’ of the Narmada.
• It originates near Multai reserve forest in Madhya Pradesh at an elevation of
752 m.
• Flows for about 724 km before outfalling into the Arabian Sea through the Gulf
of Cambay [Gulf of Khambhat].
• The Tapti River along with its tributaries flows over the plains of Vidharbha,
Khandesh, and Gujarat and over large areas in the state of Maharashtra and a
small area in Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat.
• The basin extends over states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Gujarat
having an area of ~ 65,000 Sq.km
• Situated in the Deccan plateau, the basin is bounded by the Satpura range on
the north, Mahadev hills on the east, Ajanta Range and the Satmala hills on
the south, and by the Arabian Sea on the west.
• The hilly region of the basin is well forested while the plains are broad and fertile
areas suitable for cultivation.

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 • There are two well-defined physical regions, in the basin, viz hilly region and
plains; the hilly regions comprising Satpura, Satmalas, Mahadeo,
Ajanta, and Gawilgarh hills are well forested.
• The plain covers the Khandesh areas (Khandesh is a region of central India,
which forms the northwestern portion of Maharashtra state) which are broad
and fertile suitable for cultivation primarily.

Tributaries of Tapti River

• Right Bank: the Suki, the Gomai, the Arunavati and the Aner.
• Left Bank: the Vaghur, the Amravati, the Buray, the Panjhra, the Bori,
the Girna, the Purna, the Mona and the Sipna.

Projects on Tapti River

• Hathnur Dam of Upper Tapi Project (Maharashtra)

• Kakrapar weir and Ukai Dam of Ukai Project (Gujarat)
• Girna Dam and Dahigam Weir of Girna Project (Maharashtra)

Industry in the Tapti Basin

• Important industries in the basin are textile factories in Surat and paper and
news print factory at Nepanagar.

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Sabarmati River
• The Sabarmati is the name given to the combined streams
the Sabar and Hathmati.
• The Sabarmati basin extends over the states of Rajasthan and Gujarat having an
area of 21,674 Sq km.
• The basin is bounded by Aravalli hills on the north and north-east, by Rann of
Kutch on the west, and by the Gulf of Khambhat on the south.
• The basin is roughly triangular in shape with the Sabarmati River as the base and
the source of the Vatrak River as the apex point.
• Sabarmati originates from Aravalli hills at an elevation of 762 m near village
Tepur, in the Udaipur district of Rajasthan.
• The total length of the river from origin to outfall into the Arabian Sea is 371 km.
• The major part of the basin is covered with agriculture accounting to 74.68% of
the total area.
• Rainfall varies from a meager few mm in Saurashtra to over 1000 mm in the
southern part.
• Left bank tributaries: the Wakal, the Hathmati, and the Vatrak.
• Right bank tributaries: the Sei.
• Projects: Sabarmati reservoir (Dharoi), Hathmati reservoir, and Meshwo
reservoir project are major projects completed during the plan period.

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Industry in Sabarmati Basin

• Gandhinagar and Ahmedabad are the important urban centers in the basin.
• Ahmedabad is an industrial city situated on the banks of Sabarmati.
• Important industries are textiles, leather and leather goods, plastic, rubber
goods, paper, newsprint, automobile, machine tools, drugs and pharmaceuticals
etc.
• The industrial city of Ahmedabad poses the danger of water pollution.

Mahi River
• The Mahi basin extends over states of Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and
Gujarat having a total area of 34,842 Sq km.
• It is bounded by Aravalli hills on the north and the north-west, by Malwa
Plateau on the east, by the Vindhyas on the south, and by the Gulf of
Khambhat on the west.
• Mahi is one of the major interstate west flowing rivers of India.
• It originates from the northern slopes of Vindhyas at an altitude of 500 m
in the Dhar district of Madhya Pradesh.
• The total length of Mahi is 583 km.
• It drains into the Arabian Sea through the Gulf of Khambhat.
• The major part of the basin is covered with agricultural land accounting to
63.63% of the total area
• Hydro Power stations are located – Mahi Bajaj Sagar dam, Kadana Dam,
and Wanakbori dam (Weir).
• Vadodara is the only important urban centre in the basin. There are not many
industries in the basin.
• Some of the industries are cotton textile, paper, newsprint, drugs, and
pharmaceuticals. Most of these industries are located at Ratlam.

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Tributaries of Mahi:

• Som
• This is the right bank tributary of Mahi. Som river rises near Som on the
Eastern slopes of the Aravalli hills in the Udaipur district of Rajasthan at
an elevation of 600 m above m.s.l. and flows in the Eastern direction to join
the main river Mahi on the right bank 6.3 km upstream of Paderdibadi site
in Dungarpur district of Rajasthan. Its total length is about 155 km. The
total drainage area of Som is 8707 sq. km. Gomti & Jakham are the major
right bank sub tributaries of Som.
• Anas
•This is a Left bank tributary of Mahi. Anas River rises near Kalmora on
the Northern slopes of Vindhyas in Jhabua district in Madhya
Pradesh at an elevation of 450 m above m.s.l. and flows in the North –
West direction and joins the main river Mahi on the left bank in the
Dungarpur district in Rajasthan. It has a total length of about 156 km and a
total drainage area of 5604 sq. km.
• Panam
• This is a Left bank tributary of Mahi. Panam river rises near Bhadra on
the Northern slopes of the Vindhyas near the Jhabua district in Madhya
Pradesh at an elevation of about 300 m above m.s.l. and flows in the North
– West direction and joins the main river on the left bank in the
Panchmahal district of Gujarat. It has a total length of about 127 km and a
drainage area of about 2470 sq. km.

Luni River
• The Luni or the Salt River (Lonari or Lavanavari in Sanskrit) is named so because
its water is brackish below Balotra.
• Luni is the only river basin of any significance in Western Rajasthan, which
forms the bulk of the arid zone.
• Luni originates from the western slopes of the Aravalli ranges at an elevation
of 772 m near Ajmer flowing in the southwest direction and traversing a course
of 511 km in Rajasthan, it finally flows into the Rann of Kachchh (it gets lost in
the marsh).
• Most of its tributaries drain the steep northwest of Aravalli hills and join it on
the left side. Its total catchment area falls in Rajasthan.
• The peculiarity of this river is that it tends to increase its width rather than
deepening the bed because the banks are of soils, which are easily erodible
whereas beds are of sand. The floods develop and disappear so rapidly that they
have no time to scour the bed.

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West flowing Rivers of the Sahyadris (Western Ghats)
• About six hundred small streams originate from the Western Ghats and flow
westwards to fall into the Arabian Sea.
• The western slopes of the Western Ghats receive heavy rainfall from the south-
west monsoons and are able to feed such a large number of streams.
• Although only about 3% of the areal extent flow swiftly down the steep slope and
some of them make waterfalls.
• The Jog or Gersoppa Falls (289 m) made by the Sharavati river is the most
famous waterfall of India.
• Sharavati is a river which originates and flows entirely within the state
of Karnataka.

Ghaggar River – Inland Drainage

• Some rivers of India are not able to reach the sea and constitute inland drainage.
• Large parts of the Rajasthan desert and parts of Aksai Chin in Ladakh have
inland drainage.
• The Ghaggar is the most important river of inland drainage. It is a seasonal
stream that rises on the lower slopes of the Himalayas and forms the boundary
between Haryana and Punjab.
• It gets lost in the dry sands of Rajasthan near Hanumangarh after traversing a
distance of 465 km.
• Earlier, this river was an affluent of the Indus, the dry bed of the old channel is
still traceable.
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 • Its main tributaries are the Tangri, the Markanda, the Saraswati and the
Chaitanya.
• It contains a lot more water in the rainy season when its bed becomes 10 km
wide at places.
• Most of the streams draining western slopes of the Aravalli Range dry up
immediately after they enter the sandy arid areas to the west of this range.

Mhadei river
• Mahadayi or Mhadei, the west-flowing river, originates in Bhimgad Wildlife
Sanctuary (Western Ghats), Belagavi district of Karnataka.
• It is essentially a rain-fed river also called Mandovi in Goa.
• It is joined by a number of streams to form the Mandovi which is one of two
major rivers (the other one is the Zuari river) that flows through Goa.

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 • The river travels 35 km in Karnataka; 82 km in Goa before joining the Arabian Sea.
• Kalasa-Banduri Nala project
• Undertaken by the Government of Karnataka to improve drinking water
supply to the Districts of Belagavi, Dharwad, and Gadag. It involves
building across Kalasa and Banduri, two tributaries of the Mahadayi
river to divert 7.56 TMC of water to the Malaprabha river.
• Kalasa-Banduri project was planned in 1989; Goa raised an objection to it.

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Usability of Rivers
• Source of fresh water, irrigation, hydro-electric production, navigation, etc.
• The Himalayas, Vindhyas, Satpuras, Aravalis, Maikala, Chhotanagpur plateau,
Meghalaya plateau, Purvachal, Western and the Eastern Ghats offer possibilities
of large scale water power development.
• Sixty percent of the total river flow is concentrated in the Himalayan rivers, 16
percent in the Central Indian rivers (the Narmada, the Tapi, the Mahanadi, etc.),
and the rest in the rivers of the Deccan plateau.
• The Ganga and the Brahmaputra in the north and northeastern part of the
country, the Mahanadi in Odisha, the Godavari and the Krishna in Andhra and
Telangana the Narmada and the Tapi in Gujarat, and the lakes and tidal creeks in
coastal states possess some of the important and useful waterways of the
country.
• In the past, they were of great importance, which suffered a great deal with the
advent of rail and roads.
• Withdrawal of large quantities of water for irrigation resulted in the
dwindling flow of many rivers.
• The most important navigable rivers are the Ganga, the Brahmaputra, and
the Mahanadi. The Godavari, the Krishna, the Narmada, and the Tapi are
navigable near their mouths only.

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 Mechanism of Indian Monsoon

Indian Monsoon
• The word ‘monsoon’ is believed to have originated from the Arabic word for
season ‘mawsim’. Monsoons are basically seasonal winds that reverse their
direction according to the change in season. They are hence, periodic winds.
• The monsoons travel from the sea to the land in summers and from land to
the sea during winters, hence, are a double system of seasonal winds.
• Some scholars tend to treat the monsoon winds as land and sea breeze on a
large scale.
• Historically the monsoons have been very important because these winds were
used by traders and seafarers to move from place to place. Though there is
monsoon in the Indian subcontinent, central-western Africa, Southeast Asia, and
a few other places, the winds are most pronounced in the Indian subcontinent.
• India gets southwest monsoon winds in the summers and northeast
monsoons during the winters. The former arise because of the formation of
an intense low-pressure system over the Tibetan Plateau. The latter arises due
to the high-pressure cells that are formed over the Siberian and Tibetan
plateaus.
• South-west monsoons bring intense rainfall to most of the regions in India and
north-east monsoons bring rainfall to mainly south-eastern coast of India
(Southern coast of Seemandhra and the coast of Tamil Nadu.).
• Countries like India, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Myanmar etc. receive most of the
annual rainfall during south-west monsoon season where as South East China,
Japan etc., during north-east rainfall season.

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Mechanism of Indian Monsoon
The monsoons are experienced in the tropical area roughly between 20° N and 20°
S. Monsoon is a complex meteorological phenomenon. The origin of monsoons is not
fully understood. There are several theories that tried to explain the mechanism of
monsoons. To understand the mechanism of the monsoons, the following facts are
important

Thermal Concept

• Halley, a noted astronomer, made a hypothesis that the primary cause of the
Indian monsoon circulation was the differential heating effects of the land
and the sea. According to this concept, monsoons are the extended land
breeze and sea breeze on a large scale. During winter the huge landmass of
Asia cools more rapidly than the surrounding oceans with the result that a
strong high-pressure centre develops over the continent. On the other hand, the
pressure over adjacent oceans is relatively lower. As a consequence the pressure-
gradient is directed from land to sea. Therefore there is an outflow of air from the
continental landmass towards the adjacent oceans so that it brings cold, dry air
towards the low latitudes.
• In summer, the temperature and pressure conditions are reversed. Now, the
huge landmass of Asia heats quickly and develops a strong low-pressure centre.
Moreover, the poleward shift of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) to a
position over Southern Asia reinforces the thermally induced low-pressure
centre. The pressure over the adjacent oceans being high, a seato-land pressure
gradient is established. The surface airflow is, therefore, from the highs over the
oceans towards the lows over the heated land. The air that is attracted into the
centers of low pressure from over the oceans is warm and moist.
• Halley’s concept is criticized on the following lines:
• It fails to explain the intricacies of monsoon such as the sudden burst of
monsoon, breaks in monsoon, the spatial and temporal distribution of
monsoon. The low-pressure areas are not stationary. The rainfall is not only
convectional but a mix of orographic, cyclonic, and convectional rainfall.

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Recent Concept about the Origin of Indian Monsoon
After world war second, the upper atmospheric circulation has been studied
significantly. It is now believed that the differential heating of sea and land alone can’t
produce monsoon circulation. Apart from it, the recent concept of monsoon rely
heavily on the role of

• Himalayas and Tibetan plateau as a physical barrier and a source of high-

level heat.
• Circulation of upper air jet streams in the troposphere.
• Existence of upper air circum-polar whirl over north and south poles in the
troposphere.
• The occurrence of ENSO (El-Nino and Southern Oscillation) in the South
Pacific ocean
• Walker cell in Indian Ocean.
• Indian Ocean Dipole

Role of the Himalayas and Tibetan Plateau

• In the 1970s, it was found that the Tibet plateau plays a crucial role in initiating
the monsoon circulation. The plateau of Tibet extends over an area of about 4.5
million sq. km. The average height of these highlands is 4000 m. Due to its
enormous height, it receives 2-3oC more insolation than the neighboring areas.
The heating of these areas leads to clockwise air circulation in the middle
troposphere and two-wind streams originate from this area. One of these wind
streams blows southward and develops into the tropical easterly jet stream (TEJ).
The other stream blows in an opposite direction towards the North Pole and
becomes the westerly jet stream over Central Asia.

Role of Jet Stream

• As already discussed, the sub-tropical westerly jet stream is bifurcated by the

high-land Tibet in winters. The northward branch extends up to 20N-35N.
Tropical easterly jet stream (TEJ), that branch off from anticyclone developed
over Tibet, sometimes reaches to the tip of Peninsular India. Apart from this, Jet
speed winds are also reported over other parts of Peninsular. This jet descends
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 over the Indian Ocean and intensifies its high-pressure cell known as Mascarene
High. It is from this high-pressure cell that the onshore winds start blowing
towards the thermally induced low-pressure area, developed in the northern
part of the Indian subcontinent. After crossing the equator such winds become
south-westerly and are known as the southwesterly summer monsoon.

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Role of ENSO

• The Indian monsoon is also influenced by EL-Nino, southern oscillation, and

Somalian current. We know that El Nino is the reversal of normal conditions in
the Pacific Ocean’s sea surface temperature. Though there is no direct
correlation between bad monsoon and El Nino, but both are generally
associated. There are years when India faced severe drought and those are not El
-Nino years and vice-versa. Southern Oscillation is the see-saw pattern of
atmospheric pressure between the eastern and western Pacific oceans. The
oscillation has a period varying from 2-7 years. It is measured with Southern
Oscillation Index (SOI) by measuring the pressure difference between two points
in the Pacific Ocean (Tahiti and Darwin). A negative value of SOI implies high
pressure over the north Indian Ocean during the winter season and a poor
monsoon.
• The Somalian current changes its direction of flow after every six months. During
the North-East Monsoon, the Somali Current flows to the south-west, while
during the South-West Monsoon it is a major western boundary current,
comparable with the Gulf Stream. Normally, there remains a low-pressure area
along the eastern coast of Somalia. In exceptional years, after every six or seven
years, the low-pressure area in the western Arabian Sea becomes a high-
pressure area. Such a pressure reversal results into a weaker monsoon in India.

Walker Cell

• It is observed that there is an east-west atmospheric circulation over the tropical

oceanic regions. Such circulation in the Pacific Ocean is generally called walker
cell. However, many scientists use the term ‘walker cell’ for all east-west
circulations in different oceans. Walker cell is associated with southern
oscillation and its strength fluctuates with that of the Southern Oscillation Index
(SOI). With a high positive SOI, there would be a zone of low atmospheric
pressure over Australia and the Indonesian archipelago. The rising air from this
region deflects in the upper atmosphere in both directions towards Africa and
South America. In the Indian Ocean, the air descends down at a high-pressure
zone from where surface winds blow as Southwest monsoon towards the Indian
sub-continent in summers. During La-Nina Indian ocean branch of the walker
cell gets strengthened and surface winds are more intense. La-Nina condition is
generally associated with good monsoon.

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 • During the appearance of El-Nino or negative SOI, the ascending branch of the
Walker cell shifts to the central regions of the Pacific Ocean from the western
pacific region (Figure 8). In a result, the Indian Ocean cell shifts towards the east.
The surface winds or Southwest monsoon winds are weaker than normal
conditions.

Indian Ocean Dipole

• The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) also known as the Indian Nino is a coupled
Ocean-atmosphere phenomenon in the Indian Ocean. It is defined by the
difference in sea surface temperature between two areas (or poles, hence a
dipole) – a western pole in the Arabian Sea (western Indian Ocean) and an
eastern pole in the eastern Indian Ocean south of Indonesia. The IOD Involves a
periodic oscillation of sea-surface temperatures (SST), between “positive”,
“neutral” and “negative” phases. A positive phase sees greater-than-average sea-
surface temperatures and greater precipitation in the western Indian Ocean
region, with a corresponding cooling of waters in the eastern Indian Ocean—
which tends to cause droughts in adjacent land areas of Indonesia and Australia.
The negative phase of the IOD brings about the opposite conditions, with
warmer water and greater precipitation in the eastern Indian Ocean, and cooler
and drier conditions in the west.
• The IOD is one aspect of the general cycle of global climate, interacting with
similar phenomena like the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) in the Pacific
Ocean. Positive and negative IOD both have been seen coupled with La Nina.
Thus, there is no direct correlation between IOD and ENSO.
• The IOD also affects the strength of monsoons over the Indian subcontinent.
Positive IOD which is associated with warm sea-surface temperatures of the
western Indian Ocean is favorable for monsoon.

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Nature of Indian Monsoon
Systematic studies of the causes of rainfall in the South Asian region help to
understand the salient features of the monsoon, particularly some of its important
aspects, such as:

1. Onset and advance of monsoon

2. Rain-bearing systems and the relationship between their frequency and
distribution of
3. monsoon rainfall.
4. Break in the monsoon
5. Retreat of the monsoon

Onset and Advance of Monsoon

• The differential heating of land and sea is still believed to be the primary cause of
the monsoon by many meteorologists. Low pressure at ITCZ which is located
over north India in month of May becomes so intense that it pulls the trade
winds of the southern hemisphere northwards (Figure – summer monsoon
winds). These southeast trade winds cross the equator and enter the Bay of
Bengal and the Arabian Sea, only to be caught up in the air circulation over India.
• Passing over the equatorial warm currents, they bring with them moisture in
abundance. With the northwards shift of ITCZ, an easterly jet stream develops
over 15N.
• The rain in the southwest monsoon season begins rather abruptly. One result of
the first rain is that it brings down the temperature substantially. This sudden
onset of the moisture-laden winds associated with violent thunder and lightning
is often termed as the “break” or “burst” of the monsoons.
• Southwest monsoon, first of all, reaches in Andaman-Nicobar Islands on 15th
May. Kerala coast receives it on 1st June. It reaches Mumbai and Kolkata between
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 10th and 13th June. By 15th of July, Southwest monsoon covers the whole of
India.

Rain Bearing Systems and Distribution of Rainfall

• The southwest monsoon splits into two branches, the Arabian Sea Branch and
the Bay of Bengal Branch near the southernmost end of the Indian Peninsula.
Hence, it arrives in India in two branches: the Bay of Bengal branch and the
Arabian Sea branch. First originated in the Bay of Bengal causing rainfall over
the plains of north India. Second is the Arabian Sea current of the southwest
monsoon which brings rain to the west coast of India. The latter extends toward
a low-pressure area over the Thar Desert and is roughly three times stronger
than the Bay of Bengal branch.
• The monsoon winds originating over the Arabian Sea further split into three
branches:
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 • A. One branch is obstructed by the Western Ghats. These winds climb the
slopes of the Western Ghats and as a result of the orographic rainfall
phenomenon, the windward side of Ghats receives very heavy rainfall
ranging between 250 cm and 400 cm. After crossing the Western Ghats,
these winds descend and get heated up. This reduces humidity in the
winds. As a result, these winds cause little rainfall east of the Western
Ghats. This region of low rainfall is known as the rain-shadow area.
• B. Another branch of the Arabian Sea monsoon strikes the coast north of
Mumbai. Moving along the Narmada and Tapi river valleys, these winds
cause rainfall in extensive areas of central India. The Chotanagpur plateau
gets 15 cm of rainfall from this part of the branch. Thereafter, they enter the
Ganga plains and mingle with the Bay of Bengal branch.
• C. A third branch of this monsoon wind strikes the Saurashtra Peninsula
and the Kutch. It then passes over west Rajasthan and along the Aravallis,
causing only a scanty rainfall. In Punjab and Haryana, it too joins the Bay of
Bengal branch. These two branches, reinforced by each other, cause rains
in the western Himalayas.
• The intensity of rainfall over the west coast of India is, however, related to two
factors:
• The offshore meteorological conditions.
• The position of the equatorial jet stream along the eastern coast of Africa.
• The Bay of Bengal branch strikes the coast of Myanmar and part of southeast
Bangladesh. But the Arakan Hills along the coast of Myanmar deflect a big
portion of this branch towards the Indian subcontinent. The monsoon, therefore,
enters West Bengal and Bangladesh from the south and southeast instead of
from the south-westerly direction. From here, this branch splits into two under
the influence of the Himalayas and the thermal low is northwest India.
• One branch moves westward along the Ganga plains reaching as far as the
Punjab plains. The other branch moves up the Brahmaputra valley in the north
and the northeast, causing widespread rains. Its sub-branch strikes the Garo and
Khasi Hills of Meghalaya. Mawsynram, located on the crest of Khasi hills, receives
the highest average annual rainfall in the world.
• The Tamil Nadu coast remains dry during this season because it is situated in the
rainshadow area of the Arabian Sea branch of the southwest monsoon and lies
parallel to the Bay of Bengal branch of the southwest monsoon.
• The frequency of tropical depressions originating over the Bay of Bengal varies
from year to year. The path of these depressions also keeps changing with the
position of the ITCZ, also known as the monsoon trough (Figure – position of
Inter-tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) in the month of January and July). As the
axis of the monsoon trough oscillates with the apparent movement of the sun
between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn, there are fluctuations in the
track and direction of these depressions, and the intensity and the amount of
rainfall vary from year to year. The amount of rainfall in north India varies with
the frequency of the tropical depressions. On average, one to three depressions
are observed every month and the life span of one depression is about one week.
• The rain which comes in spells displays a declining trend from west to east over
the west coast, and from the southeast towards the northwest over the North
Indian Plain and the northern part of the Peninsula. Rajasthan desert receives
low rainfall in spite of being in the path of the Arabian Sea branch of the
monsoon. This branch blows parallel to the Aravalis mountain chain without
obstruction and thus, does not release moisture here.

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Break in the Monsoon

• During the southwest monsoon period after having rained for a few days, if rain
fails to occur for one or more weeks, it is known as a break in the monsoon.
These dry spells are quite common during the rainy season. These breaks in the
different regions are due to different reasons:
1. In northern India rains are likely to fail if the rain-bearing storms are not
very frequent along the monsoon trough or the ITCZ over this region.
2. Over the west coast the dry spells are associated with days when winds
blow parallel to the coast.

Retreating/Post Monsoons (The Transition Season)

• During October-November, with the apparent movement of the sun towards the
south, the monsoon trough or the low-pressure trough over the northern plains
becomes weaker. This is gradually replaced by a high-pressure system. The
southwest monsoon winds weaken and start withdrawing gradually. By the
beginning of October, the monsoon withdraws from the Northern Plains. The
months of October November form a period of transition from hot rainy season
to dry winter conditions. The retreat of the monsoon is marked by clear skies and
a rise in temperature. While day temperatures are high, nights are cool and
pleasant. The land is still moist. Owing to the conditions of high temperature and
humidity, the weather becomes rather oppressive during the day. This is
commonly known as ‘October heat’. In the second half of October, the mercury
begins to fall rapidly in northern India.
• The low-pressure conditions, over northwestern India, get transferred to the Bay
of Bengal by early November. This shift is associated with the occurrence of
cyclonic depressions, which originate over the Andaman Sea. These cyclones
generally cross the eastern coasts of India cause heavy and widespread rain.
These tropical cyclones are often very destructive. The thickly populated deltas of
the Godavari, the Krishna, and the Kaveri are frequently struck by cyclones,
which cause great damage to life and property. Sometimes, these cyclones
arrive at the coasts of Orissa, West Bengal, and Bangladesh. The bulk of the
rainfall of the Coromandel Coast is derived from depressions and cyclones.

Features of Monsoon Rainfall

1. Monsoon rain is seasonal in character which occurs between June and

September.
2. Spatial distribution of rainfall is largely governed by relief or topography. For
instance the
windward side of the Western Ghats registers a rainfall of over 250 cm. Again, the
heavy
rainfall in the northeastern states can be attributed to their hill ranges and the
Eastern
Himalayas. Rainfall ranges from 20 cm in western Rajasthan to more than 400
cm in
certain parts of Western Ghats and North-East India.
3. The monsoon rainfall has a declining trend with increasing distance from the
sea. Rainfall decreases from east to west in plains as one branch of monsoon

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 enters from eastern side. Kolkata receives 119 cm, Allahabad 76 cm and Delhi 56
cm only.
4. Breaks (discussed above) in rainfall are related to the cyclonic depressions
mainly formed at the head of the Bay of Bengal, and their crossing into the
mainland. Besides the frequency and intensity of these depressions, the passage
followed by them determines the spatial distribution of rainfall.
5. The rains sometimes end considerably earlier than usual, causing great damage
to standing crops and making the sowing of winter crops difficult.

Monsoons and the Economic Life in India

• Monsoon is that axis around which revolves the entire agricultural cycle of India.
It is because about 64 percent of people of India depend on agriculture for their
livelihood and agriculture itself is based on the southwest monsoon.
• Except Himalayas all the parts of the country have temperatures above the
threshold level to grow the crops or plants throughout the year.
• Regional variations in monsoon climate help in growing various types of crops.
• Agricultural prosperity of India depends very much on time and adequately
distributed rainfall. If it fails, agriculture is adversely affected mainly in areas
where irrigation is not developed.
• Sudden monsoon burst creates the problem of soil erosion over large areas in
India.

Monsoon as unifying factors:

• It is already known the way the Himalayas protect the subcontinent from
extremely cold winds from central Asia. This enables northern India to have
uniformly higher temperatures when compared to other areas on the same
latitudes. Similarly, the peninsular plateau, under the influence of the sea from
three sides, has moderate temperatures. Despite such moderating influences,
there are great variations in the temperature conditions. Nevertheless, the
unifying influence of the monsoon on the Indian subcontinent is quite
perceptible. The seasonal alteration of the wind systems and the associated
weather conditions provide a rhythmic cycle of seasons. Even the uncertainties
of rain and uneven distribution are very much typical of the monsoons. The
Indian landscape, its animal and plant life, its entire agricultural calendar, and
the life of the people, including their festivities, revolve around this phenomenon.
Year after year, people of India from north to south and from east to west,
eagerly await the arrival of the monsoon. These monsoon winds bind the whole
country by providing water to set the agricultural activities in motion. The river
valleys which carry this water also unite as a single river valley unit.

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 Tropical Cyclone – Formation & Characteristics
A tropical cyclone is a weather phenomenon that is essentially a rapidly rotating
storm system with characteristics such as a low-pressure center, strong winds and
thunderstorms that produce heavy rain, among others.
Tropical cyclones are violent storms that originate over oceans in tropical
areas and move over to the coastal areas bringing about large-scale destruction due
to violent winds (squalls), very heavy rainfall (torrential rainfall), and storm surge.

They are irregular wind movements involving the closed circulation of air around a
low-pressure center. This closed air circulation (whirling motion) is a result of rapid
upward movement of the hot air which is subjected to Coriolis force. The low
pressure at the center is responsible for the wind speeds.

Squall – a sudden violent gust of wind or localized storm, especially one bringing rain,
snow, or sleet.

Torrent – a strong and fast-moving stream of water or other liquid.

• The cyclonic wind movements are anti-clockwise in the northern

hemisphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere (This is due to Coriolis
force).
• The cyclones are often characterized by the existence of an anticyclone between
two cyclones.
• Tropical cyclones occur around the equator at 5 ° – 30 °, but also have varying
names depending upon where in the world they form.
• An average tropical cyclone can travel about 300 to 400 miles a day, or about
3,000 miles before it dies out.

Conditions Favorable for Tropical Cyclone Formation

1. Large sea surface with a temperature higher than 27° C,
2. Presence of the Coriolis force enough to create a cyclonic vortex,
3. Small variations in the vertical wind speed,
4. A pre-existing weak low-pressure area or low-level-cyclonic circulation,
5. Upper divergence above the sea level system,

Good Source of Latent Heat

• Ocean waters having temperatures of 27° C or more is the source of moisture

that feeds the storm. The condensation of moisture releases enough latent heat
of condensation to drive the storm.
• The depth of warm water (26-27°C) should extend for 60-70 m from the surface
of the ocean/sea, so that deep convection currents within the water do not
churn and mix the cooler water below with the warmer water near the surface.
• The above condition occurs only in western tropical oceans because of warm
ocean currents (easterly trade winds push ocean waters towards the west) that

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 flow from the east towards the west forming a thick layer of water with
temperatures greater than 27°C. This supplies enough moisture to the storm.
• The cold currents lower the surface temperatures of the eastern parts of the
tropical oceans making them unfit for the breeding of cyclonic storms.

Coriolis Force (f)

• The Coriolis force is zero at the equator (no cyclones at the equator because
of zero Coriolis Force) but it increases with latitude. Coriolis force at 5° latitude is
significant enough to create a storm [cyclonic vortex].
• About 65 percent of cyclonic activity occurs between 10° and 20° latitude.

Low-level Disturbances

• Low-level disturbance (thunderstorms – they are the seeds of cyclones) in the

form of easterly wave disturbances in the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
should pre-exist.

• Small local differences in the temperature of the water and of air produce
various low-pressure centers of small size. A weak cyclonic circulation develops
around these areas.
• Then, because of the rising warm humid air, a true cyclonic vortex may develop
very rapidly. However, only a few of these disturbances develop into cyclones.

[rising of humid air => adiabatic lapse rate => fall in temperature of air => condensation
of moisture in air => latent heat of condensation released => air gets more hot and
lighter => air is further uplifted => more air comes in to fill the gap => new moisture
available for condensation => latent heat of condensation and the cycle repeats]

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Temperature contrast between air masses

• Trade winds from both hemispheres meet along the inter-tropical front.
Temperature contrasts between these air masses must exist when the ITCZ is
farthest, from the equator.
• Thus, the convergence of these air masses of different temperatures and the
resulting instability are the prerequisites for the origin and growth of violent
tropical storms.

Upper Air Disturbance

• The remains of an upper tropospheric cyclone from the Westerlies move deep
into the tropical latitude regions. As divergence prevails on the eastern side of
the troughs, a rising motion occurs; this leads to the development of
thunderstorms.
• Further, these old abandoned troughs (remnants of temperate cyclones) usually
have cold cores, suggesting that the environmental lapse rate is steeper and
unstable below these troughs. Such instability encourages thunderstorms (child
cyclones).

Wind Shear

• Wind Shear – differences between wind speeds at different heights.

• Tropical cyclones develop when the wind is uniform.
• Because of weak vertical wind shear, cyclone formation processes are
limited to latitude equatorward of the subtropical jet stream.
• In the temperate regions, wind shear is high due to westerlies and this inhibits
convective cyclone formation.

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Upper Tropospheric Divergence

• A well – developed divergence in the upper layers of the atmosphere is

necessary so that the rising air currents within the cyclone continue to be
pumped out and a low pressure maintained at the center.

Humidity Factor

• High humidity (around 50 to 60 percent) is required in the mid-troposphere

since the presence of moist air leads to the formation of cumulonimbus clouds.
• Such conditions exist over the equatorial doldrums, especially in western
margins of oceans (this is because of the east to west movement of ocean
currents), which have great moisture, carrying capacity because the trade
winds continuously replace the saturated air.

Origin and Development of Tropical Cyclones

• The tropical cyclones have a thermal origin, and they develop over tropical seas
during late summers (August to mid-November).
• At these locations, the strong local convectional currents acquire a whirling
motion because of the Coriolis force.
• After developing, these cyclones advance till they find a weak spot in the trade
wind belt.

Origin

• Under favorable conditions, multiple thunderstorms originate over the oceans.

These thunderstorms merge and create an intense low pressure system (wind is
warm and lighter).

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Early stage

• In the thunderstorm, the air is uplifted as it is warm and light. At a certain

height, due to lapse rate and adiabatic lapse rate, the temperature of the air
falls and moisture in the air undergoes condensation.
• Condensation releases latent heat of condensation making the air warmer. It
becomes much lighter and is further uplifted.
• Space is filled with fresh moisture-laden air. Condensation occurs in this air and
the cycle is repeated as long as the moisture is supplied.
• Due to excess moisture over oceans, the thunderstorm intensifies and sucks in
the air at a much faster rate. The air from surroundings rushes in and undergoes
deflection due to Coriolis force creating a cyclonic vortex (spiraling air column.
Similar to a tornado).

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 • Due to centripetal acceleration (centripetal force pulling towards the center is
countered by an opposing force called the centrifugal force), the air in the vortex
is forced to form a region of calmness called an eye at the center of the cyclone.
The inner surface of the vortex forms the eyewall, the most violent region of the
cyclone.

[Eye is created due to tangential force acting on wind that is following a curvy path]

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 • All the wind that is carried upwards loses its moisture and becomes cold and
dense. It descends to the surface through the cylindrical eye region and at the
edges of the cyclone.
• Continuous supply of moisture from the sea is the major driving force behind
every cyclone. On reaching the land the moisture supply is cut off and the
storm dissipates.
• If ocean can supply more moisture, the storm will reach a mature stage.

Mature stage

• At this stage, the spiraling winds create multiple convective cells with successive
calm and violent regions.
• The regions with cumulonimbus cloud (rising limbs of the convective cell)
formation are called rain bands below which intense rainfall occurs.
• The ascending air will lose moisture at some point and descends (subsides) back
to the surface through the calm regions (descending limbs of convection cell –
subsiding air) that exist between two rain bands.
• Cloud formation is dense at the center. The cloud size decreases from center to
periphery.
• Rain bands are mostly made up of cumulonimbus clouds. The ones at the
periphery are made up of nimbostratus and cumulus clouds.
• The dense overcast at the upper levels of the troposphere is due to cirrus
clouds which are mostly made up of hexagonal ice crystals.
• The dry air flowing along the central dense overcast descends at the periphery
and the eye region.

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Structure of a tropical cyclone

Eye

• A mature tropical cyclone is characterized by the strong spirally circulating

wind around the centre which is called the eye.
• The “eye” is a roughly circular area of comparatively light winds, clear skies. and
fair weather found at the center of a severe tropical cyclone.
• There is little or no precipitation and sometimes blue sky or stars can be seen.
• The eye is the region of lowest surface pressure and warmest temperatures
aloft (in the upper levels) – the eye temperature may be 10°C warmer or more at
an altitude of 12 km than the surrounding environment, but only 0-2°C warmer
at the surface in the tropical cyclone.
• Eyes range in size from 8 km to over 200 km across, but most are
approximately 30-60 km in diameter.

Eye wall

• The eye is surrounded by the “eyewall”, the roughly circular ring of deep
convection, which is the area of highest surface winds in the tropical cyclone.
The Eye Wall region also sees the maximum sustained winds i.e. fastest winds in
a cyclone occur along the eyewall region.
• The eye is composed of air that is slowly sinking and the eyewall has a net
upward flow as a result of many moderate – occasionally strong
• The eye’s warm temperatures are due to compressional warming (adiabatic) of
the subsiding air.
• Most soundings taken within the eye show a low-level layer, which is relatively
moist, with an inversion above – suggesting that the sinking in the eye typically

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 does not reach the ocean surface, but instead only gets to around 1-3 km of the
surface.
• The wind reaches maximum velocity in this region and torrential rain occurs
here.
• From the eyewall, rain bands may radiate and trains of cumulus and
cumulonimbus clouds may drift into the outer region.

Spiral bands

• Another feature of tropical cyclones that probably plays a role in forming and
maintaining the eye is the eyewall convection.
• Convection in tropical cyclones is organized into long, narrow rain bands which
are oriented in the same direction as the horizontal wind.
• Because these bands seem to spiral into the center of a tropical cyclone, they
are called “spiral bands”.
• Along with these bands, low-level convergence is a maximum, and therefore,
upper-level divergence is most pronounced above.
• A direct circulation develops in which warm, moist air converges at the surface,
ascends through these bands, diverges aloft, and descends on both sides of
the bands.
• Subsidence is distributed over a wide area on the outside of the rain band but is
concentrated in the small inside area.
• As the air subsides, adiabatic warming takes place, and the air dries.
• Because subsidence is concentrated on the inside of the band, the adiabatic
warming is stronger inward from the band causing a sharp contrast in pressure
to fall across the band since warm air is lighter than cold air.
• Because the pressure falls on the inside, the tangential winds around the tropical
cyclone increase due to the increased pressure gradient. Eventually, the band
moves toward the center and encircles it, and the eye and eye wall form.
• Thus, the cloud-free eye may be due to a combination of dynamically forced
centrifuging of mass out of the eye into the eyewall and to a forced descent
caused by the moist convection of the eyewall.

Vertical Structure of a Tropical Cyclone

There are three divisions in the vertical structure of tropical cyclones.

• The lowest layer, extending up to 3 km and known as the inflow layer, is

responsible for driving the storm.
• The middle layer, extending from 3 km to 7 km, is where the main cyclonic
storm takes place.
• The outflow layer lies above 7 km. The maximum outflow is found at 12 km and
above. The movement of air is anticyclonic in nature.

Categories of Tropical Cyclones

This is the tropical cyclone category system as used by the Bureau of Meteorology:

1. Category one (tropical cyclone): A category one cyclone’s strongest winds are
GALES with typical gusts over open flat land of 90-125kph,

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 2. Category two (tropical cyclone): A category two cyclone’s strongest winds are
DESTRUCTIVE winds with typical gusts over open flat land of 125-164kph,
3. Category three (severe tropical cyclone): A category three cyclone’s strongest
winds are VERY DESTRUCTIVE winds with typical gusts over open flat land of
165-224kph,
4. Category four (severe tropical cyclone): A category four cyclone’s strongest
winds are VERY DESTRUCTIVE winds with typical gusts over open flat land of
225-279kph,
5. Category five (severe tropical cyclone): A category five cyclone’s strongest
winds are VERY DESTRUCTIVE winds with typical gusts over open flat land of
more than 280kph.

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Favorite Breeding Grounds for Tropical Cyclones
• South-east Caribbean region where they are called hurricanes.
• Philippines islands, eastern China, and Japan where they are called typhoons.
• The Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea where they are called cyclones.
• Around the south-east African coast and Madagascar-Mauritius islands.
• North-west Australia.

Regional names for Tropical Cyclones

Regions What they are called

Indian Ocean Cyclones

Atlantic Hurricanes

Western Pacific and South China Sea Typhoons

Western Australia Willy-willies

Characteristics of Tropical Cyclones

The main features of tropical cyclones are as follows.

Size and Shape

• Tropical cyclones have symmetrical elliptical shapes (2:3 ratio of length and
breadth) with steep pressure gradients. They have a compact size—80 km near
center, which may develop up to 300 km to 1500 km.

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Wind Velocity and Strength

• Wind velocity, in a tropical cyclone, is more in poleward margins than at

center and is moreover oceans than over landmasses, which are scattered
with physical barriers. The wind velocity may range from nil to 1200 km per hour.

Path of Tropical Cyclones

• These cyclones start with a westward movement but turn northwards

around 20° latitude. They turn further north-eastwards around 25° latitude, and
then eastwards around 30° latitude. They then lose energy and subside.
• Tropical cyclones follow a parabolic path, their axis being parallel to the isobars.
• Coriolis force or earth’s rotation, easterly and westerly winds influence the
path of a tropical cyclone.
• Tropical cyclones die at 30° latitude because of cool ocean waters and increasing
wind shear due to westerlies.

Warning of Tropical Cyclones

• Detection of any unusual phenomena in the weather leading to cyclones has
three main parameters: fall in pressure, increase in wind velocity, and the
direction and movement (track) of the storm.
• There is a network of weather stations monitoring pressure fall and wind
velocities in all countries of the world, including the Arctic and Antarctic regions.
• The islands attain special significance in this as they facilitate monitoring of
these developments.
• In India, there are detection radars along both coasts.
• Monitoring is also done by aircraft which carry a number of instruments
including weather radar.
• Cyclone monitoring by satellites is done through very high-resolution
radiometers, working in the visual and infra-red regions (for night view) of the
spectrum to obtain an image of the cloud cover and its structure.
• Remote sensing by radars, aircraft, and satellites helps predict where exactly
the cyclone is going to strike. It helps in taking advanced steps in the following
areas:
1. closing of ports and harbors,
2. suspension of fishing activities,
3. evacuation of the population,
4. stocking of food and drinking water, and
5. provision of shelter with sanitation facilities (safety homes).
• Today, it is possible to detect a cyclone right from its genesis in the high seas and
follow its course, giving a warning at least 48 hours prior to a cyclone strike.
• However, the predictions of a storm course made only 12 hours in advance do
not have a very high rate of precision.

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Major Differences between Temperate Cyclone and Tropical Cyclone
Tropical Cyclone Temperate Cyclone

These cyclones move from west

tropical cyclones, move from east to west.
to east

A tropical cyclone has an effect on a comparatively smaller Temperate cyclone affect a much
area than a Temperate cyclone. larger area

The velocity of wind in a tropical cyclone is much higher and The velocity of air is
it is more damaging. comparatively lower

Tropical Cyclone forms only on seas with temperature more Temperate cyclones can be
than 26-27degree C and dissipate on reaching the land. formed on both land and sea

Temperate cyclone can last for a

A tropical cyclone doesn’t last for more than 7 days
duration of 15 to 20 days

Tornado
A tornado is a violently rotating column of air that extends from a thunderstorm to
the ground. It is a vortex of rapidly moving air. A tornado forms when changes in
wind speed and direction create a horizontal spinning effect within a storm cell. This
effect is then tipped vertically by rising air moving up through the thunderclouds.

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 • Winds within the tornado funnel may exceed 500kmph.
• High-velocity winds cause most of the damage associated with these weather
events.
• Tornadoes also cause damage through air pressure reductions.
• The air pressure at the tornado centre is approximately 800 millibars (average
sea-level pressure is 1013 millibars) and many human-made structures collapse
outward when subject to pressure drops of this magnitude.

Origin of Tornado

• Tornado formation typically needs four ingredients: shear, lift, instability, and
moisture.
• Wind shear is the most important factor that plays into the creation of
tornadoes. When there is wind shear, sometimes these winds begin to roll into a
horizontal column of air.
• Once you get a strong updraft of air being transported from the ground to the
atmosphere, that column of air becomes vertical. That is when a storm usually
develops in this scenario.
• As the storm develops, it turns into a supercell thunderstorm much of the
time. These supercell thunderstorms are separate, discrete cells that are not part
of a line of storms. Also, supercells are storms that rotate and spin. With both the
vertical, rotating column of air and the supercell thunderstorm together, that
may bring down a tornado from the storm cloud
• Tornadoes are most common in spring and least common in winter. Spring
and fall experience peaks of activity as those are the seasons when stronger
winds, wind shear, and atmospheric instability are present. Tornado occurrence
is highly dependent on the time of day, because of solar heating.

Distribution of tornadoes

• Rare in polar regions and infrequent at latitudes higher than 50° N and 50° S.
• The temperate and tropical regions are the most prone to thunderstorms.
• Tornadoes have been reported on all continents except Antarctica.
• The United States has the most violent tornadoes.
• Canada reports the second largest number of tornadoes.
• In the Indian sub-continent, Bangladesh is the most prone country to
tornadoes.
• At any moment there are approximately 1,800 thunderstorms in progress
throughout the world.

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Differences between Tornado and cyclone
Tornado Cyclone

A tornado is a rotating column of air A cyclone is an atmospheric system

ranging in width from a few yards to more
than a mile and whirling at destructively
Definition high speeds, usually accompanied by a
funnel-shaped downward extension of a
cumulonimbus cloud. Winds 40-300+
mph.
of rapidly circulating air massed
about a low-pressure centre, usually
accompanied by stormy often
destructive weather. Storms that
begin in the Southern Pacific are
called cyclones

Clockwise in the southern hemisphere Clockwise in the southern

Rotation and counter clockwise in the northern hemisphere and counter clockwise
hemisphere in the northern hemisphere.

Forms of
rain Rain, sleet, and hail
precipitation

The United States records about 1200

tornadoes per year, whereas the
Netherlands records the highest number
Frequency of tornadoes per area compared to other 10-14 per year
countries. Tornadoes occur commonly in
spring and the fall season and are less
common in winters

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Tornados have been spotted in all
Location
continents except Antarctica
Southern Pacific Ocean, Indian
Ocean. Cyclones in the northwest
Pacific that reach (exceed) 74 mph
are “typhoons”.

Places where cold and warm fronts

Occurrence warm areas
converge. Can be just almost anywhere.

Tornadoes, as well as cyclones both, occur in India. However, unlike cyclones, the
frequency of tornado outbreaks is very low. Cyclones originate in the Bay of Bengal
region as well as in the Arabian Sea region whereas Tornadoes of weak strength
occur in the north-western and north-eastern region of the country causing
significant damage to man and material.

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Western Disturbances: Effects & Benefits for India

Western Disturbances
• Western Disturbances develop in the mid-latitude region (north of the Tropic
of Cancer), not in the tropical region, therefore they are called as mid-latitude
storms or extra-tropical storms.
• Extra-Tropical Cyclones are also called as winter storms and blizzards.
• It is a term coined by an Indian Meteorologist for the weather phenomenon
which is propagated from the West.
• The phrase Western Disturbance was first used in published literature in 1947.
However, its precursor Winter Disturbance was coined earlier in 1931.
• Western Disturbances are low-pressure systems, embedded in western
winds (westerlies) that flow from west to the east.
• The low pressure typically forms over the Mediterranean Sea and travels over
Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, and Pakistan before entering India loaded with
moisture.
• These moisture-laden western disturbances eventually come up against the
Himalayas and get blocked, as a consequence, the moisture gets trapped
and precipitation is shared in the form of snow and rain over Northwest India
and sometimes, other parts of North India.
• An average of 4-5 western disturbances form during the winter season and the
rainfall distribution and amount varies with every western disturbance.
• The word ‘Western’ refers to the direction from which they originate with
regard to India.
• The word ‘disturbance’ is used because the air within the low-pressure
systems tends to be unstable or disturbed.
• Sometimes, when western disturbances become more intense in the Indian
Region, they can extend even up to 15 degrees north, resulting in rainfall up to
north Maharashtra, Gujarat, and the entire Madhya Pradesh to the south.

Formation of western disturbances

• Western Disturbance has its origin in the Mediterranean Sea as extra-tropical

cyclones.
• A high-pressure is exhibited area over the areas like Ukraine and
neighborhood countries causes the intrusion of cold air from Polar Regions
towards an area of relatively warmer air with high moisture. This change in
pressure from cold air to warm air generates favorable conditions
for cyclogenesis in the upper layer of the atmosphere, which promotes the
formation of an eastward-moving extratropical depression in the sea.
• Then these gradually travel across the middle-east from Iran, Afghanistan,
and Pakistan to finally enter the Indian sub-continent.

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Impact

• Western Disturbances are the cause of the most winter and pre-monsoon
season rainfall across North-West India. This phenomenon is usually associated
with a cloudy sky, higher night temperatures, and unusual rain. It is estimated
that India gets close to 5-10% of its total annual rainfall from western
disturbances.
• In winter, western winds bring moderate to heavy rain in low lying areas and
heavy snow to mountainous areas of the Indian subcontinent.
• India is a rain-dependent country and while the southwest monsoon covers
most of India, parts of North India don’t get much rain from it. These
regions depend upon snow and rain from western disturbance during the
winter season from November to March.
• Precipitation during the winter season has great importance in agriculture
particularly for rabi crops including wheat, which is one of the most important
Indian crops.
• They start declining after winter. During the summer months of April and May,
they move across North India and at times help in the activation of monsoon in
certain parts of northwest India.
• During the monsoon season, western disturbances may occasionally cause
dense clouding and heavy precipitation.
• Weak western disturbances are associated with crop failure and water
problems across north India.
• Strong western disturbances can help residents, farmers and governments avoid
many of the problems associated with water scarcity.

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Casualties

• Since western disturbances are not high-intensity weather systems, they are not
usually associated with disasters but in the recent past, it is observed that this
beneficial weather phenomenon is increasingly becoming disastrous during the
summer and monsoon seasons.
• The 2010 cloudburst in Leh, in which 71 towns and villages were damaged and
225 people died was caused due to the western disturbances.
• In September 2014, the Kashmir region suffered disastrous floods across many
of its districts killing over 200 people. This was also caused by the Western
Disturbances.
• Expert opinion on western disturbances is divided regarding the 2013 floods in
Uttarakhand in which over 5000 people were killed, after three days of incessant
rainfall. While many believe that Uttarakhand floods may have occurred due to
interactions between western disturbances and the summer monsoon, many
others believe that western disturbances and monsoon occur in completely
different time frames.

Importance of Western Disturbances

• The western disturbances affect weather conditions during the winter season up
to Patna (Bihar) and give occasional rainfall which is highly beneficial for the
standing rabi crops, (wheat, barley, mustard, gram, lentil, etc.).

Cloudburst
• A cloudburst is an intense torrential rainfall brought by a thunderstorm that
lasts for a relatively short duration (few minutes to few hours).
• Cloudburst leads to flash floods and causes a lot of damage to life and property.
• Every intense rainfall is not a Cloudburst. Cloudburst specifically occurs when an
air mass with high humidity is struck at a place due to various reasons. In
2010, the South-Western strip of Russia (Caucasus Region, Moscow, etc.) saw

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 higher than normal temperatures (highest in the last 100 years) and there were
numerous cloudbursts in Jammu and Kashmir.
• A strong upper-atmospheric high was located over European Russia towards the
beginning of summer.
• It diverted the jet stream (meandering of Sub-Tropical Jet Stream) and its rain-
giving train (trough) of summer storms farther north than usual, giving much of
Southern European Russia drought conditions.
• In addition, southern desert heat from central Asia, the Arabian Peninsula, and
North Africa began to flow northward, which strengthened this ridge of STJ and
tightened its hold over the region.

• The stalled system prevented weather systems from being drawn across Russia
and the obstacle acted as a barrier trapping hot air to the south and cold air to
the north.
• The consequence of this static mass of hot air was the heatwave that devastated
Russia.
• With the jet stream stalled the Sub-Tropical Jet was unable to transit across the
Himalayas as it would do ordinarily, the monsoon cell to the south, fed by
warmer waters in the Indian Ocean, had nowhere to go and as a consequence, it

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 deposited vast amounts of rain over Pakistan, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu
and Kashmir and this led to extensive flooding.

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 Climatic Regions of India
• A climatic region has a homogeneous climatic condition which is the result of a
combination of factors.
• Temperature and rainfall are two important elements that are considered to
be decisive in all the schemes of climatic classification.
• The whole of India has a monsoon type of climate. But the combination of
elements of the weather, however, reveals many regional variations.

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 • On the basis of variations in the distribution of various facets of climate, India can
be divided into a number of climatic regions. In the case of India, the scheme
put forth by Trewartha is more suitable and the climatic regions thus arrived
at correspond very closely to the soil, vegetative and agricultural regions of
India.
• G.T. Trewartha modified the climatic classification of Koppen in 1954. His
classification of climate is empirical, based on the temperature and
precipitation data. He also used English alphabets as symbols to show the
different types of climate. His scheme, applied to India, divides the country
into four major climatic regions which are further sub-divided into seven
meso-climatic divisions.

Trewartha’s Classification of Climate

According to Trewartha’s scheme, the main climatic regions of India include:

Tropical Rainforest Climate (Am)

• This climate is characterized by high temperatures and heavy precipitation.

• Temperatures are usually above 18.2 °C and the rainfall above 200cms.
• This climatic region includes the western coastal plain and Sahyadris and
parts of Assam and Meghalaya.
• Dense forests primarily of evergreen trees are the characteristic vegetation here.

The Tropical Savannah Climate (Aw)

• In this climatic type, the mean annual temperature remains around 27°C.
The mean annual rainfall is less than 100 cm.
• It has a marked dry season.
• The greater parts of the Peninsular India, excluding the coastal plains and the
western slopes of the Western Ghats, have been included in this climate type.

The Tropical Steppe Climate (BS)

• The mean annual temperature in this climatic zone is about 27°C.

• It covers peninsular India east of the Western Ghats.
• In fact, it is the rain-shadow area of the Western Ghats including parts of
Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu.

The Sub-tropical Steppe Climate (BSh)

• This is a semi-arid climate stretching over parts of Gujarat, eastern Rajasthan,

Mahanadi, Andhra Pradesh, and southern Haryana.
• The mean annual temperature in this climate region is over 27°C, though the
mean monthly January temperature reads only about 15°C.
• The annual range of temperature is significantly high. The mean annual
rainfall varies between 60 – 75 cm.

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The Tropical Arid Climate (BWh)

• It lies to the west of the Aravallis, stretching over the Thar Desert.
• The mean maximum temperature during the months of May and June
occasionally crosses 48°C.
• The mean annual rainfall is less than 25 cm. The lowest rainfall in the country
is recorded in this climate in the district of Ganganagar.
• Consequenty, the natural vegetation is in the form of thorny bushes.

The Humid Subtropical Climate (Caw)

• This climate occupies the greater parts of the Great Plains of India, stretching
from Punjab to Assam.
• The mean January temperature for the coldest month of January is less than
18°C, while the mean maximum in the summer season may cross 45°C.
• The average annual rainfall varies from 250 cm in the east to only about 65
cm in the west.

Mountain Climate (H)

• This climate is found in the hilly parts of the states of Jammu and Kashmir,
Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Arunachal Pradesh, and the other hilly parts
of north-east India.
• In this climate, the average temperature for the summer season reads around
17°C, while the average January temperature is generally around 8°C. The
average temperature of all the months is, however, closely influenced by the
topographical features and slope.
• In general, the rainfall decreases from east to west. The Western Himalayas
record some amount of rainfall from the western disturbances during the
winter season.

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A: Tropical Climate
B: Dry climate
C: Humid Subtropical climate
D: Humid temperate climate
E: Polar climates
H: highlands

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 Koppen Climate Classification System
Koppen Climate Classification System is by far the most widely used modern climate
classification system.
So, Let’s get to know the Koeppen’s scheme of classification of climate. So this
person Wladimir Köppen, who was basically a Russian-German climatologist, he
classified the climate of the world by finding a close relationship between the
vegetation and the climate of a particular region.

His aim was to make a chart with formulas and notations that would define the
climatic boundaries in such a way that it showed close similarity with the existing
vegetation.

In simple terms, he looked at the trees and plants of a particular region and then he
figured out the relationship between the vegetation and the climate of that region. By
finding a close relationship between the two, he created a chart which categorized
different climates in groups along with its characteristic traits.

He selected certain values of temperature and precipitation and related them to the
distribution of vegetation and used these values for classifying the climates.

He classified the entire world climate by assigning alphabetical letters (capital

letters) – A, B, C, D, E, and H. These categories are further subdivided into
subdivisions and types by indicating small letters like – a, b, c, d, h, f, m, w, k, and s.

But, Before we discuss in detail the Koppen Climate Classification System, Let’s have a
look at the differences between weather and climate.

Differences between weather and climate –

Climate Weather

Describes the average conditions

Describes the atmospheric
expected at a specific place at a given
conditions at a specific place at a
time (considerable time). A region’s
specific point in time. Weather
Definition climate is generated by the climate
generally refers to day-to-day
system, which has five components:
temperature and precipitation
atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere,
activity
land surface, and biosphere.

Climate may include precipitation, Weather includes sunshine, rain,

temperature, humidity, sunshine, wind cloud cover, winds, hail, snow,
Components velocity, phenomena such as fog, frost, sleet, freezing rain, flooding,
and hail storms over a long period of blizzards, ice storms,
time. thunderstorms, steady rains from a

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 cold front or warm front, excessive
heat, heat waves and more

By collecting meteorological data,

By aggregates of weather statistics over like air temperature, pressure,
Forecast
periods of 30 years humidity, solar radiation, wind
speeds and direction etc.

Real-time measurements of
atmospheric pressure,
Determining Aggregating weather statistics over
temperature, wind speed and
factors periods of 30 years (“climate normals”).
direction, humidity, precipitation,
cloud cover, and other variables

Climate is defined as statistical weather

Weather is the day-to-day state of
information that describes the variation
About the atmosphere, and its short-term
of weather at a given place for a specified
(minutes to weeks) variation
interval.

Time period Measured over a long period Measured for short term

Study Climatology Meteorology

Koppen Climate Classification System

Wladimir Köppen (1846– 1940; pronounced like “kur-pin” with a silent r) was
a Russian-born German climatologist who was also an amateur botanist.

The first version of his climate classification scheme appeared in 1918, and he
continued to modify and refine it for the rest of his life, the last version being
published in 1936.

The modified Köppen system describes five major climate groups (groups A, B, C,
D, and E) which are subdivided into a total of 14 individual climate types, along with
the special category of highland (H) climate.

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www.lotusarise.com
 • Koeppen recognized five major climatic groups, four of them are based on
temperature and one on precipitation.
• The capital letters:
• A, C, D, and E delineate humid climates and
• B dry climates.

• The climatic groups are subdivided into types, designated by small letters, based
on seasonality of precipitation and temperature characteristics.
• The seasons of dryness are indicated by the small letters: f, m, w, and s, where
1. f – no dry season,
2. m – monsoon climate,
3. w – winter dry season and
4. s – summer dry season.

• The above mentioned major climatic types are further subdivided depending
upon the seasonal distribution of rainfall or degree of dryness or cold.
• a: hot summer, the average temperature of the warmest month over
22°C
• c: cool summer, the average temperature of the warmest month under
22°C
• f: no dry season
• w: the dry season in winter
• s: the dry season in summer
• g: Gange’s type of annual march of temperature; hottest month comes
before the solstice and the summer rainy season.
• h: average annual temperature under 18°C
• m (monsoon): short dry season.

• The capital letters S and W are employed to designate the two subdivisions of
dry climate:
1. semi-arid or Steppe (S) and
2. arid or desert (W).

• Capital letters T and F are similarly used to designate the two subdivisions of
polar climate
1. tundra (T) and
2. icecap (F).

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A – Tropical Moist Climates

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Tropical moist climates can be found about 15 to 25 degrees latitude northwards
and southwards of the equator. The distinctive feature of this climactic zone is that
temperatures in these zones remain above 18 degrees Celcius all throughout the
year. Annual precipitation in this climactic zone is usually above 1,500 mm.

Within this broad climatic zone, three minor climactic types also exist, whose
classification is based on the seasonal distribution of rainfall in these climatic zones.
Areas falling under these climatic zones usually consist of naturally dense tropical
forests.

The first is Af, or tropical wet climate, where the climate is tropical with
precipitation all year round.

• Monthly variations in temperature in these regions are less than about 3 degrees
C.
• The extremely high humidity and surface temperatures in these regions cause
cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds to form early into the afternoons every day,
resulting in a high amount of precipitation.

The second is a tropical monsoon climate, designated as Am.

• In these regions, the annual precipitation is nearly similar to that of Af, but here
most of the precipitation occurs within the 7 to 9 of the warmest months of the
year.
• Less rainfall occurs in these regions in the rest of the year.

The third sub-division is Aw, or the tropical wet and dry climate, or the savanna
climate.

• These climactic zones experience an extended dry season during the winter
season.
• During the wet season, precipitation is usually less than 1,000 mm and occurs
mostly during the summer season.

B – Dry Climates

Temperature is not as much of a factor in these climatic zones as precipitation, or

rather the lack of it is in these climatic zones. In these climatic zones, evaporation
and transpiration exceed the total precipitation. These climactic regions extend 20
to 35 degrees latitude northwards and southwards from the equator and are
present in large continental regions in the mid-latitudes or are encircled by
mountainous regions.

There are four broad sub-divisions of this climactic zone.

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The first is BW, or dry arid climate also called the true desert climate and covers
about 12 percent of the Earth’s total land area.

• Areas falling under this climatic zone are habitats for xerophytic vegetation.
• The letters h and k are suffixed after BW to signify whether the dry arid
zone is located in the sub-tropics or the mid-latitudes respectively.

The second is BS, or dry semi-arid climate, also referred to as steppe climate.

• This forms a sort of grassland climate that is present on about 14 percent of the
Earth’s surface.
• Regions coming under dry semi-arid climate or BS receives more precipitation
than the regions under the dry arid climate or BW, which is mainly due to mid-
latitude cyclones or due to the inter-tropical convergence zone.

The letters h and k are suffixed in a similar way to BW zones to define the location
of the climatic zone in the sub-tropics or in the mid-latitudes respectively.

C – Moist Sub-tropical Mid-latitude Climates

In this climactic zone, summers are usually warm and humid while winters are mild.
These climactic zones extend 30 to 50 degrees latitude northwards and southwards
from the equator and are present mainly at the eastern and western extremes of
most continents.

Summer months feature many convective thunderstorms and winter months

feature some mid-latitude cyclones. Three subdivisions exist for this form of the
climactic zone.

The first is the humid subtropical climate or Cfa, where summers are hot and
humid with frequent thunderstorms.

• The winters are comparatively mild and precipitation during this period
occurs due to mid-latitude cyclones, like in the southeastern USA for example.

The second is the Cfb marine climates that are usually found on the western coasts
of continents.

• The climate here is largely humid with a hot and dry summer.
• Winters are mild, although accompanied by heavy precipitation due to mid-
latitude cyclones.

The third is the Mediterranean climatic zone or Cs, where rainfall mostly occurs
during the mild winters due to the mid-latitude cyclones.

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 • Precipitation during the summer months in this climactic zone can be extremely
scanty. Areas falling under this climatic zone can include locations in Portland,
Oregon, and California for example.

D – Moist Continental Mid-latitude Climates

In moist continental mid-latitude climates, summers are warm and can also be
cool while winters are cold. The regions with moist continental mid-latitude climates
are usually located polewards from the moist sub-tropical mid-latitude climates or C
climates. Average temperatures in the warmest months are usually more than 10
degrees C, while temperatures in the coldest months can be less than minus 3
degrees C.

Winters in these regions can be bitterly cold, with strong winds and
snowstorms that flow from the Continental Polar and the Arctic air masses.

There are three sub-divisions in this form of Koppen climate classification,

namely, Dw – with dry winters, Ds – with dry summers, and Df – with precipitation all
year round.

E – Polar Climates

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In Polar climates, temperatures are low all year round with the warmest month
having temperatures less than 10 degrees C. Polar climates occur in the northern
coastal areas of Asia, Europe, and North America and on Greenland and
Antarctica. Polar climates have two sub-divisions.

The first is ET or Polar Tundra in which soil occurs as permanently frozen as

permafrost extending hundreds of meters in depth. Most vegetation found here
occurs in the form of dwarf trees, woody shrubs, lichens, and mosses.

The second is EF or Polar Ice Caps, which have a surface that is permanently
covered with ice or snow.

Pros of Koppen Classification

• Quantitative: easier to understand and measure

• Co-incides with vegetation pattern
• Gave importance to effective precipitation (evapotranspiration)

Cons of Koppen Classification

1. Too much emphasis on average values

• Koppen based his classification of the mean monthly values of
temperature and precipitation. By these statistics, the most potent factor
of precipitation can only be estimated, rather than measured accurately.
This makes comparison from one locality to another rather difficult.
2. Ignored precipitation intensity, cloud cover, daily temperature variations,
number of rainy days, etc.
• Koppen did not take into account such weather elements as winds,
precipitation intensity, amount of cloudiness, and daily temperature
extremes for the sake of making his classification generalized and simple.
3. Ignored the role of Air masses
• It is empirical and, therefore, is based on facts and observations. The
causative factors of climate have been totally ignored. Thus, the air
masses, which form the very basis of modern climatology, could not find
any place in Koppen’s classification
4. Was not a genetic classification

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 Natural Vegetation of India
The natural vegetation is the endowments of nature. They grow naturally by following
the climatic variables. The types of natural vegetation differ according
to precipitation, soil, climate, and topography.

India is bestowed with a wide range of flora and fauna. Due to a diverse geographical
and climatic condition, an extensive range of natural vegetation grows in India.

Natural Vegetation of India

• Climate, soil, and topography are the major factors that influence the Natural
Vegetation of a place.
• The main climatic factors are rainfall and temperature. The amount of annual
rainfall has a great bearing on the type of vegetation.
• Temperature is the major factor in the Himalayas and other hilly regions with an
elevation of more than 900 meters.
• As the temperature falls with altitude in the Himalayan region the vegetal cover
changes with altitude from tropical to sub-tropical, temperate, and finally
alpine.
• Soil is an equally determining factor in few regions. Mangrove forests, swamp
forests are some of the examples where the soil is the major factor.
• The topography is responsible for certain minor types e.g. alpine flora, tidal
forests, etc.

Annual Rainfall Type of Vegetation

200 cm or more Evergreen Rain Forests

100 to 200 cm Monsoon Deciduous Forests

50 to 100 cm Drier Deciduous or Tropical Savanna

25 to 50 cm Dry Thorny Scrub (Semi-arid)

Below 25 cm Desert (Arid)

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Classification of Natural Vegetation of India
• Classification of Natural Vegetation of India is primarily based on spatial and
annual variations in rainfall. Temperature, soil and topography are also
considered.
• India’s vegetation can be divided into 5 main types and 16 sub-types as given
below.

A. Moist Tropical Forests

• Tropical Wet Evergreen

• Tropical Semi-Evergreen
• Tropical Moist Deciduous
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 • Littoral and Swamp

B. Dry Tropical Forests

• Tropical Dry Evergreen

• Tropical Dry Deciduous
• Tropical Thorn

C. Montane Sub-tropical Forests

• Sub-tropical broad leaved hill

• Sub-tropical moist hill (pine)
• Sub-tropical dry evergreen

D. Montane Temperate Forests

• Montane Wet Temperate

• Himalayan Moist Temperate
• Himalayan Dry Temperate

E. Alpine Forests

• Sub-Alpine
• Moist Alpine scrub
• Dry Alpine scrub

Forest Type in India % of Total Area

Tropical Moist Deciduous 37

Tropical Dry Deciduous 28

Tropical Wet Evergreen 8

Sub-Tropical Moist Hill 6

Tropical Semi-Evergreen 4

Rest below 4 %

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A. Moist Tropical Forests

Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests or Rain Forests

Climatic Conditions

• Annual rainfall exceeds 250 cm

• The annual temperature is about 25°-27°C
• The average annual humidity exceeds 77 per cent and
• The dry season is distinctly short.

Characteristics

• Evergreen: Due to high heat and high humidity, the trees of these forests do not
shed their leaves together.
• Mesosphytic: Plants adopted to neither too dry nor too wet type climate.

What are mesophytes?

• Unlike hydrophytic plants, such as water lily or pondweed, that grow in

saturated soil or water, or xerophytic plants, such as cactus, that grow in
extremely dry soil, mesophytes are ordinary plants that exist between the two
extremes.
• Mesophytic environments are marked by average to hot temperatures and soil
that is neither too dry nor too wet.

• Lofty: The trees often reach 45 – 60 metres in height.

• Thick Canopy: From the air, the tropical rain forest appears like a thick canopy of
foliage, broken only where it is crossed by large rivers or cleared for cultivation.
• All plants struggle upwards (most ephiphytes) for sunlight resulting in a peculiar
layer arrangement. The entire morphology looks like a green carpet when
viewed from above.
• Less undergrowth: The sun light cannot reach the ground due to thick canopy.
The undergrowth is formed mainly of bamboos, ferns, climbers, orchids, etc.

Distribution

• Western side of the Western Ghats (500 to 1370 metres above sea level).
• Some regions in the Purvanchal hills.
• In the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Timber

• Hardwood: The timber of these forests is fine-grained, hard, and durable.

• It has high commercial value but it is highly challenging to exploit due to dense
undergrowth, absence of pure stands, and lack of transport facilities [Read
previous posts on Climatic regions to understand how lumbering industry works
in Equatorial Rainforests (hardwood) and Taiga Climatic (softwood) conditions].

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 • The important species of these forests are mahogany, mesua, white cedar,
jamun, canes, bamboo, etc.

Tropical Semi-Evergreen Forests

• They are transitional forests between tropical wet evergreen forests and tropical
deciduous forests.
• They are comparatively drier areas compared to tropical wet evergreen forests.

Climatic Conditions

• Annual rainfall is 200-250 cm

• Mean annual temperature varies from 24°C to 27°C
• The relative humidity is about 75 per cent
• The dry season is not short like in tropical evergreen forests.

Distribution

• Western coast
• Assam
• Lower slopes of the Eastern Himalayas
• Odisha and
• Andamans.

Characteristics

• The semi-evergreen forests are less dense.

• They are more gregarious [living in flocks or colonies – more pure
stands] than the wet evergreen forests.
• These forests are characterized by many species.
• Trees usually have buttressed trunks with abundant epiphytes.

• The important species are laurel, rosewood, mesua, thorny bamboo – Western
Ghats, white cedar, Indian chestnut, champa, mango, etc. – Himalayan region.

Timber

• Hardwood: Similar to that in tropical evergreen forests except that these forests
are less dense with more pure stands (timber industry here is better than in
evergreen forests).

Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests

Climatic Conditions

• Annual rainfall 100 to 200 cm.

• Mean annual temperature of about 27°C
• The average annual relative humidity of 60 to 75 per cent.

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 • Spring (between winter and summer) and summer are dry.

Characteristics

• The trees drop their leaves during the spring and early summer when sufficient
moisture is not available.
• The general appearance is bare in extreme summers (April-May).
• Tropical moist deciduous forests present irregular top storey [25 to 60 m].
• Heavily buttressed trees and fairly complete undergrowth.
• These forests occupy a much larger area than the evergreen forests but large
tracts under these forests have been cleared for cultivation.

Distribution

• Belt running along the Western Ghats surrounding the belt of evergreen forests.
• A strip along the Shiwalik range including terai and bhabar from 77° E to 88° E.
• Manipur and Mizoram.
• Hills of eastern Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh.
• Chota Nagpur Plateau.
• Most of Odisha.
• Parts of West Bengal and
• Andaman and Nicobar islands.

Timber

• These provide valuable timer like Teak.

• The main species found in these forests are teak, sal, laurel, rosewood, amla,
jamun, bamboo, etc.
• It is comparatively easy to exploit these forests due to their high degree of
gregariousness (more pure stands).

Littoral and Swamp Forests

• They can survive and grow both in fresh as well as brackish water (The mixture
of seawater and fresh water in estuaries is called brackish water and its salinity
can range from 0.5 to 35 ppt).
• Occur in and around the deltas, estuaries and creeks prone to tidal influences
(delta or tidal forests).
• Littoral (relating to or on the shore of the sea or a lake) forests occur at several
places along the coast.
• Swamp forests are confined to the deltas of the Ganga, the Mahanadi, the
Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery.
• Dense mangroves occur all along the coastline in sheltered estuaries, tidal
creeks, backwaters, salt marshes and mudflats. It provides useful fuel wood.
• The most pronounced and the densest is the Sunderban in the Ganga
delta where the predominant species is Sundri (Heriteera).

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Timber

• It provides hard and durable timber which is used for construction, building
purposes and making boats.
• The important species found in these forests are Sundri, agar, rhizophora, screw
pines, canes and palms, etc.

B. Dry Tropical Forests

Tropical Dry Evergreen Forests

Distribution

• Along the coasts of Tamil Nadu.

Climatic Conditions

• Annual rainfall of 100 cm [mostly from the north-east monsoon winds in October
– December].
• Mean annual temperature is about 28°C.
• The mean humidity is about 75 per cent.
• The growth of evergreen forests in areas of such low rainfall is a bit strange.

Characteristics

• Short statured trees, up to 12 m high, with complete canopy.

• Bamboos and grasses not conspicuous.
• The important species are jamun, tamarind, neem, etc.
• Most of the land under these forests has been cleared for agriculture
or casuarina plantations.

Casuarina plantation

• It resembles feathery conifer in general appearance.

• They are rapid-growing, carefree species for sites and climates as varied as
coastal sand dunes, high mountain slopes, hot humid tropics, and semi-arid
regions.
• They have the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen. It grows 15 to 25 metres in
height on an average.

Distribution

• Casuarina is the most popular farm forestry in the states of Andhra Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Odisha, Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Karnataka.

Benefits

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 • Reduces damage in the event of natural calamities.
• Line planting in the coastal areas helps in controlling the wind force.
• It is also used for tourism promotion in view of its ornamental appearance.
• It provides top quality firewood.
• The wood is suitable for paper pulp and useful raw material for the manufacture
of paper for writing, printing, and wrapping.
• It is got some serious medicinal values as well.

Wasteland development

• The characteristics which make it a suitable species for wasteland development

include adaptability to wide range of habitats, fast growth, salt tolerant, drought
resistant, ability to reclaim land and stabilize sand dunes.
• Intercrops such as groundnut, cucumber, watermelons, sesamum, and pulses
can also be raised along with the plantation.

Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests

Climatic Conditions

• Annual rainfall is 100-150 cm.

Characteristics

• These are similar to moist deciduous forests and shed their leaves in dry season.
• The major difference is that they can grow in areas of comparatively less rainfall.
• They represent a transitional type – moist deciduous on the wetter side and
thorn forests on the drier side.
• They have closed but uneven canopy.
• The forests are composed of a mixture of a few species of deciduous trees rising
up to a height of 20 metres.
• Undergrowth: Enough light reaches the ground to permit the growth of grass
and climbers.

Distribution

• They occur in an irregular wide strip running from the foot of the Himalayas to
Kanniyakumari except in Rajasthan, Western Ghats and West Bengal.
• The important species are teak, axlewood, rosewood, common bamboo, red
sanders, laurel, satinwood, etc.
• Large tracts of this forest have been cleared for agricultural purposes.
• These forests have suffer from over grazing, fire, etc.

Tropical Thorn Forests

Climatic Conditions

• Annual rainfall less than 75 cm.

• Humidity is less than 50 per cent.
• Mean temperature is 25°-30°C.
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Characteristics

• The trees are low (6 to 10 metres maximum) and widely scattered.

• Acacias and Euphorbias are very prominent.
• The Indian wild date is common. Some grasses also grow in the rainy season.

Distribution

• Rajasthan, south-western Punjab, western Haryana, Kachchh and neighbouring

parts of Saurashtra.
• Here they degenerate into desert type in the Thar desert.
• Such forests also grow on the leeside of the Western Ghats covering large areas
of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
• The important species are neem, babul, cactii, etc.

C. Montane Sub-Tropical Forests

Sub-tropical Broad-leaved Hill Forests

Climatic conditions

• Mean annual rainfall is 75 cm to 125 cm.

• Average annual temperature is 18°-21°C.
• Humidity is 80 per cent.

Distribution

• Eastern Himalayas to the east of 88°E longitude at altitudes varying from 1000 to
2000 m.

Characteristics

• Forests of evergreen species.

• Commonly found species are evergreen oaks, chestnuts, ash, beech, sals and
pines.
• Climbers and epiphytes [a plant that grows non-parasitically on a tree or other
plant] are common.
• These forests are not so distinct in the southern parts of the country. They occur
only in the Nilgiri and Palni hills at 1070-1525 metres above sea level.
• It is a “stunted rain-forest” and is not so luxuriant as the true tropical evergreen.
• The higher parts of the Western Ghats such as Mahabaleshwar, the summits of
the Satpura and the Maikal Range, highlands of Bastar and Mt. Abu in the Aravali
Range carry sub-types of these forests.

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Sub-tropical Moist Pine Forests
Distribution

• Western Himalayas between 73°E and 88°E longitudes at elevations between

1000 to 2000 metres above sea level.
• Some hilly regions of Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Naga Hills and Khasi Hills.

Timber

• Chir or Chil is the most dominant tree which forms pure stands.
• It provides valuable timber for furniture, boxes and buildings.
• It is also used for producing resin and turpentine.

Sub-tropical Dry Evergreen Forests

Distribution

• Found in the Bhabar, the Shiwaliks and the western Himalayas up to about 1000
metres above sea level.

Climatic Conditions

• Annual rainfall is 50-100 cm (15 to 25 cm in December-March).

• The summers are sufficiently hot and winters are very cold.

Characteristics

• Low scrub forest with small evergreen stunted trees and shrubs.
• Olive, acacia modesta and pistacia are the most predominant species.

D. Montane Temperate Forests

Montane Wet Temperate Forests

Climatic Conditions

• Grows at a height of 1800 to 3000 m above sea level

• Mean annual rainfall is 150 cm to 300 cm
• Mean annual temperature is about 11°C to 14°C and the
• Average relative humidity is over 80 per cent.

Distribution

• Higher hills of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, in the Eastern Himalayan region.

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Characteristics

• These are closed evergreen forests. Trunks have large girth.

• Branches are clothed with mosses, ferns and other epiphytes.
• The trees rarely achieve a height of more than 6 metres.
• Deodar, Chilauni, Indian chestnut, birch, plum, machilus, cinnamomum, litsea,
magnolia, blue pine, oak, hemlock, etc. are important species.

Himalayan Moist Temperate Forests

Climatic Conditions

• Annual rainfall varies from 150 cm to 250 cm

Distribution

• Occurs in the temperate zone of the Himalayas between 1500 and 3300 metres.
• Cover the entire length of this mountain range in Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, Darjeeling and Sikkim.

Characteristics

• Mainly composed of coniferous species.

• Species occur in mostly pure strands.
• Trees are 30 to 50 m high.
• Pines, cedars, silver firs, spruce, etc. are most important trees.
• They form high but fairly open forest with shrubby undergrowth including oaks,
rhododendrons and some bamboos.

Timber

• It provides fine wood which is of much use for construction, timber and railway
sleepers.

Himalayan Dry Temperate Forests

Climatic Conditions

• Precipitation is below 100 cm and is mostly in the form of snow.

Characteristics

• Coniferous forests with xerophytic shrubs in which deodar, oak, ash, olive, etc are
the main trees.

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Distribution

• Such forests are found in the inner dry ranges of the Himalayas where south-
west monsoon is very feeble.
• Such areas are in Ladakh, Lahul, Chamba, Kinnaur, Garhwal and Sikkim.

E. Alpine Forests
• Altitudes ranging between 2,900 to 3,500.
• These forests can be divided into (1) sub-alpine; (2) moist alpine scrub and (3) dry
alpine scrub.
• The sub-alpine forests occur in lower alpine scrub and grasslands.
• It is a mixture of coniferous and broad-leaved trees in which the coniferous trees
attain a height of about 30 m while the broad-leaved trees reach only 10 m.
• Fir, spruce, rhododendron, etc. are important species.
• The Moist alpine scrub is a low evergreen dense growth of rhododendron, birch,
etc. which occurs from 3,000 meters and extends up to the snowline.
• The dry alpine scrub is the uppermost limit of scrub xerophytic, dwarf shrubs,
over 3,500 meters above sea level and found in the dry zone. Juniper,
honeysuckle, Artemesia, etc. are important species.

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 Soil types in India

Soil
Soil is the topmost layer of the continental crust having weathered particles of
rocks. The soils of India are the product of physical factors as well as human factors.

Soil can be simply defined as a mixture of small rock particles/debris and organic
materials/ humus which develop on the earth’s surface and support the growth of
plants.

Factors that influence soil formation–

• Parent Material
• Relief/Topography
• Climate
• Natural Vegetation & Biological factors
• Time

Soil types in India (Types of Soil)

The first scientific classification of soil was done by Vasily Dokuchaev. In India,
the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has classified soils into 8
categories.

1. Alluvial Soil
2. Black Cotton Soil
3. Red Soil
4. Laterite Soil
5. Mountainous or Forest Soils
6. Arid or Desert Soil
7. Saline and Alkaline Soil
8. Peaty, and Marshy Soil/Bog Soil

This classification scheme is based on constitutional characteristics – colour and the

resource significance of the soils.

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The ICAR has also classified the Indian soils on the basis of their nature and
character as per the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Soil
Taxonomy.

1. Inceptisols (39.74%)
2. Entisols
3. Alfisols
4. Vertisols
5. Aridisols
6. Ultisols
7. Mollisols
8. Others

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Alluvial Soils

• Alluvial soils are formed mainly due to silt deposited by Indo-Gangetic-

Brahmaputra rivers. In coastal regions, some alluvial deposits are formed due
to wave action.
• Rocks of the Himalayas form the parent material. Thus the parent material of
these soils is of transported origin.
• They are the largest soil group covering about 15 lakh sq km or about 46
percent of the total area.
• They support more than 40% of India’s population by providing the most
productive agricultural lands.

Characteristics of Alluvial Soils

• They are immature and have weak profiles due to their recent origin.
• Most of the soil is sandy and clayey soils are not uncommon.
• They vary from loamy to sandy-loam in drier regions and clayey loam towards
the delta.
• Pebbly and gravelly soils are rare. Kankar (calcareous concretions) beds are
present in some regions along the river terraces.
• The soil is porous because of its loamy (equal proportion of sand and clay)
nature.
• Porosity and texture provide good drainage and other conditions favorable for
agriculture.
• These soils are constantly replenished by the recurrent floods.

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Chemical properties of Alluvial Soils

• The proportion of nitrogen is generally low.

• The proportion of Potash, phosphoric acid, and alkalies are adequate
• The proportion of Iron oxide and lime vary within a wide range.

Distribution of Alluvial Soils in India

• They occur all along the Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra plains except in few

places where the top layer is covered by desert sand.
• They also occur in deltas of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna, and the
Cauvery, where they are called deltaic alluvium (coastal alluvium)
• Some alluvial soils are found in the Narmada, Tapi valleys, and Northern parts
of Gujarat.

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Crops in Alluvial Soils

• They are mostly flat and regular soils and are best suited for agriculture.
• They are best suited to irrigation and respond well to the canal and well/tube-
well irrigation.
• They yield splendid crops of rice, wheat, sugarcane, tobacco, cotton, jute, maize,
oilseeds, vegetables, and fruits.

Geological divisions of alluvial soils

• Geologically, the alluvium of the Great plain of India is divided into newer or
younger khadar and older bhangar soils.

Bhabar

• The bhabar belt is about 8-16 km wide running along the Shiwalik foothills. It is a
porous, northern most stretch of Indo-Gangetic plain.
• Rivers descending from the Himalayas deposit their load along the foothills in
the form of alluvial fans. These alluvial fans (often pebbly soils) have merged
together to build up the bhabar belt.
• The porosity of bhabar is the most unique feature. The porosity is due to
deposition of huge number of pebbles and rock debris across the alluvial fans.
• The streams disappear once they reach the bhabar region because of this
porosity. Therefore, the area is marked by dry river courses except in the rainy
season.
• The area is not suitable for agriculture and only big trees with large roots
thrive in this belt.

Terai

• Terai is an ill-drained, damp (marshy) and thickly forested narrow tract (15-30
km wide) to the south of Bhabar running parallel to it.
• The underground streams of the Bhabar belt re-emerge in this belt. It is a
swampy lowland with silty soils.
• The terai soils are rich in nitrogen and organic matter but are deficient in
phosphate.
• These soils are generally covered by tall grasses and forests but are suitable for a
number of crops such as wheat, rice, sugarcane, jute, etc.
• This thickly forested region provides shelter to a variety of wildlife.

Bhangar

• The Bhangar is the older alluvium along the river beds forming terraces higher
than the flood plain (about 30 meters above the flood level).
• It is of a more clayey composition and is generally dark-colored.
• A few meters below the terrace of the bhangar are beds of lime nodules known
as “Kankar”.

Khadar

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 • The Khadar is composed of newer alluvium and forms the flood plains along
the river banks.
• The banks are flooded almost every year and a new layer of alluvium is deposited
with every flood. This makes them the most fertile soils of the Ganges.
• They are sandy clays and loams, drier and leached, less calcareous and
carbonaceous (less kankary). A new layer of alluvium is deposited by river floods
almost every year.

Alluvial regions with rainfall

• Above 100cm – Suitable for paddy

• B/w 50-100cm – Suitable for wheat, sugarcane, tobacco, and cotton
• Below 50cm– Course grains (millets)

Black Soils

• Formation –formed due to weathering of these basaltic rocks which emerged

during fissure eruption of the Cretaceous period.
• The parent material for most of the black soil are the volcanic rocks that were
formed in the Deccan Plateau (Deccan and the Rajmahal trap).
• In Tamil Nadu, gneisses and schists form the parent material. The former are
sufficiently deep while the later are generally shallow.
• These are the region of high temperature and low rainfall. It is, therefore, a soil
group typical to the dry and hot regions of the Peninsula.
• Extent – 15 % of the area
• Black colour is ordained by titani-ferrous magnetic compounds found in
basalt.

Characteristics of Black Soils

• A typical black soil is highly argillaceous [Geology (of rocks or sediment)

consisting of or containing clay] with a large clay factor, 62 percent or more.
• In general, black soils of uplands are of low fertility while those in the valleys
are very fertile.
• The black soil is highly retentive of moisture. It swells greatly on accumulating
moisture. Strenuous effort is required to work on such soil in rainy season as it
gets very sticky.
• In summer, the moisture evaporates the soil shrinks and is seamed with broad
and deep cracks. The lower layers can still retain moisture. The cracks permits
oxygenation of the soil to sufficient depths and the soil has extraordinary fertility.
• When dry, it develops cracks and has blocky structure. (Self Ploughing
Capacity)

Colour of Black Soils

• The black colour is due to the presence of a small proportion of titaniferous

magnetite or iron and black constituents of the parent rock.
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 • In Tamil Nadu and parts of Andhra Pradesh, the black colour is derived from
crystalline schists and basic gneisses.
• Various tints of the black colour such as deep black, medium black, shallow
black , a mixture of red and black may be found in this group of soils.

Chemical Composition of Black Soils

• 10 percent of alumina,
• 9-10 percent of iron oxide,
• 6-8 percent of lime and magnesium carbonates,
• Potash is variable (less than 0.5 percent) and
• phosphates, nitrogen, and humus are low.

Rich in iron and lime but deficient in humus, nitrogenous and phosphorous
content.

Distribution of Black Soils

• It is found in the Deccan lava plateau region of India.

• Spread over 46 lakh sq km (16.6 percent of the total area) across Maharashtra,
Madhya Pradesh, parts of Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat,
and Tamil Nadu.

Crops in Black Soils

• These soils are best suited for cotton crops. Hence these soils are called
as regur and black cotton soils.
• Other major crops grown on the black soils include wheat, jowar, linseed, virginia
tobacco, castor, sunflower, and millets.
• Rice and sugarcane are equally important where irrigation facilities are
available.
• Large varieties of vegetables and fruits are also successfully grown on the black
soils.
• This soil has been used for growing a variety of crops for centuries without
adding fertilizers and manures, with little or no evidence of exhaustion.

Red Soil

• This soil developed on Archean granite occupies the second largest area of
the country.
• The presence of ferric oxides makes the colour of soil red, ferric
oxides occurring as thin coatings on the soil particles.
• The top layer of the soil is red and the horizon below is yellowish.
• Extent – 18.5 % of the area
• Texture: Sandy to clay and loamy.
• This soil is also known as the omnibus group.

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Characteristics of Red Soils

• Rainfall is highly variable. Thus, the soil has developed 3 subtypes

• Red & Yellow soil – rainfall is 200cm – NE India – Nagaland, Mizoram,
Manipur Hills, parts of Malabar coast, quick drainage is needed
• Red Sandy Soil – Drier plateaus like Karnataka, TN, Telangana, Rayalseema
– rainfall from 40-60cm
• RedAlluvial Soil – Along river valleys – has good fertility
• Well drained soil and structure is sandy
• Rich in iron and potash but deficient in other minerals.

Chemical Composition of Red Soils

Generally, these soils are deficient in phosphate, lime, magnesia, humus and
nitrogen.

Distribution of Red Soils

They are mainly found in the Peninsula from Tamil Nadu in the south to
Bundelkhand in the north and Raj Mahal in the east to Kathiawad in the west.

Significance

• Once irrigated and added with humus, it gives a high yield because the
mineral base is rich.
• It supports rice, sugarcane, cotton cultivation
• Millets and pulses are grown in drier areas
• Kaveri and Vaigai basins are famous for red alluvium and if irrigated well, are
suitable for paddy
• Large regions of Karnataka and Kerala have developed Red soil regions for
rubber and coffee plantation farming.

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Laterite Soil
Formation

• This soil has emerged in those regions where the following conditions are
fulfilled
• There must be laterite rock or structure (Laterites are rich in iron and
aluminium content)
• Alternating dry and wet periods are more suitable for the development
of laterite soils.

Characteristics

• Brown in colour
• composed essentially of a mixture of hydrated oxides of aluminium and iron.
• Iron oxides are found in nodules form
• Its rich in iron and aluminium but poor in Nitrogen, Phosphorous, Potash, Lime,
and Magnesia
• Its humus and water-retaining capacities are moderate
• Bacterial activities have been very high and heavy precipitation develops
leaching of humus as a result humus content is moderate to low.

Distribution

• Regions of laterite soil in the country are :

• It is found in patches in Western Ghats ( Goa and Maharashtra).
• In Belgam district of Karnataka and in laterite plateau of Kerala
• In the state of Orissa, in the Eastern Ghats,
• Amarkantak plateau region of MP-
• Panchmahal district of Gujarat;
• Santhal Pangana divisions of Jharkhand

Significance

• It is famous for crops like groundnut, cashew nut, etc.

• Laterite soil of Karnataka is given to coffee, rubber, and spices farming.

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Forest Soil/ Mountain Soil
Formation – It is principally found on mountains with steeper slopes, high relief,
shallow profiles.

Characteristics

• It is thin layered and the profiles and horizons are poorly developed
• Due to fast drainage, it has been vulnerable to soil erosion
• It is rich in organic content – humus content is also adequate but other nutrients
aredeficient
• It is a loamy soil when sand, silt, and clay are in mixed form

Distribution

• These are generally found over 900m altitude

• Himalayas, Himalayan foothills, mountain slopes of Western Ghats, Nilgiri,
Annamalai, and Cardamom hills
• Significance – It is very helpful to those crops which need favourable air and
water drainage which is provided by this soil by virtue of being on slopes
• Generally used for rubber plantation, bamboo plantation and also tea, coffee,
and fruits farming
• Large area also given to shifting agriculture where the soil fertility deteriorates
after 2-3 years
• Due to less scope of agriculture, silvi pastoral farming (forest+grasses) can be
sustained.

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Desert Soil

• This soil is deposited by wind action and mainly found in the arid and semi-
arid areas like Rajasthan, West of the Aravallis, Northern Gujarat, Saurashtra,
Kachchh, Western parts of Haryana, and southern part of Punjab.
• It lacks in moisture content. Humus content is less, and Nitrogen is originally
low but some of it is available in the form of nitrates.
• They are sandy with low organic matter. Living microorganisms are low in
content
• It is rich in iron contents. Phosphorous content is nearly adequate, rich in lime
and bases.
• It has low soluble salts and moisture with very low retaining capacity.
• If irrigated this soil gives a high agricultural return.
• These are suitable for less water-intensive crops like Bajra, pulses, fodder, and
guar.

Distribution –western Rajasthan, Rann of Kachchh, in patches in south Haryana and

south Punjab.

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Saline and Alkaline Soil

• Alkali soil contains a large content of NaCl

• The soil is infertile
• These are also called Reh, Usar, Kallar, Rakar, Thur, and Chopan.
• These are mainly found in Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and
Maharashtra.
• Sodium chloride and sodium sulphate are present in this soil. It is suitable for
leguminous crops.
• Formation and distribution – It is both natural and anthropogenic
• Natural – Includes dried up lakes of Rajasthan and Rann of Kuchchh
• It has emerged in the Palaya basin ( a clay basin in the midst of the
desert)
• Anthropogenic –It is developed in western UP and Punjab due to faulty
agriculture.
• Characteristics – Lack of moisture, humus, and living microorganisms, as a
result, humus formation is almost absent

Peaty, and Marshy Soil/Bog Soil

This soil originates from the areas where adequate drainage is not possible. It is rich
in organic matter and has high salinity. They are deficient in potash and
phosphate.

• Characteristics – Dominance of clay and mud which make it heavy

• Rich in moisture content but at the same time, greater content of salt
and every day inundation by high tide has made it infertile soil
• No organic activity due to excessive moisture content
• Distribution – It is characteristic of the delta region of India
• Besides the delta region, it is also found in
• Alleppey(Kerala) (known as Karri along the backwaters or Kayals of
Kerala)
• Almora (Uttaranchal)
• Significance – Over Bengal delta, it is suitable for jute and rice, and
over Malabar, it is suitable for spices, rubber, big sized rice
• It has to some extent been favorable to the Mangrove forests of India.

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www.lotusarise.com
Characteristics of Indian Soils
• Most soils are old and mature. Soils of the peninsular plateau are much older
than the soils of the great northern plain.
• Indian soils are largely deficient in nitrogen, mineral salts, humus and other
organic materials.
• Plains and valleys have thick layers of soils while hilly and plateau areas depict
thin soil cover.
• Some soils like alluvial and black soils are fertile while some other soils such as
laterite, desert and alkaline soils lack in fertility and do not yield good harvest.
• Indian soils have been used for cultivation for hundreds of years and have lost
much of their fertility.

Problems of Indian Soils

• Soil erosion (Himalayan region, Chambal Ravines, etc.), deficiency in fertility (Red,
lateritic, and other soils), desertification (around Thar desert, rain-shadow regions
like parts of Karnataka, Telangana, etc.), waterlogging (Punjab-Haryana plain)
salinity, and alkalinity (excessively irrigated regions of Punjab, Haryana,
Karnataka, etc.), wasteland, overexploitation of soils due to increase in population
and rise in living standards and encroachment of agricultural land due to urban
and transport development.

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 Important Glaciers in India

Glacier
Glaciers are a bulk of ice moving under its weight. It forms in areas where the
amassing of snow goes beyond its ablation over many years. They are sensitive
indicators of changing climate.

• They are generally seen in the snow-fields.

• This largest freshwater basin covers around 10 percent of the land surface of
the Earth.
• Out of total water on Earth, 2.1% is in glaciers while 97.2% is in the oceans and
inland seas.
• Condition of glacier formation:
• Mean annual temperatures are close to the freezing point.
• Winter precipitation produces significant accumulations of snow.
• Temperatures throughout the rest of the year do not result in the
complete loss of the previous winter’s snow accumulation.
• According to the topography and the location of the glacier, it can be
categorized as Mountain Glacier (Alpine Glaciers) or Continental Glacier (Ice
Sheets).
• The Continental Glacier moves outward in all directions whereas the Mountain
Glacier moves from a higher to a lower altitude.

Alpine Glaciers

• Alpine glaciers are formed on the mountainsides and they usually move
downwards through the valleys.
• There are times when an alpine glacier also deepens the valleys by pushing away
the dirt, soil, and other materials.
• These glaciers are found in high mountains.

Ice Sheets

• Ice sheets form broad domes and usually spread out in all directions.
• When the ice sheets spread, they cover all the areas such as valleys, plains, and
mountains with a thick blanket of ice.
• The continental glaciers are the largest ice sheets and cover most of
Antarctica and islands of Greenland.

Geographical Location of Glaciers

• 91% of the Glaciers are in Antarctica and 8% are in Greenland. They occupy
about 10% of the world’s total land area.

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Important Glaciers in India
Name State Mountain Range

Batura Glacier Jammu & Kashmir Karakoram Mountain Range

Khurdopin Glacier Jammu & Kashmir Karakoram Mountain Range

Hispar Glacier Jammu & Kashmir Karakoram Mountain Range

Biafo Glacier Jammu & Kashmir Karakoram Mountain Range

Baltoro Glacier Jammu & Kashmir Karakoram Mountain Range

Chomolungma glacier Jammu & Kashmir Karakoram Mountain Range

Khurdapin glacier Ladakh Karakoram

Godwin Austen Ladakh Karakoram

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 Trango Glacier Ladakh Karakoram

Chong Kumdan Ladakh Karakoram

Diamir Glacier Jammu & Kashmir Karakoram Mountain Range

Siachen Glacier Jammu & Kashmir Karakoram Mountain Range

Bara Shigri Glacier Himachal Pradesh Pir Panjal Range of the Inner Himalayas.

Chhota Shigri Glacier Himachal Pradesh Pir Panjal

Sonapani Glacier Himachal Pradesh Pir Panjal

Rakhiot Glacier Ladakh Pir Panjal

Gangotri Glacier Uttarkashi, Uttarakhand Himalayas

Bandarpunch Glacier Uttarakhand Western edge of the high Himalayan range

Milam Glacier Uttarakhand Trishul peak of Pithoragarh

Nanda Devi,
Pindari glacier Upper reaches of the Kumaon Himalayas
Uttarakhand

Kafni Glacier Uttarakhand Kumaon-Garhwal

Kalabaland Glacier Uttarakhand Kumaon-Garhwal

Kedar Bamak Glacier Uttarakhand Kumaon-Garhwal

Meola Glacier Uttarakhand Kumaon-Garhwal

Namik Glacier Uttarakhand Kumaon-Garhwal

Panchchuli Glacier Uttarakhand Kumaon-Garhwal

Ralam Glacier Uttarakhand Kumaon-Garhwal

Sona Glacier Uttarakhand Kumaon-Garhwal

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 Satopanth Glacier Uttarakhand Kumaon-Garhwal

Sunderdhunga
Uttarakhand Kumaon-Garhwal
Glacier

Dokriani Glacier Uttarakhand Kumaon-Garhwal

Chorabari Glacier Uttarakhand Kumaon-Garhwal

Eastern Himalaya Located on Kanchenjunga

Zemu Glacier Sikkim
peak

Kanchenjunga
Sikkim Eastern Himalaya
Glacier

Glaciers in Himalayas
• There are about 15,000 glaciers in the Himalayas.
• Total area of Himalayas is about five lakh square kilometres (Area of India is
nearly 32 lakh sq km). About 33,000 sq km area is covered by snow.
• The snow line (the lowest level of perpetual snow) varies in different parts of the
Himalayas depending upon latitude, amount of precipitation and local
topography.

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Glaciers of the Karakoram Range

• Maximum development of glaciers occurs in the Karakoram range.

• Some of the largest glaciers outside the polar and sub-polar regions are found in
this range. The southern side of this range has many gigantic glaciers.
• The 75 km long Siachen Glacier in Nubra valley has the distinction of being the
largest glacier outside the polar and the sub-polar regions.
• The second largest is the 74 km long Fedchenko Glacier (Pamirs)
• Third largest is the Hispar Glacier. It is 62 km long and occupies a tributary of
the Hunza River.

Glaciers of the Pir Panjal Range

• The glaciers of the Pir Panjal Range are less numerous and smaller in size as
compared to those of the Karakoram Range.
• The longest Sonapani Glacier in the Chandra Valley of Lahul and Spiti region is
only 15 km long.

Glaciers of the Kumaon-Garhwal Region

• In the Kumaon-Garhwal region of the Himalayas, the largest is the 30 km long

Gangotri Glacier which is the source of the holy Ganga.

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Garhwal Region

• Lying in the Himalayas, it is bounded on the north by Tibet, on the east by

Kumaon region, on the south by Uttar Pradesh state, and on the northwest by
Himachal Pradesh state.
• It includes the districts of Chamoli, Dehradun, Haridwar, Pauri
Garhwal, Rudraprayag, Tehri Garhwal, and Uttarkashi.

Glaciers of Central Nepal

• Zemu and the Kanchenjunga glaciers are the major ones.

Gangotri Glacier

• Largest Glacier in Uttarakhand.

• Source of the Ganges. (River Bhagirathi)
• The Gangotri glacier originates at the northern slope of Chaukhamba range
of peaks in Garhwal Himalayas.
• Gangotri is not a single valley glacier, but a combination of several other
glaciers.
• Carbon Deposits on Gangotri
• The Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology is an Autonomous Institute
administered by the Department of Science and Technology.
• They have the Chirbasa station at a height of 3,600 m
and Bhojbasa station at a height of 3,800 m.
• They research the number of carbon deposits on the important glaciers
of the Himalayas. Gangotri being the source of the Ganges is one of the
most important Glaciers in the country.
• According to recent data from the research, the concentration of Black
Carbon present on the Gangotri Glacier has doubled when compared to
the results of the past few years.
• The primary reason for this is the agricultural burning and forest fires in
the nearby regions.

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Siachen Glacier

• Located over the Karakoram Range in the Nubra Valley, is the largest glacier
outside the polar and sub- polar regions
• Lolofond and Teram Shehr are its main tributaries
• Disputed between India and Pakistan
• Highest battle field of the world

Fedchenko

• Second largest glacier after the Siachen

• It covers an area of 450 sq. km in the north western Pamir and has nearly 550m
deep ice.

Hispar

• Third largest glacier of the Karakoram region, occupies a tributary of the

Hunza River
• Combines with Biafo Glacier occupying about 65 sq. km area of Braldoh Valley
• Kunyong /Lak (24 km) is an important tributary of Hispar.

Biafo

• Located between Hispar and Baltoro glaciers, occupies the Braldoh Valley
• 4th largest glacier of the Karakoram region
• Occipies the valley of the Gori Ganga River
• Formed by the union of nine glaciers

Pindari

• Located to the south of the Nanda Devi in northeast Uttarakhand

• Source of the Pindar River
• Located in the Upper reaches of the Kumaon Himalayas

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 • Provides a 90 km round trip trek.

Rongbuck

• Tibetan side of the Mount Everest

• Largest glacier outside the Karakoram
• Famous Rongbuck Monastery is located at the northern end of the Rougbuk
Valley
• Englishman George Mallory first explored while searching possible routes to the
summit of the Mount Everest

Zemu

• Flows in easterly direction at the head of the Zemu River

• About one kilometre wide and 180m thick
• Largest glacier of the Eastern Himalayas (26 km)
• Found at the base of the Kanchanjunga
• One of the possible sources of the Teesta River

Baltoro

• ∙ A 65 km long glacier over the Karakoram range, west of the siachen glacier.
• ∙ It gives rise to the shigar river, a tributary of the Indus river.

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 List of Mountain Ranges in India

Mountain Ranges in North India – North to South

Mountain Ranges States Highest Peak Remarks

Saltoro Mountains Ladakh Saltoro Kangri Sub-range of the Karakoram

Godwin-Austen or K2
Karakoram PoK, Ladakh Highest peak in India
8,611 m

Deosai Mountain J&K

Ladakh Range J&K

Kamet Peak
Zanskar Range J&K
7,756 m

J&K, Indrasan
Pir Panjal Range
Himachal Pradesh 6,221 m

Zabarwan Range J&K Part of Pir Panjal

Dhauladhar Range J&K

Kishtwar Himalaya J&K Bharanzar

Garhwal Himalaya Uttarakhand

Dundwa Range Northern UP Part of Sivalik Hills

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Mountain Ranges in Central India – West to East
Mountain Ranges States Highest Peak Remarks

Girnar Range Gujrat

Gujrat
Rajasthan oldest fold mountains in
Aravalli Range Guru Shikhar
Haryana India
Delhi

MP
Malwa Plateau
Rajasthan

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 Mountain Ranges States Highest Peak Remarks

Rajpipla Hills Gujrat Part of Satpura

Maharashtra
Gawilgarh Hills Part of Satpura
MP

Mahadeo Hills MP Mount Dhupgarh Part of Satpura

Bhanrer Range MP Part of Vindhya

Bhander Plateau MP

Maikal Hills Chhattisgarh Part of Satpura

Jabalpur,
Kaimur Range Part of Vindhya
MP

Baghelkhand
UP
Plateau

Sonpar Hills MP

Gujrat
MP
Sad-bhawna Shikhar or Kalumar
Vindhya Range UP
peak
Bihar
Chhattisgarh

Gujarat
Maharashtra
Satpura Range Mount Dhupgarh
MP
Chhattisgarh

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Chota Nagpur Plateau – North to South
Mountain Ranges States

Rajmahal Hills Jharkhand

Hazaribagh Plateau Jharkhand

Mailan Hills Chhattisgarh

Ranchi Plateau Jharkhand

Jharkhand
Hazaribagh Hills
Chhattisgarh

Ramgarh Hills Chhattisgarh

Jharkhand
Garhjat Hills Chhattisgarh
Odisha

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Mountain Ranges in North East India
Mountain Ranges States Highest Peak Remarks

West to East & South to

North

Arunachal
Dafla Hills Part of Purvanchal
Pradesh

Arunachal
Miri Hills
Pradesh

Arunachal
Abor Hills
Pradesh

Arunachal
Mishmi Hills
Pradesh

3rd highest mountain in the

Nepal Part of eastern
Kangchenjunga world
Sikkim Himalayas
2nd in India

West to East

Garo Hills Meghalaya

Shyllong Shillong city situated

Khasi Hills Meghalaya
1,968 m on it

Jaintis Hills Meghalaya

Mikir Hills Assam

Rengma Hills Assam

North to South

Arunachal
Patkai Bum
Pradesh

Naga Hills Nagaland Mount Saramati

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 Mountain Ranges States Highest Peak Remarks

Langpangkong Range Nagaland

Assam
Barail Range Part of Purvanchal
Nagaland

Laimatol Range Manipur

Assam
Bhuban Hills
Mizoram

Atharamura Range Tripura Part of Siwalik Hills

Lushai Hills or Mizo Hills Mizoram Phawngpui Blue Mountain

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Western Ghats Mountains – North to South
Mountain Ranges States Highest Peak Remarks

Satmala Hills Maharashtra Dhodap

Ajanta Hills Maharashtra

Harishchandra
Maharashtra Harischandragarh
Range

Balaghat Range Maharashtra

Chikkamagaluru,
Kudremukh Kudremukha
Karnataka

Mullayanagiri
Baba Budan Hills Karnataka kurinji blooms
1930 m

Doddabetta
Nilgiri Mountains Tamil Nadu Eastern & Western Ghats meet
2,637 m

Akamala Machad Vazhani sanctuary

Thrissur, Kerala
Hills Vazhani Dam

Anamudi is the highest peak in

Tamil Nadu Anamudi
Anaimalai Hills south India
Kerala 2,695 m
World Heritage Site

Tamil Nadu
Palani Hills Vandaravu
Kerala

Tamil Nadu
Cardamom Hills cardamom spice cultivation
Kerala

Varushnad Hills Tamil Nadu Part of Cardamom

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Eastern Ghats Mountains – North to South
Mountain Ranges States Remarks

Nayagarh Hills Orissa

Bastar Plateau Chhattisgarh

AP
Nallamala Hills
Telangana

Erramala Hills Andhra Pradesh

Velikonda Range Andhra Pradesh

Palkonda Range Andhra Pradesh

Seshachalam Hills Andhra Pradesh Tirupati City

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 Mountain Ranges States Remarks

Nagari Hills Andhra Pradesh

Javedi Hills Tamil Nadu

Melagiri Range Tamil Nadu

Shevaroy Hills Tamil Nadu

Pachaimalai Hills Tamil Nadu

Sirumalai Hills Tamil Nadu

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www.lotusarise.com
Mountain Ranges in India (with few Details)
CARDAMOM HILLS :

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 • Southernmost part of the Western Ghats, in Kerala and Tamil Nadu
• Named after the cardamoms which are grown here, beside pepper and coffee
• Has the Shencottah Gap
• Climatic barrier, source of many rivers
• So many forest reserves for ecological conservation, source of HEPs

PALANI HILLS :

• Mountains of Tamil Nadu east of the Anaimudi Peak

• North of Vaigai River
• Mostly within Dindigul district
• Hill station of Kodaikanal
• Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park

ANAIMALAI HILLS :

• Anaimalai means ‘Elephant Hills’

• Located between Kerala and Tamil Nadu, south of the Palghat Gap
• Highest peak -Anaimudi (Idukki district, Kerala )
• Many sanctuaries and parks
• Trekking destination
• Tea, coffee, rubber and teak forests

NILGIRI HILLS :

• Trijunction of Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka, north of the Palghat

• Meeting point of the Eastern and Western ghats
• Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and other conservation areas
• Highest peak – Doddabetta, 4 km from Otty
• So many falls Pykara, Catherine, Kotagiri

BABA BUDAN HILLS :

• Part of the Western Ghats in the Chikamangaluru District of Karnataka

• Highest peak- Mullayangiri
• Baba Budan was a 17th century sufi, who is believed to have
introduced coffee in India
• Known for coffee cultivation

VARUSHNAD HILLS :

• South of the Vaigai River and southwest of Madurai, up to the Cardamom Hills
• Eastern offshoot of the Western Ghats
• Cumbum Valley (Vaigai) divides it from the Western Ghats
• Source of Arjuna and Gunnar rivers

SIRUMALAI HILLS :

• Between Vaigai (S) and Kaveri in Tamil Nadu

• Source of Valiyar and Manimuttar rivers
• Dindigul is the main city nearby it
• Hill station: Sirumalai
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PANCHAIMALAI HILLS :

• Panchai mean ‘green’ and malai means ‘hills’

• Between Kaveri and Vellar rivers in Tamil Nadu
• Haven of tribals
• Average elevation : 500m to 1000m
• Good for trekking and enjoying nature
• Namakkal is the main city

SHEVROY HILLS :

• Between Vellar and Ponnaiyar rivers in Tamil Nadu

• Around Salem city
• Sanatorium and several old coffee plantations
• Tourist attraction
• Source of Turunanimuttai, Vellar, Gomukha and Manimukta rivers

JAVADI HILLS :

• Northern Tamil Nadu in Vellar district

• Between Ponnaiyar and Palar rivers
• Bisected into eastern and western sections by Cheyyar and Agaram, tributaries
of the Palar
• Sparsely populated
• Grains, legumes, oilseeds are chief crops

NAGARI HILLS :

• Southernmost part of Andhra Pradesh, west of the Pulicat Lake in Chittur District
• Main city – Nagari
• ‘Nag’ means nose in Telugu
• Beautiful picnic spot
• Highest cliff: Nagari Nose

PALKONDA RANGE :

• Arc-shaped mountain between Penneru and Palar rivers

• Relict of mountains formed during the Cambrian Period
• Main crops- Jowar,peanuts
• Formed of quartzites, slates and lavas
• Source of rivers
• Densely forested

VELIKONDA RANGE :

• Part of the Eastern Ghats

• Southeast of Andhra Pradesh, east of the Nallmalla Hills
• Strongly folded and faulted
• Assumed to be elevated during the Cambrian Period, now a relict range
• Sparsely wooded
• Chenchu tribal people live here

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MELAGIRI RANGE :

• Smaller hill located south of Bangalore in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu

• Range of hills, part of the Eastern Ghats
• Melagiri Sanctuary is located here
• Arkaveti River flows through the range
• Hosur city, Bennerghatta NP and Kolar gold fields are near to it

VELIKONDA :

• Located in the southeastern part of Andhra Pradesh

• Forms part of the Eastern Ghats
• Parallel to the Coromandel Coast
• Crossed by the Penneru River

NALLAMALLA RANGE :

• Between Penneru and Krishna

• Parallel to the Coromandel Coast
• Part of the Eastern Ghats
• Old mountain extensively weathered and eroded
• Largest stretch of undisturbed forests in SouthernIndia excluding the Western
Ghats
• Srisailam Tiger Reserve

ERRAMALA RANGE :

• A range of low hills in southern India, in Kurnool district of Andhra Pradesh

• Between Krishna and Penneru rivers
• West of Nallamalla Range

HARISHCHANDRA RANGE :

• Eastward spur of the Western Ghats, in Maharashtra

• Average elevation -600m.
• Elevation gradually decreases towards the southeast
• Flat topped, consisting of basaltic lava
• Slops are eroded into terraces
• Named after Harishchandragarh, its highest peak
• Ahmednagar is the chief city in the region

BALAGHAT RANGE :

• Series of hills in western Maharashtra originates from the Western Ghats

• Extends for 200 miles to form border between Maharashtra and Karnataka
• Flat topped hills with lava covers
• Source of Manjra River
• Rainier west has dense vegetation but the eastern part is barren and stony

AJANTA RANGE :

• A mountain of Maharashtra entirely within the state

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 • Forms the watershed between the Godavari and the Tapi river systems
• Source of Purna and Penganga
• Ajanta Caves are located

SATMALA RANGE :

• Branch the northern Western Ghats in the northwest Maharashtra

NIRMAL RANGE :

• A low hill of Maharashtra located between Penganga and Godavari rivers

• Nanded city is located on it

GARHJAT HILLS :

• Hill on the northern Orissa and adjoining Jharkhand

• Mayurbhanj and Keonjhar come under it
• Famous for iron ores
• Several Gond tribes live here
• Highest peak-Malaygiri (1187m)

RAMGARH HILLS :

• Hills of the northeastern Chhattisgarh, adjoining Jharkhand

• Source of Rihand, Sankh and Mand and Ib rivers
• Main city is Ambikapur

RAJPIPLA HILLS :

• The westernmost part of the Satpura Range, mainly in eastern Gujarat, around
the city ofRajpipla
• Separated from the Gawilgarh Hills by the Khandwa Gap

GAWILGARH HILLS :

• Part of the Satpura Range located between the Rajpipla Hills (West) and the
Mahadeo Hills(East)
• Spreaded over Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh
• Located between Tapi and Purna rivers
• Main city- Burhanpur

MAHADEO HILLS :

• Central part of the Satpura Range in southern Madhya Pradesh

• Watershed between Narmada and Godavari
• Highest Peak – Dhupgarh
• Origin of the Tapi River

MAIKAL HILLS :

• Eastern part of the Satpura Range, located between Madhya Pradesh and
Chhattisgarh
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 • Source of many tributaries of Narmada, Mahanadi and Godavari
• Inhabited by the tribal peoples like Baiga and Gond
• Kanha National Park, Achanakmar-Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve.

KAIMUR RANGE :

• Eastern range of the Vindhyas located between the Son and the Tons rivers in
northeastern Madhya Pradesh
• Its northern edge forms escarpments
• Prehistoric rock paintings have been discovered

GIR HILLS :

• Low hills of the Kathiawar Peninsula to the southeast of the Girnar Hills
• Highest Peak – Sarkala (643m)
• The Gir National Park is located in the region

GIRNAR HILLS :

• A collection of mountains in the Junagarh district, in the Kathiawad

• Girnar Peak (945m) is highest peak of Gujarat
• The Gir National Park is located in the region
• Holy place for both Hindus and Jains

MANDAV HILLS :

• Hills of the central Kathiawar

• Forms a radial drainage pattern
• Main city-Rajkot
• Covered with the basaltic lava

ABU HILLS :

• The southwestern part of the Aravalli Range, between the Sabarmati and the
Banas Rivers
• Mount Abu is located on it

ARAVALLI RANGE :

• Old dissected mountains of northwestern India, from Gujarat to Haryana

• Source of Banas, Luni and Sabarmati rivers
• Rich in non- ferrous minerals
• Highest peak – Guru Shikhar

KARAKORAM RANGE :

• A Trans- Himalayan mountain starts from the Pamir Knot

• Heavily glaciated part of the world outside the polar regions
• K2-Second highest peak of the world
• Glaciers – Siachen, Biafo, Batloro, Batura

LADAKH RANGE :
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 • Trans-Himalayan mountain located between Shyok and Indus rivers
• Leh is located at its southern edge
• Runs parallel to the Indus River from the Shyok River in the west to the Tibet
border in the east
• Khardung La Pass is located on it

ZASKAR RANGE :

• Trans-Himalayan or Tibetan Himalayan range located between the Great

Himalayas and the Ladakh Range
• Branches off from the Great Himalayas near 80º E longitude runs parallel to the
latter
• Nanga Parbat forms its culmination in the northwest
• Coldest place of India, Dras is located here

PIR PANJAL :

• Westernmost range of the Lesser Himalayas which separates Jammu from

Kashmir
• Extends from the Jhelam River to the upper Beas River for 300-400km.
• Pir Panjal and Banihal passes are located in it
• Jawahar Tunnel passes through the Banihal Pass.

DHAULADHAR RANGE :

• Range of the Lesser Himalayas in Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh
• Hill Stations -Dalhousie,Chamba, Kullu, Manali, Botata, Dharmshala, Shimla
• Southern slope is steeper than the northern slope
• The southernmost range of the Lessar Himalayas

NAG TIBBA :

• Part of the Lesser Himalaya in the southwestern Uttarakhand

• Nag Tibba (3022m) is its highest peak
• Most easterly of the ranges of the Lesser Himalayas in India
• Hill Station– Mussoorie

KUMAON RANGE :

• Part of the Lesser Himalayas in the south-eastern part of Uttrakhand

GARO :

• Westernmost part of the Meghalaya Plateau

• Inhabited by the Garo tribes
• Nokrek Biosphere Reserve
• Tura is the main city in the region
• Highest peak- Nokrek

KHASI :

• Middle part of the Meghalaya Plateau

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 • Highest point of the Meghalaya Plateau
• Cherrapunjee and Mawsynram are located in it
• Shillong is located in the hill
• Inhabited by the matrilineal Khasi tribes

JAYANTIYA :

• Eastern part of the Meghalaya Plateau

• Inhabited by the Jatantiya tribes
• Jhuming cultivation is practised
• High rainfall region
• Presence of the laterite soils

BARAIL RANGE :

• Lies along the border of Assam and Manipur

• Links the Meghalaya Plateau with the Purvanchal Hills
• Covered with bamboo and pine trees
• Degraded due to the Jhuming
• Water divide between the Brahmaputra and the Barak rivers
• The Barak rises in its southern slopes

MIZO HILLS :

• Southernmost part of the Purvanchal, also known as the Lusai Hills

• Lies in Mizoram
• Highest peak – Blue Mountain
• Crossed by the Tropic of Cancer

MANIPUR HILLS :

• Part of the Purvanchal in Manipur

• Loktak Lake is located in it
• Manipur River originates here
• Forms boundary between India and Myanmar

NAGA HILLS :

• Part of the Purvanchal, located between the Patkai Bum and the Manipur Hills in
Nagaland
• Highest peak- Saramati (3826m)
• Forms boundary between India and Myanmar

PATKAI BUM :

• Northernmost range of the Purvanchal, located in Arunachal Pradesh

• Forms boundary between India and Myanmar
• Source of Burhi Dihing and Disang rivers

MIKIR :

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 • Part of the Meghalaya Plateau located in Assam, just south of the Brahmaputra
River
• Mikir tribes live here who practise Jhuming cultivation
• Hills consist of the Archaean rocks

RENGMA :

• Part of the Meghalaya Plateau in Assam located to the east of the Mikir Hills
• Full of bamboos and Rengma tribes live here.

DAFLA :

• Part of the Siwalik located in Arunachal Pradesh between the Subansiri River
and the Kameng River, that to the south of the Kamla River
• Tribes living here practice Jhuming
• Covered with dense bamboo, pine and deodar trees.

MIRI :

• Part of the Outer Himalayas (Siwalik) in Arunachal Pradesh located between the
Subansiri River and the Kameng River that to the north of the Kamla River which
separates it forms the Dafla Hills.
• Inhabited by tribes.
• Terraces are built for the cultivation.

ABOR :

• Part of the Siwalik,located in Arunachal Pradesh between the Dibang and the
Subansiri river
• Covered with deciduous and evergreen forests
• Inhabited by the tribal peoples
• Highest peak is 3992 m above sea leve

MISHMI :

• Easternmost part of the Siwalik in northeast Arunachal Pradesh from the Dibang
River (West) to the Myanmar border in the east
• Dibang River flows through it

NAG PAHAR :

• Located between Pushkar Lake and the city of Ajmer.

• Famous for Panchkund and saint Agastaya’s Cave, and it is believed
that Kalidas, the 4th century poet and playright composed Abhigyanam
Shakuntalam here itself

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