The Americanization of the Apocalypse:

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The Americanization of the Apocalypse
The Americanization
of the Apocalypse
Creating America’s Own Bible

D O NA L D HA R M A N A K E N S O N
 Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers
the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education
by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University
Press in the UK and certain other countries.

Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press

198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America.

© Donald Harman Akenson 2023

The moral right of the author has been asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction
rights organization. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above.

You must not circulate this work in any other form

and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.

CIP data is on file at the Library of Congress

ISBN 978–​0–​19–​759979–​2

DOI: 10.1093/​oso/​9780197599792.001.0001

1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2

Printed by Integrated Books International, United States of America

To Joan Harcourt, my lifetime editor, conscience, and best friend;
and to James E. Akenson, a fine scholar of American
culture—​and a really good brother.
 Contents

List of Illustrations  ix
Acknowledgments  xi
Abbreviations  xv

Introduction: The Migration of Ideas  1

PA RT I . G E O G R A P H Y C OU N T S

1. Ireland: Not the Garden of Eden  7

2. Becoming True Britons  20
3. Preparing for North America  42

PA RT I I . T H E N EW C O N T I N E N T

4. The Great Inland Sea  65

5. The Best Available Personnel  86
6. Riding an Everyday Diaspora  116

PA RT I I I . M A S S D I F F U SIO N

7. Import Licences  137

8. Buyers’ Remorse?  161
9. The Wasp-​Waist Passage  188
10. Tall Man Standing  204
11. The Mist That Was Moody  225
12. The Long Prophetic Party, 1875–​1895  253

PA RT I V. BU I L D I N G A N EW S C R I P T U R E

13. Checking behind the Curtain  313

14. As Original as Sin?  326
viii Contents

15. Garnering Resources  347

16. Big Deal at Amen Corner  362
17. Yet More Helpful Friends  394
18. Unto the Last Day  411
19. Audit: Taking It All In  424

Appendix: The Physics of Upper Canadian Protestantism  437

Bibliography  457
Index  485
 Illustrations

Figure 1.1. Irish Counties  11

Figure 4.1. Great Lakes Basin  66
Figure 4 2. Residence of Arthur Wells  77
Figure 5.1. Dispensations by W. C. Baynes  91
Figure 5.2. W. Craig Baynes  96
Figure 6.1. Canals and Rivers System, 1860  123
Figure 6.2. Railways, 1870  125
Figure 12.1. Present Truth  269
Figure 12.2. The Queen’s Royal Hotel  279
Table 14.1. Chart of Dispensations  344
Figure 16.1. C. I. Scofield  373
Figure 16.2. Henry Frowde  384
Figure 17.1a. OUP-​NY, Bible late 1890s  402
Figure 17.1b. OUP-​NY, Bible late 1890s  402
Figure 17.2a. Thompson Chain-​Reference Bible  404
Figure 17.2b. Thompson Chain-​Reference Bible  404
Figure 17.2c. Thompson Chain-​Reference Bible  404
Figure 18.1. Title page, Scofield Reference Bible, 1909  413
Figure 18.2. Gospel of Matthew  414
Figure 18.3. Definition of “election”  415
Figure 18.4. Typology of Christ and the Church  417
Figure 18.5. Dispensations defined  418
Figure 18.6. Second Advent note  420
Figure 18.7. Definition of Christian assembly  421
 Acknowledgments

In this long-​running project—​three decades or so—​I have had the privilege of

being advised, aided, criticized, and occasionally rebuked by a small army of
persons who know a lot about history, or religion, or about how books work,
and sometimes about all three. The project began with research for Surpassing
Wonder: The Invention of the Bible and Talmuds (1998). Throughout the project,
I have felt deep gratitude for the enormous good fortune of being part of a cul-
ture that has permitted me to encounter tough, world-​shaping texts and to think
about the way they came into being: and that holds even though some of the
texts border on the frightening and the coercive. For practical reasons—​so many
debts—​my specific appreciation expressed below is necessarily limited to indi-
viduals and institutions who have been helpful, indeed sometimes instrumental,
in facilitating the present volume.
Because of the awkward nature of the sources that relate to the transatlantic
spread of radical apocalyptic evangelicalism in the second half of the nineteenth
century, one does not conveniently find the necessary material in the usual
places, the big international research libraries and archives. Readers of the his-
tory of radical apocalyptic evangelicalism are aware that in North America, from
1910 onwards (when The Fundamentals began, the major salvo in the modernist
vs. fundamentalist wars), the sources, and thus the literature, are rich. For the
early seed-​bed years, however, the primary material is surprisingly thin in con-
ventionally approachable repositories. In part this stems from the initial band
of authors in the British Isles—​the so-​called Plymouth Brethren—​and their
outriders—​refusing to recognize the right of the civil state to require legal deposit
of their publications. Secondly, until the 1890s when a form of international cop-
yright was introduced in the United States, the pirating and plagiarizing of for-
eign material (especially from the British Isles) was a common practice, no less
in religious publishing than in the secular realm. Thus, one must extol the imag-
inative and persistent work of smaller, slightly off-​piste archives and collections.
Specifically, the following institutions and their staff have been generous
and directly helpful, either in person or remotely. (The names of individ-
uals to whom one is especially grateful are noted in parentheses.) Among the
collections that document the transatlantic social and doctrinal develop-
ment of radical apocalyptic evangelicalism, the Christian Brethren Archive of
the University of Manchester is the single most important assemblage. In ad-
dition to the core collection relating to the British Isles, many of its books and
xii Acknowledgments

manuscript items provide information about the United States and Canada that
is not available elsewhere (Dr. Graham Johnson, archivist, and his successors
Jessica Smith, and Lianne Smith). A smaller North American collection, not
entirely catalogued but valuable in its content, is the James H. McNairn collec-
tion of the Canadian Baptist Archives, McMaster University. It is a trove of lit-
erature, assembled by a committed contemporary Exclusive Brother, reflecting
US and Canadian developments in the period 1875–​1914 (Professor Gordon
Heath and Adam McCulloch). As a broad-​based archival and ephemera collec-
tion relating to North America, the Moody Bible Institute is splendid in its range
of material; it is singularly rich in later nineteenth-​century material relating to
non-​denominational revivalism as a transnational exercise (Corie Zylstra). The
archives of Oxford University Press, Oxford, possess a wide array of information
on Bible publishing in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries and unique
material on the relationship of Henry Frowde, publisher to the University,
with Cyrus Scofield and his reference Bible (Dr. Martin Maw). The archives of
McGill University kindly provided holograph material by W. Craig Baynes, pi-
oneer framer of dispensational schema in North America (Professor Nathalie
M. Cooke and archivist Julien Couture). The Anglican diocese of Huron has
limited, but valuable, records concerning evangelical Anglican clerical converts
from the Church of England to radical apocalyptic evangelicalism (Sarah Chase).
The largest collection of material in North America concerning Open Brethren
is that of Emmaus Bible College, Dubuque, Iowa (Professor David J. MacLeod).
The Bentley Historical Library of the University of Michigan kindly made avail-
able data on families and locales in the Great Lakes Basin, in this case the cru-
cial Inglis family. The Swedenborgian Library and Archives, Berkeley, California,
generously provided information about James Inglis’s early attacks on that faith.
A valuable source for a range of material on evangelical development, especially
the eschatologically concerned sector, is the Center for Adventist Research, James
White Library, Andrews University, Berrien Springs, Michigan. The archives
of Dallas Theological Seminary hold selected copies of the historical papers for
what is now the Scofield Memorial Church, Dallas, that include some rare printed
items of C. I. Scofield (Lolana Thompson). The archives of Northfield Mount
Hermon School contain unique manuscript material on nineteenth-​century
evangelicalism as filtered through the big personality of Dwight L. Moody. The ar-
chivist, Dr. Peter Weis, has generously provided access to the unpublished studies
of Moody written by E. M. Powell in the 1930s. Further, Dr. Brendan Edwards,
curator of W.D. Jordan Rare Books and Special Collections at Queen’s University
(Ontario), shared his expertise on biblical editions.
As for digital sites, at present there are hundreds and hundreds of evangeli-
cally funded electronic entities, many of which make historical assertions. I have
tried to limit e-​references to information that is accurate and relevant in content
 Acknowledgments xiii

and is most durable electronically. (Interlibrary loan at Queen’s University, man-

aged by Bonnie Brooks, has been crucial in this aspect, providing fact-​checks
on wobbly net-​assertions.) However, neither I nor the publisher is responsible
for the accuracy or persistence of sites referred to in this book. Within that
necessary context, I would call special attention to the very useful and durable
STEM Publishing, created by L. J. L. Hodgett, which has a bank of complete
copies of works by major nineteenth-​century Brethren writers. Many of these
were circulated widely internationally. Also admirable for its admixture of pri-
mary documents and printed works of historical value is BrethrenArchive.Org,
curated by Thomas Chantry.
The sources for specific illustrations is gratefully acknowledged. References are
found in the captions. I am particularly grateful to the National Portrait Gallery,
England, and to the Christian Brethren Archive of the University of Manchester,
the Wellington County Museum, the Bibliothèque et Archives Nationales du
Québec, and the good offices of the Oxford University Press Archives, Oxford,
England.
The following are the public data sources that were generative for geographic
illustrations: Figure 4.1: Lakes Basin boundary retrieved from Great Lakes
Commission, contemporary US State Boundary file from the U.S. Census Bureau,
Provincial Boundary file from Statistics Canada 2016. Figure 6.1: Map com-
posed of 19th Century Canals layer from Jeremy Atack, “Historical Geographic
Information Systems (GIS) database of Nineteenth Century U.S. Canals”
(August 2015), Rivers from the Environmental Protection Agency, National
Hydrography Dataset Plus (version 2), Northeast layer, NHDPlusV21_​NE_​
01_​NHDSnapshotFGDB_​04.7z (19.0 MB), Hudson River Estuary Bathymetry
(polyline contours) from GIS.NY.GOV and Canals from Water Structures layer.
Figure 6.2. Railways in Canada up to 1870 from Historical Atlas of Canada and
The Atlas of Canada https://​www.arc​gis.com/​home/​item.html?id=​89044​dbd4​
e7a4​ec28​8d18​b2b4​7723​7d4.
Map courtesy of Historical Atlas of Canada Online Learning Project (www.
hist​oric​alat​las.ca).
The bibliography of the present study contains the formal citations of the
printed material that is used in the text. Learning from authors as they speak in
their own texts is a privilege; an even greater one is to be able to talk in person
with individuals who have ideas, criticisms, jokes, and the sort of social awareness
that softens the edges of analysis that sometimes can become too academic, too
tight. Among those to whom I owe a lot are: Randy W. Widdis, Phyllis D. Airhart,
Mark Noll, Andrew Holmes, Neil T. R. Dickson, David A. Wilson, Joan Harcourt,
Roy Foster, Rankin Sherling, the late Nicholas Wheeler Robinson, Caleb
Wheeler Robinson, Gordon Darroch, John A. Keith, David Hempton, Donald
M. MacRaild, Ashleigh Akenson, Gillian Akenson, T. C. F. Stunt, Catharine
xiv Acknowledgments

Wilson, Jeffry R. Collins, Carolyn A. Heald, Amitava Chowdhury, Ryan Paranyi,

Brian M. Walker, William V. Trollinger Jr., Richard English, Ian McBride,
Crawford Gribben, the late David Fitzpatrick, Dennis C. Kennedy, William
M. Jenkins, R. Marvin McInnis, Peter Goheen, James Docherty, Jane Tolerton,
Vincent O’Sullivan, Marianne Elliott, Brendan Edwards, Ken Hernden, Patrick
Deane, Philip Cercone, Kyla Madden, and the late Edward J. R. Jackman, O.P.
It has been a pleasure to work under the editorship of Cynthia Read, who has
long been a truly formative influence upon the field of religious studies and cul-
tural history in North America.
 Abbreviations

ADC Dictionary of Christianity in America (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press,

1990, ed. Daniel G. Reid)
ANB American National Biography (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999ff)
BDEB Blackwell Dictionary of Evangelical Biography, 1730–​1860 (Oxford: Blackwell
Reference, 1995, ed. Donald M. Lewis)
CBA Christian Brethren Archive, University of Manchester
CDIB Cambridge Dictionary of Irish Biography (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2010)
CW The Collected Writings of J. N. Darby (multiple editions). 34 vols. Edited by
William Kelly. The first book-​form edition of the Collected Writings was
published London: George Morrish, 1866–​1883? Since the 1880s, half a
dozen editions of CW have been published. For the protocols used in the
present study to allow citation across editions, see Akenson, Discovering the
End of Time, 491-​496.
DCB Dictionary of Canadian Biography (Toronto: University of Toronto Press,
1966 ff.). Multiple volumes, ongoing.
LAC Library and Archives Canada
L]ND Letters of J.N. D. (multiple editions). 3 vols. Edited by William Kelly.
(London: George Morrish, undated [1886–​1899]). Later editions had
considerable variations in pagination and, to a lesser degree, identification
of correspondents. The STEM Publishing online edition includes corrigenda
by L. J. L. Hodgett as of December 1995. For cross-​edition protocols see
Akenson, Discovering the End of Time, 488–​489.
MBI Moody Bible Institute, Chicago
ODNB Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2004ff)
OPAE Archives of Oxford University Press, Oxford, England
Pickering Henry Pickering (ed.), Chief Men Among the Brethren (Acts 15:22).
(London: Pickering and Inglis, 2nd ed., 1931)
SRB Scofield Reference Bible (Oxford University Press, 1st ed, 1909, “New and
Improved Edition,” 1917)
 Introduction
The Migration of Ideas

“Where in the world did that come from?” is a question whose informality might
obscure the fact that it is a smart query, a lot more useful than are most questions
stated in academic language. In the history trade, it is one that we should ask
more often, for it reminds us that no event or process or person can be ana-
lyzed purely as if it were an abstract entity. All human history needs at least two
coordinates—​time, of course, and place. A related, more pointed query con-
cerning any belief, ideology, social custom, economic practice, or technological
innovation is, “How did that come to be here?” The “here” in the question can
be any place: your home today or the senate of the Roman Republic in classical
times, or any place and time that is amenable to historical analysis.
Although we rarely speak of our trade this way, I think most shrewd historical
analysis is essentially migration history: not simply the movement of individuals,
tribes, and social groups from one place to another, although that certainly is a
fundamental historical process, but also the migration of ideas and technolo-
gies and customs and habits from one culture to another. Often in big-​history,
suites of ideas and complexes of behaviour seem to have travelled from one con-
tinent to another without the aid of much human migration, as if they were fully
formed icebergs traversing big patches of ocean. The helpful characteristic of all
these migration histories—​whether of corporeal individuals or of constellations
of ideas—​is that when taken together they help us to avoid the implicit (and often
unintentional) vainglory of mere locality. Of course every town, province, and
nation has its own unique physical geography and cultural topography, and these
at several levels are formative of events within the local boundaries. Yet, in any
given jurisdiction, most of what happens, most of what is believed, is an adapta-
tion of ideas and behaviours that come from someplace else. That’s just the way
the world works. No town, state, or nation is autochthonous, however loudly its
propagandists may declare it to be mystically and morally exceptional—​or how-
ever elegantly its historians play a game of intellectual squash-​racquets, with the
patterns of cause and effect being limited to the whitewashed walls of the locality
or nation.
Theologians of the Catholic church have developed a concept—​
inculturation—​that can be secularized to help our understanding of the way that

The Americanization of the Apocalypse. Donald Harman Akenson, Oxford University Press. © Donald Harman Akenson
2023. DOI: 10.1093/​oso/​9780197599792.003.0001
2 THE AMERICANIZATION OF THE APOCALYPSE

a small collection of individuals living on the edge of Europe embraced a new

concept of Christianity (virtually a new religion, some would say), and eventually
this faith came to define the prepotent form of Protestantism in the United States
and thus to be a strong component of everyday American culture. Inculturation,
though a theologically complex concept concerning the dynamic relationship of
belief and culture, can for our purposes be simplified to identify operationally
the following stages of interaction: the definition of a boundaried belief system
within a given culture; the transfer of that suite of beliefs and practices from one
culture into another; the modification of the form (and, however much it might
offend the purists) and the content of the original system so that the recipient
culture embeds the new material into one of its own existing belief systems; the
continued change in the way the recipient culture thinks and acts in its everyday
life consequent upon its embrace of the new ideas; simultaneously, the modifica-
tion of the imported suite of ideas and behaviours that results from the daily rub-
bing against the local society continues; and, finally, there occurs the attempt to
“re-​evangelize” the now slightly askew recipient culture by purists who conclude
that things have gone somewhat astray.1
The present study is a stand-​alone item. It is also the third volume in my
study of a big piece of migration history: the passage of a radically new form of
Christianity that in the early nineteenth century was created, invented, discov-
ered, or re-​discovered (every word one can use will raise someone’s hackles) in
the drawing rooms of the Anglo-​Irish aristocracy and gentry of Co. Wicklow
and south Co. Dublin, to England, and thence first to the Canadas and then
southwards to the great US cities situated along the St. Lawrence watershed. The
previous volumes are Discovering the End of Time: Irish Evangelicals in the Age
of Daniel O’Connell (2016) and Exporting the Rapture: John Nelson Darby and
the Victorian Conquest of North American Evangelicalism (2018). The scholarly
reader should look at the bibliographic conventions that are set down in the first
volume; they are my suggestions as to the most convenient and reliable way to
deal with a large chunk of the literature on early millennial apocalypticism—​that
produced in several million words by John Nelson Darby—​which tumbled into
print in a confusing welter of editions, fascicules, and reprints. Also, because this
volume mostly deals with events from the mid-​nineteenth century and onwards,
I have necessarily compressed the earlier history. For readers who wish to go

1 The concept of inculturation, which developed from, roughly, the 1960s to the present, includes

seminal contributions by Karl Rahner, Robert Schreiter, Emmanuel Martey, John Paul II, and Paul
VI, among others. The term, in Catholic discussions, is tied to the evangelical outreach of the faith,
and the contact-​association between inculturation and incarnation is intentional. A useful sum-
mary is Dennis M. Doyle, “The Concept of Inculturation in Roman Catholicism: A Theological
Consideration,” U.S. Catholic Historian (Winter 2012): 1–​13. In evangelical Protestant thought, the
cognate field is “missiology,” which tends to be more pragmatic in character and less theologically
densely argued.
 THE MIGRATION OF IDEAS 3

further into the early story (and also to those who wish to check my documenta-
tion), references to the previous volumes in this study are provided.
The pivot of the story—​but, emphatically, only a part of the narrative—​is the
religious community often referred to as the “Plymouth Brethren.” It was they
who were chiefly responsible for sling-​shotting some loose, but very attractive,
front-​edge new ideas from the British Isles to North America. They did so by
engaging the intermediate step of packaging the theological-​faith innovations
of the British Isles of the 1820s and 1830s into a single ideational bundle that
could be transported efficiently, like a voyageur’s pack of trade goods, across
great distances and difficult climes. The nineteenth-​century Brethren have long
been under-​recognized historically and for good reason: they are devilishly hard
to deal with historically, because they were secretive, albeit without any apparent
joy in their obscurity. They simply focused on their faith. They kept no corpo-
rate institutional records: they refused to admit they were an organization in any
public sense and, indeed, until the last quarter of the nineteenth century they did
not even have address lists of compatible assemblies of the faithful. Most of their
adherents did not much like having any distinctive name, preferring just to be
called “Christians,” “Brethren,” “Church of God,” or some other blurred term. In
practice, after a seismic schism in the late 1840s, it was common to refer to the
two main branches as “Open Brethren” and “Exclusive Brethren.” That practice
is adopted here, with the full knowledge that there were other terms employed
at the time, and still others adopted since then by their theological descendants.
By the late nineteenth century, many Brethren in the British Isles and North
America were willing to be referred to by outsiders as Plymouth Brethren—​the
term at least had a false patina of Mayflower pilgrim ancestry—​even though they
usually would have used a different name among themselves. The real problem
with the Brethren as an active force in the inculturation of apocalyptic millen-
nialism into the evangelical sector of the English-​speaking world is simply that
they were so vivid in retailing their faith—​by small, intense meetings and, par-
adoxically, by a massive publishing program—​and yet were so very secretive
about the operational details of their faith community.
The Brethren developed a highly distinctive faith system. At a high level of
generality, their beliefs had three sharply distinctive features, as well as several
others that were unusual, but not quite so remarkable. Of the three, one made
no never-​mind outside of their own faith world, but two had an especially strong
impact in North America. The one that was rarely adopted by religious leaders
outside their own camp was the Brethren’s insistence on a totally lay ministry.
To make the precept even less palatable, the lay-​only practice was situated in an
organizational structure that was distinctive for being declared to outsiders as
being nonexistent. Such an ecclesiology was not quite the thing for attracting
Protestant pastors from existing denominational congregations.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 PLATE CCCX.

S TA C H Y S C O C C I N E A .
Scarlet Clownheal.
CLASS XIV. ORDER I.
DIDYNAMIA GYMNOSPERMIA. Two Chives longer. Seed naked.
GENERIC CHARACTER.
Calyx. Perianthium monophyllum, tubulatum, angulatum,
semiquinquefidum, acuminatum, persistens; dentriculis acuminatis,
subulatis, subinæquale.
Corolla monopetala, ringens; tubus brevissimus; faux oblonga, ad basin
deorsum gibba; labium superius erectum, subovatum, fornicatum, sæpe
emarginatum; labium inferius majus, trifidum lateribus reflexum; lacinula
intermedia maxima, emarginata, replicata.
Stamina. Filamenta quatuor, quorum duo breviora, subulata, ad latera
faucis recurvata. Antheræ simplices.
Pistillum. Germen quadripartitum. Stylus filiformis, situ et longitudine
staminum. Stigma bifidum, acutum.
Pericarpium nullum. Calyx vix mutatus.
Semina quatuor, ovata, angulata.
Empalement. Cup one-leaf, tubular, angular, five shallow clefts, taper,
permanent; toothless taper, awl-shaped, nearly equal.
Blossom one petal, gaping; tube very short; mouth oblong, hunched
downwards towards the base; upper lip upright, rather egg-shaped, arched,
often notched at the end; lower lip large, three-cleft, side ones reflexed; the
middle segment, which is the largest, notched at the end, and folded back.
Chives. Four threads, of which two are shorter, awl-shaped, bent to the
sides of the mouth. Tips simple.
Pointal. Seed-bud with four divisions. Shaft thread-shaped, of the length
and situation of the chives. Summit cloven, sharp-pointed.
Seed-vessel none. The cup scarce changed.
Seeds four, egg-shaped, angular.
 SPECIFIC CHARACTER.
Stachys verticillis sexfloris; foliis ovato-oblongis, basi cordatis, crenatis;
floribus coccineis.
Clownheal with six flowered whorls; leaves oblong-egg-shaped, heart-
shaped at the base, scolloped; flowers scarlet.
REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.
1. The Cup, natural size.
2. The Blossom cut open, with the chives in their place.
3. The Seed-buds and Pointal, the summit detached, magnified.
4. The Seed-buds, magnified.
Although this species of Stachys must be considered as an herbaceous plant,
yet the stem, if kept in the green-house, may be preserved; and therefore, as
it is too tender to bear our winters, in the open ground, we must consign it to
that station. It is a native of South America; is easily propagated by cuttings;
flowers in the month of July, or August, and thrives in rich mould. The
figure was taken from a plant in the collection of J. Vere, Esq. Kensington
Gore, where, we believe, it flowered for the first time in Britain.
 PLATE CCCXI.

G E R A N I U M P I N N AT U M .
Winged-leaved Geranium.
CLASS XVI. ORDER IV.
MONADELPHIA DECANDRIA. Threads united. Ten Chives.
ESSENTIAL GENERIC CHARACTER.
Monogyna. Stigmata quinque. Fructus rostratus, penta-coccus.
One Pointal. Five Summits. Fruit furnished with long awns, five dry
berries.
SPECIFIC CHARACTER.
Geranium foliis pinnatis; foliolis subrotundo-ovatis, hirsutis; floribus
flavis, staminibus quinque fertilibus; scapo polystachio; radice tuberosa.
Geranium with winged leaves; leaflets rather round-egg-shaped, and
hairy; flowers yellow; five fertile chives; flower-stem branched; root
tuberous.
REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.
1. A Flower-cup, natural size, cut open.
2. The Chives and Pointal, natural size.
3. The Chives cut and spread open, magnified.
4. The Pointal and Seed-bud, magnified.
The specific title of this plant, originally, belonged to a species which is,
now, confounded amongst the numerous variety of Geranium lacerum. And,
indeed, the present plant is taken as a synonim, by Willdenow, with G.
astragalifolium, of which we have given a figure in a preceding number. This
was among the first of the tuberous kind of Geraniums known to our
gardens. Mr. F. Masson, according to the Kew Catalogue, first introduced it
to the Kew Gardens in 1788. It has nothing particular in its character to
require a different treatment from the rest of the tuberous species. Our
drawing was made from a plant in the Hammersmith Collection, in March
1801.
 PLATE CCCXII.

STYPHELIA VIRIDIS.
Green-flowered Styphelia.
CLASS V. ORDER I.
PENTANDRIA MONOGYNIA. Five Chives. One Pointal.
ESSENTIAL GENERIC CHARACTER.
Calyx imbricatus. Corolla tubulosa. Stamina fauci inserta. Drupa
quinque-locularis. Semina bina.
Cup tiled. Blossom tubular. Chives inserted into the mouth of the
blossom. A pulpy berry with five cells. Seeds by twos.
See Styphelia triflora. Pl. LXXII. Vol. I.
SPECIFIC CHARACTER.
Styphelia foliis utrinque acuminatis, obliquis, acutis, glaberrimis; floribus
axillaribus, solitariis, viridibus.
Styphelia with leaves tapered to both ends, oblique, pointed, very smooth;
flowers grow from the insertion of the leaves, solitary and green.
REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.
1. The Cup of a flower, natural size.
2. A Blossom, with the Chives in their place, cut open.
3. The Seed-bud, Shaft, and Summit, the Summit magnified.
Few of the plants from New Holland have excited more admiration than the
Styphelias; the S. tubiflora figured in the New Holland botany of Dr. Smith,
the S. triflora given in the first Vol. of this work, our present plant, together
with the numerous other species already known from dried specimens, lead
us to conjecture that the genus is as copious as any, Banksia not excepted,
from that country. This plant grows to the height of two feet, or more; the
flowers nearly covering the branches. It is rather delicate, requiring but little
water, in the winter months; as it is certain to perish, if kept wet any
considerable time. Is propagated by cuttings, and must be kept in a small pot,
proportional to the size of the plant, in very sandy peat earth. Our figure was
taken from a plant in the Hibbertian collection, in the month of April, 1803.
All the plants, at present in Britain, of this species of Styphelia, are the
offspring of one solitary seed, received by Messrs. Lee and Kennedy from
New Holland, in the year 1791.
 PLATE CCCXIII.

JUSTICIA LUCIDA.
Shining-leaved Justicia.
CLASS II. ORDER I.
DIANDRIA MONOGYNIA. Two Chives. One Pointal.
GENERIC CHARACTER.
Calyx. Perianthium monophyllum, minimum, quinquepartitum, acutum,
erectum, angustum.
Corolla monopetala, ringens; tubus gibbus; limbus bilabiatus, labium
superius oblongum, emarginatum, labium inferius ejusdem longitudinis,
reflexum, trifidum.
Stamina. Filamenta duo, subulata, sub labio superiore recondita. Antheræ
erectæ, ad basin bifidæ.
Pistillum. Germen turbinatum. Stylus filiformis, longitudine et situ
staminum. Stigma simplex.
Pericarpium. Capsula oblonga, obtusa, basi angustata, bilocularis,
bivalvis; dissepimento valvulis contrario, ungue elastico dehiscens.
Semina subrotunda.
Empalement. Cup one-leaf, very small, five-divided, pointed, erect,
narrow.
Blossom one petal, gaping; tube hunched; border two-lipped; the upper
lip oblong, notched at the end; the under lip of the same length, reflexed, and
three-cleft.
Chives. Two threads, awl-shaped, hid under the upper lip. Tips upright,
two-cleft at the base.
Pointal. Seed-bud top-shaped. Shaft thread-shaped, the length and
situation of the chives. Summit simple.
Seed-vessel. Capsule oblong, obtuse, narrowed at the base, two-celled,
two valved; the partition opposite to the valves splitting from an elastic claw.
Seeds roundish.
SPECIFIC CHARACTER.
 Justicia spicis terminalibus; floribus subcapitatis; foliis elipticis, nervosis,
bullatis, lucidis; corollis bilabiatis, labio superiore lanceolato; caule
fruticoso, glabro.
Justicia with terminal spikes; flowers grow nearly in heads; leaves
elliptic, nerved, blistered, and shining; blossoms two-lipped, the upper lip
lance-shaped; stem shrubby, smooth.
REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.
1. A Blossom cut open, with the Chives in their place.
2. The Cup and Pointal.
3. An unripe Seed.
Most of the species of this genus of plants have hitherto been considered of
little value in our collections, as few of them have woody stems, and from
that character have a weedy appearance. This plant however is an exception,
and is well worthy a place in collections where ornament only, not variety, is
studied. It grows to the height of three feet, flowers in the month of August,
is easily increased from cuttings, and may be kept in the hot-house, out of
the bark-bed. The Justicia coccinea and this plant approach in the appearance
of their flowers and habit; but the leaves differ much as well as many other
minuter parts. It is a native of the East Indies, and was introduced about the
year 1794. Our figure was taken from a plant in the Collection of G. Hibbert,
Esq. Clapham Common.
 PLATE CCCXIV.

ITEA SPINOSA.
Thorny Itea.
CLASS V. ORDER I.
PENTANDRIA MONOGYNIA. Five Chives. One Pointal.
GENERIC CHARACTER.
Calyx. Perianthium monophyllum, quinquefidum, erectum, acuminatum,
minimum, persistens, laciniis acutis, coloratis.
Corolla. Petala quinque, lanceolata, longa, calyci inserta.
Stamina. Filamenta quinque, subulata, erecta, longitudine corollæ, calyci
inserta. Antheræ subrotundæ, incumbentes.
Pistillum. Germen ovatum. Stylus cylindraceus, persistens, longitudine
staminum. Stigma obtusum.
Pericarpium. Capsula ovata calyce multoties longior, stylo muconato,
unilocularis, bivalvis ex duabus coalita apice dehiscens.
Semina numerosa, minima, oblonga, nitida.
Empalement. Cup one-leaf, five-cleft, upright, tapered, very small,
remaining, segments pointed, coloured.
Blossom. Petals five, lance-shaped, long, inserted into the cup.
Chives. Five threads, awl-shaped, upright, the length of the blossom,
inserted into the cup. Tips roundish, laying on the threads.
Pointal. Seed-bud egg-shaped. Shaft cylindrical, permanent, the length
of the chives. Summit obtuse.
Seed-vessel. Capsule egg-shaped, much longer than the cup, tapering
into the shaft, one-celled, two-valved of two joined, splitting at top.
Seeds numerous, very small, oblong, shining.
SPECIFIC CHARACTER.
Itea foliis cuneiformibus, emarginatis; spinis axillaribus.
Itea with wedge-shaped leaves, notched at the end; spines grow at the
insertion of the leaves.
 REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.
1. The Empalement, magnified.
2. A Flower complete, magnified.
3. The Chives and Pointal, magnified; part of the cup and the petals
taken away, to shew the insertion of the Chives into the cup.
4. The Pointal, magnified.
This plant is a native of New Holland, and was introduced from thence by
the Right Honourable the Marchioness of Rockingham, at the same time
with the Bauera rubioides of this work; and from a specimen communicated
by her Ladyship in September, 1801, our drawing was taken. It is a hardy
green-house plant, continuing in flower from August till December; makes a
very bushy handsome shrub, especially when planted in a conservatory. Is
easily propagated by cuttings, made in the month of April, and kept on a
gentle heat until they are rooted. It thrives most in sandy peat, with a small
mixture of sandy loam.
 PLATE CCCXV.

ORCHIS BICORNIS.
Two-horned Orchis.
CLASS XX. ORDER I.
GYNANDRIA DIANDRIA. Chives on the Pointal. Two Chives.
ESSENTIAL GENERIC CHARACTER.
Nectarium corniforme pone florem.
Honey-cup like a horn behind the flower.
See Orchis ciliaris, Pl. XLII. Vol. I.
SPECIFIC CHARACTER.
Orchis bulbis indivisis; corollis galea bicalcarata; labio quinque-partito.
Orchis with undivided bulbs; helmet of the blossom two spurred, lip five-
parted.
REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.
1. A Flower, natural size.
2. The same, magnified, with the front petals cut away to expose the
parts of fructification, one of the chives being liberated from its
cell.
This singular little Orchis was first introduced to us, from the Cape of
Good Hope, by Mr. F. Masson, in 1787, but has been lost to our gardens
since near that time till last year, when we had the pleasure of seeing it again
in the collection of T. Evans, Esq. Stepney; but we much fear, without a
fresh supply of roots, it will again soon stand but as a name in our
catalogues. It is a very tender and delicate plant; and, like nearly the whole
of this natural order, difficult to propagate or preserve in a cultivated state;
wherefore we cannot pretend to recommend any particular method. The bulb
which flowered at Stepney was planted in sandy peat, and appeared in good
health. It flowers in September, loses its leaves soon after flowering, and is
extremely fragrant.
 PLATE CCCXVI.

O L E A A P E TA L A .
Petal-less Olive.
CLASS II. ORDER I.
DIANDRIA MONOGYNIA. Two Chives. One Pointal.
GENERIC CHARACTER.
Calyx. Perianthium monophyllum, tubulatum, parvum; ore
quadridentato, erecto, deciduum.
Corolla monopetala, infundibuliformis; tubus cylindraceus, longitudine
calycis; limbus quadripartitus, planus; laciniis subovatis.
Stamina. Filamenta duo, opposita, subulata, brevia. Antheræ erectæ.
Pistillum. Germen subrotundum. Stylus simplex, brevissimus. Stigma
bifidum, crassiusculum; laciniis emarginatis.
Pericarpium. Drupa subovata, glabra, unilocularis.
Semen. Nux ovato-oblonga, rugosa.
Empalement. Cup one-leafed, tabular, small; mouth four-toothed, erect,
deciduous.
Blossom one petal, funnel-shaped; tube cylindrical, the length of the cup;
border four-divided, flat; segments nearly egg-shaped.
Chives. Two threads, opposite, awl shaped, short. Tips upright.
Pointal. Seed-bud roundish. Shaft simple, very short. Summit two-cleft,
thickish; clefts notched at the ends.
Seed-vessel. A pulpy berry, rather egg-shaped, smooth, one-celled.
Seed. A nut oblong-egg-shaped, rough.
SPECIFIC CHARACTER.
Olea foliis elipticis, floribus racemosis, apetalis.
Olive, with eliptically-shaped leaves, flowers in long bunches without
petals.
REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.
 1. A. Flower expanded, magnified.
2. The same with the Chives exposed, magnified.
3. The Seed-bud, Shaft, and Summit, magnified.
4. A half ripe Berry.
5. The same cut transversely.
Our present figure represents a plant a native of New Holland and New
Zealand, in the Pacific Ocean; but, we have great reason to think, it has been
referred, rather rashly, to the genus under which it is here named; and that it
possesses a distinctive character sufficient on which to have formed a new
one. We have, nevertheless, as usual, taken it up under the title it is in
general known by, as published by Vahl, in his Symbolæ Botanicæ, Part III.
p. 3, and quoted from him into Willdenow’s Sp. Plant. p. 46, and thence into
Professor Martyn’s ed. of Miller’s Dict. article Olea, 5. Whether the fruit of
this plant will ever turn to account, when cultivated, as an article of food,
time must evince; but, certainly, it bears an appearance of much hope. It is a
strong woody growing shrub, forming itself into a handsome round-headed
plant; and, when in full flower, has a very pretty appearance, having all the
necessary qualities of such plants as are fit for planting out in a conservatory.
It is propagated by cuttings; should be planted in sandy peat earth, mixed
with a small portion of loam; producing its flowers about February or
March. Our drawing was made from a plant in the Hammersmith Collection,
to which it was first added in the year 1791; having been raised from seeds
communicated to Messrs. Lee and Kennedy by Colonel Paterson.
 PLATE CCCXVII.

G E R A N I U M U N D U L AT U M . Va r. M i n o r.
Waved-flowered Geranium. Lesser Var.
CLASS XVI. ORDER IV.
MONADELPHIA DECANDRIA. Threads united. Ten Chives.
ESSENTIAL GENERIC CHARACTER.
Monogyna. Stigmata quinque. Fructus rostratus, penta-coccus.
One Pointal. Five Summits. Fruit furnished with long awns, five dry
berries.
See Geranium grandiflorum, Pl. XII. Vol. I.
SPECIFIC CHARACTER.
Geranium foliis radicalibus lanceolatis, integerrimis, petiolis longitudine
foliorum; petalis cuneiformibus, equalibus, undulatis; floribus pentandris;
radice tuberosa.
Geranium with the root leaves lance-shaped, quite entire; foot-stalks the
length of the leaves; petals wedge-shaped, equal, waved; flowers with five
fertile chives; root tuberous.
REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.
1. The Empalement cut open, natural size.
2. The Chives cut and spread open, magnified.
3. The Seed-bud, Shaft, and Summits.
This very handsome tuberous Geranium, and which we have rather placed as
a variety than a species, might perhaps by some have been considered as
sufficiently distinct to have formed a species; but, indeed, much difficulty
arises in the determining, amongst this variable tribe, where to fix
determinate specific character. Our present figure was taken from the
Hibbertian Collection, where as yet the plant is only to be seen in Britain. It
flowers in June or July; does not perfect its seeds, nor has the appearance of
easily propagating from the root; the usual method with this link of the
Geranium family. It thrives in sandy peat and leaf mould.