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Springer Series on Atomic, Optical, and Plasma Physics 119

John Rice

Driven Rotation,
Self-Generated
Flow, and
Momentum
Transport in
Tokamak Plasmas
Springer Series on Atomic, Optical,
and Plasma Physics

Volume 119

Editor-in-Chief
Gordon W. F. Drake, Department of Physics, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON,
Canada

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Charles J. Joachain, Faculty of Science, Université Libre Bruxelles, Bruxelles,
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University, Washington, DC, USA
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Erlangen, Germany
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Laboratory, Washington, DC, USA
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John Rice

Driven Rotation,
Self-Generated Flow, and
Momentum Transport in
Tokamak Plasmas
John Rice
Plasma Science and Fusion Center
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Cambridge, MA, USA

ISSN 1615-5653 ISSN 2197-6791 (electronic)

Springer Series on Atomic, Optical, and Plasma Physics
ISBN 978-3-030-92265-8 ISBN 978-3-030-92266-5 (eBook)
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Preface

Examples of rotation can be found everywhere in nature, from water circling the
drain to hurricanes to spots on Jupiter to entire galaxies. Rotation is also seen in
high temperature plasma experiments, often with no obvious cause. The purpose
of the present study is to document and attempt to understand the experimentally
observed rotation in tokamaks, toroidal (donut shaped) devices used to contain high
temperature (a few keV ≈ 10 s of millions of degrees) plasmas. While there are
several external momentum sources which can be used to drive rotation in tokamaks,
spontaneous, self-generated flow, up to ∼100 km/s, is routinely observed in plasmas
without external momentum input. Furthermore, this intrinsic rotation can reverse
direction in a fraction of a second without any obvious reason. The purpose of
tokamak research is to provide an energy source via controlled thermonuclear
fusion, and in order to achieve this in a cost effective manner, it is important
to understand the rich variety of phenomena in tokamak plasmas. What better
opportunity is there than explaining self-generated flow?
The influence of rotation on tokamak performance has been widely demon-
strated. For instance rotation can stabilize certain deleterious magnetohydrodynamic
(MHD) instabilities, and the rotation gradient has been shown to suppress turbu-
lence, leading to transport barriers and an enhancement in energy confinement. In
this regard it is important to understand the rotation in tokamak plasmas, and to use
this understanding to control the rotation spatial profile. There are several recent
experimental [1–5] and theoretical [6–10] surveys on this subject, and the present
goal is to update and expand upon the observational reviews.
Toroidal velocity profile evolution is governed by a balance between external
torques (momentum sources and sinks) and the momentum flux gradient [4] as

m · ∂(nvφ )/∂t = −∇ · φ + Sext (1)

where vφ is the toroidal velocity, n is the density, m is the particle mass, φ is

the momentum flux and Sext includes external momentum sources and sinks. There
are several momentum sources, e.g. direct drive from neutral beam injection or radio
frequency waves, and indirect drive from the electric field created by orbit shifts and

v
vi Preface

losses. Sinks include neutral damping and magnetic braking (neo-classical toroidal
viscosity). Sinks and indirect sources depend upon the ambient plasma parameters.
The magnetic geometry and subsequent particle orbits must be considered since
non-ambipolarity will give rise to an electric field which enters into the force balance
and collisions must also be taken into account; these are the ingredients for neo-
classical theory.
The momentum flux is dominated by the toroidal Reynolds stress [11] which
consists of three parts:

φ /m = −χφ ∂vφ /∂r + Vp vφ + res (2)

where χφ is the momentum diffusivity (or viscosity), Vp is the momentum pinch (or
convection) and res is the residual stress. All three of these transport coefficients
can be dominated by different competing effects which also depend upon ambient
plasma parameters. The latter component, which is independent of both the toroidal
velocity vφ and its spatial gradient ∂vφ /∂r, has the unique characteristic that it
can function as a momentum source (and so appears on both sides of the force
balance), with the intrinsic torque density given by ∇ · res [11]. res is governed
by turbulence which is often driven by spatial gradients of plasma parameters.
Following a summary of rotation velocity measurement techniques (Chap. 1) will be
an examination of momentum sources (Chap. 2) and sinks (Chap. 3), comparisons
with the predictions of neo-classical theory (Chap. 4), a detailed discussion of the
residual stress as a momentum source (Chap. 5) and a review of the momentum
transport coefficients χφ , Vp and res (Chap. 6).
It is important to understand all aspects of this problem, covered in Chaps. 2–6.
Each of these effects has a different plasma parameter dependence (such as density,
temperature, neutral density, collisionality) and each can dominate in different
regions of operational space. It is necessary to consider magnetic geometry, particle
orbits, collisions, electric fields, MHD constraints through current and pressure
gradients and the influence of turbulence through density, temperature, pressure and
current density gradients. Further complicating this problem is that the velocity is a
vector, with direction and magnitude. The challenge is to account for this myriad of
effects in a comprehensive manner. This process will be systematically addressed as
follows, after a discussion of velocity measurement techniques.
The most common method of velocity determination, from Doppler shifts of
atomic transitions, will be covered in Sect. 1.1, with a review of passive (Sect. 1.1.1)
and active (Sect. 1.1.2) techniques. Direct external momentum sources will be
considered in Sect. 2.1, including neutral beam injection (NBI) and various radio
frequency schemes (ICRF, LH and ECH). In Sect. 2.2, indirect rotation drive
due to j×B forces arising from radial orbit shifts and non-ambipolar effects,
such as toroidal magnetic field ripple loss, will be reviewed. A summary of
momentum sinks will be presented in Chap. 3, including neutral damping, magnetic
field perturbations and neo-classical toroidal viscosity. In Chap. 4 comparisons of
observations with neo-classical calculations will be shown, including both poloidal
and toroidal rotation. Self-generated flow arising from the residual stress will be
Preface vii

discussed in great detail in Chap. 5. Two general categories of intrinsic rotation will
be examined, that occuring in the enhanced confinement regimes (H- and I-mode)
and that in L-mode plasmas, including the curious rotation reversal phenomenon
(and its connexion with confinement saturation and “non-local” heat transport
cut-off). Chapter 6 will be concerned with determination of momentum transport
coefficients: the momentum diffusivity, the momentum pinch and the residual stress.
A discussion of open questions will be the subject of Chap. 7. In the following, the
toroidal rotation will be written as vφ or VTor while the poloidal rotation will be
denoted as vθ or VPol . A majority of velocity measurements is of impurity rotation,
which is often used as a proxy for main ion rotation.

Cambridge, MA, USA John Rice

Acknowledgments

Enlightening interactions with Clemente Angioni, Manfred Bitter, Yann Camenen,

Norman Cao, Jonathan Citrin, John deGrassie, Peter deVries, Patrick Diamond,
Basil Duval, Lars-Goran Eriksson, Chi Gao, Martin Greenwald, Brian Grierson,
Jerry Hughes, Katsumi Ida, Alex Ince-Cushman, Davis Lee, Earl Marmar, Rachael
McDermott, Yong-Su Na, Arthur Peeters, Yuri Podpaly, Thomas Pütterich, Matt
Reinke, Timothy Stoltzfus-Dueck, Tuomas Tala, Steve Wolfe, and Maiko Yoshida
are gratefully acknowledged. Work supported at MIT by DoE Contract No. DE-
FC02-99ER54512.

ix
Contents

1 Velocity Measurements in Tokamaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Doppler Shifts of Atomic Transitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Passive Spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Active Spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2 MHD Mode Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3 Probe Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4 Microwave Doppler Reflectometry and Scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.5 Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2 Momentum Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.1 Direct Rotation Drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.1.1 Neutral Beam Injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.1.2 Ion Cyclotron Range of Frequencies Waves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.1.2.1 Ion Bernstein Waves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.1.2.2 Mode Conversion Flow Drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.1.2.3 Fast Magnetosonic Waves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.1.3 Lower Hybrid Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.1.4 Electron Cyclotron Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.1.5 Compact Torus Injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.2 Indirect Rotation Drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.2.1 Orbit Shift j×B Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.2.2 Ion and Electron Loss Due to Toroidal Magnetic
Field Ripple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.2.3 Edge Thermal Ion Orbit Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.3 Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3 Momentum Sinks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.1 Neutral Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.2 Mode Locking, Magnetic Braking and Neo-Classical
Toroidal Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.3 Edge Localized Modes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.4 Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

xi
xii Contents

4 Comparison with Neo-Classical Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

4.1 Poloidal Rotation vθ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.2 Toroidal Rotation vφ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.3 Poloidal Asymmetries in Edge Toroidal Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.4 Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5 Intrinsic Rotation and the Residual Stress res . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.1 Enhanced Confinement Regimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5.1.1 Ohmic H-Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.1.2 ICRF H- and I-Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.1.3 ECH H-Modes and Adding ECH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5.1.4 H-Modes with LH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.1.5 NBI H-Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.1.6 Plasmas with ITBs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.1.7 Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.2 Low Confinement Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.2.1 Magnetic Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.2.2 Current Driven Reversals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.2.3 Ohmic Rotation Reversals and LOC/SOC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.2.4 Auxiliary Heated L-Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
5.2.5 Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
6 Momentum Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
6.1 Momentum Diffusivity χφ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
6.2 Momentum Pinch Vp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
6.3 Residual Stress res . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
6.4 Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
7 Discussion and Future Outlook. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Chapter 1
Velocity Measurements in Tokamaks

In order to study rotation it is necessary first to measure it reliably. There are

several techniques in use on tokamaks which will be summarized anon: Doppler
shifts of atomic transitions, MHD mode rotation from frequency analysis, probe
measurements and from microwave scattering. For the atomic transitions, the
population of the upper levels can either be passive (via collisional excitation or
radiative recombination from plasma electrons) or active (from charge exchange
recombination with injected neutrals).

1.1 Doppler Shifts of Atomic Transitions

The most common method of measuring the rotation is from observation of the
Doppler shifts of atomic transitions, either in impurities (intrinsic or extrinsic)
or background ions (hydrogen, deuterium and/or helium). Depending upon the
appropriate plasma conditions, these measurements can be made in the visible, ultra-
violet (UV) or x-ray wavelength ranges.

1.1.1 Passive Spectroscopy

Early velocity determination in tokamaks was from passive measurements of

intrinsic impurity ions whose upper levels were populated by collisional excitation.
The first velocity measurement, in the VUV wavelength range, was from O V
(O5+ ) emission in the LT-3 device [12]. Similar observations were subsequently
made on PLT [13, 14], Torus II [15], PDX [16], TM-4 [17], JET [18], TCA [19],
COMPASS-D, TEXT [20] and TCABR [21, 22]. Main ion velocities have also
been inferred from observations of Dα light in AUG [23]. The PLT measurements

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 1

J. Rice, Driven Rotation, Self-Generated Flow, and Momentum Transport in
Tokamak Plasmas, Springer Series on Atomic, Optical, and Plasma Physics 119,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-92266-5_1
2 1 Velocity Measurements in Tokamaks

Fig. 1.1 Schematic of instrumentation for measurement of poloidal or toroidal intensity distribu-
tions with simultaneous spectral scan of an emitted line. Reprinted with permission from Fig. 1 of
[13] S. Suckewer et al. ‘Toroidal Plasma Rotation in the Princeton Large Torus Induced by Neutral-
Beam Injection’, Phys. Rev. Lett. 43, 207 (1979). Copyright (1979) by the American Physical
Society

[13] were from a clever spectrometer system, with a rotating mirror to sample the
plasma cross section and a fast vibrating mirror to scan the individual line shapes,
a layout overview of which is shown in Fig. 1.1. To demonstrate the capabilities
of this spectrometer, time histories of the rotation velocity during an NBI heated
PLT plasma from this system are shown in Fig. 1.2. In the core of this Te ∼ 2 keV
discharge, the toroidal rotation reached a level in excess of 100 km/s, as determined
from the Doppler shift of a forbidden Fe XX (Fe19+ ) transition at 2665 Å. Neutral
beam power was applied between 350 and 500 ms. Emission lines from other ions (C
V and H I), which fell in the spectral range of the spectrometer show lower velocity
from the peripheral regions of the plasma. A radial velocity profile concocted from
these three separate emission lines during the NBI phase for this plasma is shown
in Fig. 1.3. In this case the toroidal rotation profile was strongly peaked near the
plasma center.
One drawback of using VUV and visible emission lines (whose upper levels are
populated by collisional excitation) is that they are typically from impurity charge
states that exist in narrow spatial shells, thereby only allowing access to one location
in the plasma. While it is possible to cobble together a complete radial profile using
a variety of different impurities and charge states [13, 18] (as in Fig. 1.3), it would
be desirable to utilize closed shell ionization states (He-like or Ne-like) which exist
over a larger spatial region. Another limitation of VUV and visible transitions is
1.1 Doppler Shifts of Atomic Transitions 3

Fig. 1.2 Time evolution of the toroidal plasma velocity induced by two co-injected neutral beams,
with total power 1.5 MW, in plasma with central electron temperature Te (0) ≈ 2 keV and density
ne (0) ≈ 3–5 × 1019 /m3 . The different atoms refer to different radial locations in the plasma.
Reprinted with permission from Fig. 3 of [13] S. Suckewer et al. ‘Toroidal Plasma Rotation in
the Princeton Large Torus Induced by Neutral-Beam Injection’, Phys. Rev. Lett. 43, 207 (1979).
Copyright (1979) by the American Physical Society

that they usually sample regions of the plasma with lower electron temperature
(a notable exception is the forbidden Fe XX transition). These two shortcomings
can be ameliorated by using x-ray transitions from He-like ions. The first x-ray
spectrometer in the Johann configuration [24] was installed on PLT for viewing He-
like iron [25]. A schematic of this system is shown in Fig. 1.4. Such a spectrometer
requires a large area beryllium window, a carefully bent crystal and a linear position
sensitive detector. In the early manifestations of these spectrometers, various types
of proportional counters were employed. Johann x-ray spectrometers have been
used on PDX [16], TFTR [26, 27], DIII-D [28], JET [18, 29], Tore Supra [30],
FT and JIPP-TII. An example of a velocity measurement using the He-like titanium
(Ti XXI or Ti20+ ) resonance line at 2.6097 Å from a neutral beam heated TFTR
plasma [26] is shown in Fig. 1.5. During the NBI pulse from 2.3 to 2.8 s, the core
toroidal velocity reached 150 km/s. One drawback of Johann spectrometers is that
in order to achieve high wavelength resolving power, the radius of the Rowland
circle, and hence the system size, becomes large. An alternative is to use the von
Hamos configuration [31], which allows for a compact spectrometer. The layout for
4 1 Velocity Measurements in Tokamaks

Fig. 1.3 Radial distribution of toroidal plasma velocity at 100–140 ms after beginning of neutral
beam injection. Reprinted with permission from Fig. 4 of [13] S. Suckewer et al. ‘Toroidal Plasma
Rotation in the Princeton Large Torus Induced by Neutral-Beam Injection’, Phys. Rev. Lett. 43,
207 (1979). Copyright (1979) by the American Physical Society

the von Hamos system of Alcator C [32] is shown in Fig. 1.6. The cylindrically bent
crystal is flat in the dispersive plane and unlike the Johann system, an entrance slit
is required for spatially extended sources. This allows for a small area Be window.
Von Hamos type spectrometers have also been implemented on Alcator C-Mod [33]
and an example of Doppler shifted spectra [34] from H-like Ar17+ (extrinsically
introduced) and Ne-like Mo32+ (intrinsic) is shown in Fig. 1.7. These spectra were
1.1 Doppler Shifts of Atomic Transitions 5

Fig. 1.4 Quartz crystal spectrometer in the Johann configuration. X-rays emitted from the shaded
area of the plasma pass through a beryllium window into a helium filled tube and are Bragg
reflected by the crystal onto the position sensitive detector. Photons of different energies are
focussed to different detector points. Reprinted with permission from Fig. 1 of [25] M. Bitter et al.
‘Doppler-Broadening Measurements of X-Ray Lines for Determination of the Ion Temperature in
Tokamak Plasmas’, Phys. Rev. Lett. 42, 304 (1979). Copyright (1979) by the American Physical
Society

from two Ohmic L-mode discharges with the plasma current in opposite directions
and exhibit counter-current rotation with magnitudes of ∼40 km/s.
While it is possible to obtain spatial velocity profiles by utilizing an array of
the individual spectrometers just described [33, 35, 36], a more elegant approach
is to use a spatially imaging system. This can be achieved with a spherically bent
crystal in the Johann configuration [37, 38] and a schematic of a spectrometer system
is shown in Fig. 1.8. This arrangement requires a 2D x-ray detector: one direction
for dispersion (meridional plane) and the other for spatial imaging (sagittal plane).
Such a system has been implemented on Alcator C-Mod [39] and the layout is
shown in Fig. 1.9. There are actually two spectrometers in the same housing, one
for viewing He-like argon and the other for H-like. The He-like argon system has
complete up/down coverage of the plasma cross section, as seen in the bottom frame.
Measurements with this system are chord averaged, so a tomographic inversion
6 1 Velocity Measurements in Tokamaks

Fig. 1.5 Toroidal plasma rotation velocities from measurements of the Doppler shift of the Ti XXI
Kα line. Left and right scales on the ordinate give the center position of the Ti XXI Kα line and the
wavelength shift and toroidal plasma rotation velocity, respectively, relative to the center position
in the Ohmic heating phase. Reprinted from Fig. 13 of [26] M. Bitter et al. ‘Satellite spectra for
heliumlike titanium. II’, Phys. Rev. A 32, 3011 (1985). Copyright (1985) by the American Physical
Society

process must be used to determine the true velocity profile [39, 40]. The velocity
profile evolution [39] of an ICRF heated H-mode plasma from C-Mod obtained
with this spectrometer is shown in Fig. 1.10. As can be seen, during the Ohmic
phase before 0.7 s, the core rotation is directed counter-current, becomes weakly co-
current following application of ICRF heating after 0.7 s, and is strongly co-current
during the H-mode phase from 1.32 to 1.52 s. Similar imaging Johann spectrometers
have been installed on KSTAR [41], LHD [42], EAST [43] and W7-X [44], and are
being considered for ITER and SPARC.

1.1.2 Active Spectroscopy

The previous section reviewed velocity measurements from Doppler shifts of emis-
sion lines populated passively by collisional excitation or radiative recombination
from plasma electrons. Another technique is to utilize transitions populated by
charge exchange recombination (CXR) with neutral hydrogen isotopes provided
by active neutral beam injection (NBI). Advantages of this method are that this
can provide a spatially localized measurement (where the neutral beam intersects
1.1 Doppler Shifts of Atomic Transitions 7

Fig. 1.6 Schematic of the dispersive characteristics of the von Hamos crystal spectrometer used.
From Fig. 2 of [32] E. Källne et al. ‘High Resolution X-Ray Spectroscopy Diagnostics of High
Temperature Plasmas’, Phys. Scr. 31, 551 (1985). ©IOP Publishing. Reproduced with permission.
All rights reserved

the spectrometer sightline) and that many transitions populated this way are in the
visible wavelength region, which allows the use of visible spectrometers (no vacuum
required) and fiber optics. Disadvantages of this technique are that neutral beams
constitute a strong momentum source (and perturb the velocity being measured) and
that unfolding the line shape to determine the Doppler shift due to the desired plasma
rotation can be complicated (for example due to energy dependent atomic cross
section distortions [45, 46], see Fig. 1.13). A good review of CXR spectroscopy
may be found in [47].
Early observations of CXR population via NBI were from H-like oxygen in T-10
[48] and ORMAK [49], and H-like helium in PDX [50]. The first velocity mea-
surements using this technique [51] in the UV spectral range were from ORMAK
using the experimental layout shown in Fig. 1.11. The spectrometer system is very
similar to that shown in Fig. 1.1; however, there is some spatial localization since
CX emission can only occur where the beam crosses the spectrometer line of sight.
The observed velocity determined from this instrument for H-like O VIII (O7+ ) in
the UV spectral range due to CXR population from neutral H/D in the n = 1 level
agrees very well with the passively measured He-like Ne IX (Ne8+ ), as can be seen
in Fig. 1.12. CXR spectroscopy (CXRS) with NBI (either from heating or diagnostic
beams) was soon adapted on tokamaks around the world including Doublet III [52–
54], PDX [55], DITE [56], ISX-B [57, 58], ASDEX [59], JET [60] and JIPP TII
[61], and is now the standard velocity profile measurement technique. One drawback
with this method is that it requires NBI, so the study of intrinsic rotation is tricky.
8 1 Velocity Measurements in Tokamaks

120
Ar17+ sightline CCW
100
IP CW
Brightness (arb scale)
IP CCW
80
Ar17+
60

40 Mo32+

20

0
3725 3730 3735 3740 3745
wavelength (mA)
Fig. 1.7 The x-ray spectra of the Ar17+ Lyα doublet and of the 2p6 -(2p5 )3/2 4d5/2 transition in
Mo32+ for counter-clockwise (CCW) Ip (blue dashed curve) and clockwise (CW) Ip (solid red
curve) discharges. The Lyα 1 wavelength at rest of 3731.1 mÅ is shown by the thin vertical line.
Reproduced from Fig. 2 of [34] J.E. Rice et al. ‘X-ray observations of central toroidal rotation in
ohmic Alcator C-Mod plasmas’, Nucl. Fusion 37, 421 (1997), with the permission of the IAEA

A widely used technique is to utilize beam blips, short duration pulses, to minimize
the input torque.
Most applications of CXRS use intrinsic (carbon from walls or boron from
wall coating) or injected (e.g. neon) impurities which yields the impurity rotation
(and temperature). Modern systems utilize CXR from excited neutral hydro-
gen/deuterium in the n = 2 level, which populate high n (and l) levels (for example
n = 8 in C5+ ) which cascade down in the visible spectral region. The impurity
rotation can be different from that of background ions, and it is of interest to measure
the main ion velocity directly. The first measurements of background ion rotation
were obtained in DIII-D helium plasmas [62]. Observations of main ion rotation
in D2 plasmas have also been realized in ASDEX Upgrade [63]. A good review of
important issues and complications of CXRS in hydrogen isotopes may be found in
[64]. An example of a state of the art CXRS spectrum of Dα is shown in Fig. 1.13
which demonstrates contributions from various effects with and without NBI in a
DIII-D H-mode plasma [65]. A comparison of edge rotation profiles determined
from carbon and deuterium CXRS using this same system is shown in Fig. 1.14
for a DIII-D H-mode plasma [66]. Clearly there is a substantial difference between
1.2 MHD Mode Rotation 9

Fig. 1.8 Illustration of the focussing properties of spherically bent crystals. Reproduced from
Fig. 1 of [37] M. Bitter et al. ‘Numerical studies of the imaging properties of doubly focussing
crystals and their application to ITER’, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 66, 530 (1995), with the permission of
AIP Publishing

impurity and background ion rotation near the last closed flux surface (LCFS), as
can be seen in panel (d). There is an increase in the impurity rotation in the co-
current direction outside of the LCFS; this topic will be explored in Chap. 4 on
neo-classical effects.

1.2 MHD Mode Rotation

Another method of measuring the velocity is to examine the rotation frequency of

n = 1 pre- and post-cursors to sawtooth oscillations using magnetic pickup coils or
soft x-ray arrays. This technique was first employed on PLT [16, 67] and has been
used subsequently on ISX-B [58], JET [68] and Alcator C-Mod [35, 36, 69–71]. An
example of the velocity at the q = 1 surface from sawtooth post-cursors compared to
neighboring x-ray Doppler measurements for a C-Mod H-mode discharge is shown
in Fig. 1.15 [35, 36]. While the rotation of n = 1 MHD modes relative to ion rotation
is subject to interpretation [72], the inferred velocity at the sawtooth inversion radius
(r/a ∼ 0.2) fits nicely between the impurity rotation at r/a = 0.0 and r/a = 0.3
measured by Doppler shifts of x-ray lines.
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 Ruth was getting herself together during these moments of
realization. She opened the bedroom door and called in Milicent.
Charles Gail had been gassed. Milicent had not seen him, but
Lieutenant Byrne had visited him and repeated to Milicent that he
was not sure whether Charles knew him. Ruth scarcely could bear
thought of visiting Charles Gail and pretending that she was Cynthia;
but it was evident that he was so weak that he would suspect
nothing.
The chance of George Byrne betraying her was greater. He had
been in Paris, Milicent said, upon some special duty of indefinite
duration. Every time he had called he had left messages with
Milicent and had assumed that he might not be able to return to the
Rue des Saints Pères.
“He was here the day we got the news that Mirevaux was taken,”
Milicent said. “We tried in every way to get word of you. He was
almost crazy, dear. He loves you; don’t you ever doubt that!”
Ruth made no reply, though Milicent waited, watching her.
“I didn’t say anything to him about Gerry Hull, dear.”
“I’ve written him about meeting Gerry,” Ruth said, simply. “I’ll start
for the hospital now, Mil.”
“You’ll let me go with you, Cynthia?”
“Thanks; but it’s not—I think I’d rather not.”
Milicent gazed at her, a little surprised and hurt, but she made no
further offer.
Ruth went out on the Rue des Saints Pères alone; a start of panic
seized her as she gazed up and down the little street—panic that
from a neighboring doorway, or about one of the corners, George
Byrne might suddenly appear and speak to her.
The late spring afternoon was clear and warm; and that part of
Paris was quiet, when from Ruth’s right and ahead of her came the
resound and the concussion of a heavy explosion. Ruth gazed up,
instinctively, to find the German airplane from which a torpedo might
have dropped; but she saw only the faint, dragon-fly forms of the
French sentinel machines which constantly stood guard over Paris.
They circled and spun in and out monotonously, as usual, and
undisturbed at their watch; and, with a start, Ruth suddenly
remembered. From beyond the German lines in the forest of Saint
Gobain, Paris was being bombarded by some new monster of
Krupp’s; the explosion where a haze of débris dust was hanging over
the roofs a half mile or more away had been the burst of a shell from
that gun. Since the start of the German assault the Germans had
been sending these random shells to strike and kill at every half hour
for several hours upon almost every day. So Paris had learned to
recognize them; Paris had become accustomed to them; Parisians
shrugged when they struck. But Ruth did not.
The studied brutality of that German gun, more than sixty miles
away, dispatching its unaimed shells to do methodical, indiscriminate
murder in the city, was the sort of thing Ruth needed at that moment
to steady her to what lay before her. She was setting herself to this,
as to the rest, to help stop forever deeds like the firing of that gun.
She hastened on more resolutely; the gun fired again, its monstrous,
random shell falling in quite another quarter. Presenting herself at
the doors of the hospital, she ascertained that Sergeant Charles
Gail, who had originally been enrolled in a Canadian battalion under
another name, was still living. Consultation with a nurse evoked the
further information that he was conscious at the present minute, but
desperately weak; he had been asking many times for his friends or
word of his people; it was therefore permissible—indeed, it was
desirable—that his sister see him.
Ruth followed the nurse between the long rows of beds where
boys and men lay until the nurse halted beside a boy whose wide-
open eyes gazed up, unmoving, at the ceiling; he was very thin and
yellow, but his brows yet held some of the boldness, in the set of his
chin was still some of the high spirit of defiance of the picture in the
portfolio—the boy who had quarreled with his father four years ago
and who had run away to the war.
“Here is your sister,” the nurse told him gently in French.
“My sister?” he repeated the French words while his eyes sought
and found Ruth. A tinge of color came to his cheek; with an effort a
hand lifted from the coverlet.
“Hello, Cynth,” he said. “They said—you were—here.”
Ruth bent and kissed his forehead. “All right, Cynth,” he
murmured when she withdrew a little. “You can do that again.”
 Ruth did it again and sat down beside him. His hand was in hers;
and whenever she relaxed her tight grasp of it he stirred impatiently.
He did not know she was not his sister. His eyes rested upon hers,
but vacantly; he was too exhausted to observe critically; his sister
had come, they said; and if she was not exactly as he remembered
her, why he had not seen her for four years; a great deal had
happened to her, and even more had happened to him. Her lips were
soft and warm as his sister’s always had been; her hands were very
gentle, and it was awfully good to have her there.
Ruth was full of joy that she had dared to come; for she was, to
this boy, his sister.
“Tell me—about—home,” he begged her.
“I’ve brought all my letters,” she said; and opening them with one
hand—for he would not have her lose grasp of him—she read the
home news until the nurse returned and, nodding, let Ruth know she
must go.
He could not follow in his mind the simple events related in the
letters; but he liked to hear the sentences about home objects, and
the names of the people he had loved, and who loved him.
“You’ll—come back—tomorrow, Cynth?” he pleaded.
Ruth promised and kissed him again and departed.
It was quite dark now on the streets with only the sound of the
evening bustle. The long-range German gun had ceased firing; but
the dim lights beside doorways proved that on this clear, still night
the people of Paris realized the danger of air raids. Ruth was
hurrying along, thinking of the boy she had left and of his comrades
in the long rows of beds; from them her thoughts flew back to the
battle, to “1583” and his English on the hill, to Grand’mère Bergues’
farm, and to Gerry Hull; she thought of the German soldiers she had
seen with him and of her errand to their land. Almost before she
realized it, she was turning into the little street of the Holy Fathers
when a man, approaching out of the shadows, suddenly halted
before her and cried out:
“Cynthia!”
The glow of light was behind him, so she could not make out his
face; but she knew that only one stranger, recognizing her as
Cynthia, could have cried out to her like that; so she spoke his name
instantly, instinctively, before she thought.
Her voice either was like Cynthia’s or, in his rush of feeling,
George Byrne did not notice a difference. He had come before her
and was seizing her hands; his fingers, after their first grasp, moved
up her arms. “Cynthia; my own Cynthia,” he murmured her name. At
first he had held her in the glow of the light the better to see her; but
now he carried her back with him into the shadow; and his arms
were around her; he was crushing her against him, kissing her lips,
her cheeks, her lips again, her hands from which he stripped the
gloves.
She strained to compress her repulse of him. He was not rough
nor sensuous; he simply was possessing himself of her in full
passion of love. If she were Cynthia, who loved this man, she would
have clung in his embrace in the abandonment of joy. Ruth tried to
think of that and control herself not to repel him; but she could not.
Reflexes, beyond her obedience, opposed him.
Ever since Milicent had informed her that he was in Paris, Ruth
had been forming plans for every contingency of their meeting; but
this encounter had introduced elements different from any
expectations. If this visit to the street of the Holy Fathers was to be
his last one before leaving Paris, then perhaps she had better keep
him out upon the street in the dark and play at being Cynthia until
she could dismiss him. She must feel—or at least she must betray—
no recoil of outrage at his taking her into his arms. He had had that
right with Cynthia Gail. Though he and Cynthia had quarreled—and
Ruth had never mended that quarrel—yet Cynthia and he had loved.
Too much had passed between them to put them finally apart. And
now, as Ruth felt his arms enfolding her, his lips on hers, and his
breath whispering to her his passionate love, she knew that Cynthia
could not have forbidden this.
He took Ruth’s struggle as meant to tempt his strength and he
laughed joyously as, very gently, he overpowered her. She tried to
cease to struggle; she tried to laugh as Cynthia would have laughed;
but she could not. “Don’t!” she found herself resisting. “Don’t!”
“Oh! I hurt you, dearest?”
 “Yes,” she said; though he had not. And remorsefully and with
anxious endearments, he let her go.
“You’ve heard about Charles?” he asked.
“I’ve just come from him.”
“He’s—the same?”
“Yes.”
She stood gasping against the wall of a building, entirely in the
shadow herself, with the little light which reached them showing her
his face. Ruth liked that face; and she liked the girl whom she played
at being—that Cynthia whose identity she was carrying on, but about
whom she yet knew so little—for having loved this man. George
Byrne had been clean-living; he was strong and eager, but gentle,
too. He had high thoughts and resolute ideals. These he had told her
in those letters which had come; but Ruth had not embodied them in
him till now. She was recovering from the offense of having anyone’s
arms but Gerry’s about her. She was not conscious of thinking of
Gerry that way; only, his arms had been about her, he had held her;
and, because of that, what she had just undergone had been more
difficult to bear.
“I love you; you love me, Cynthia?” Byrne was begging of her now.
“Of course I do,” she said.
“There’s not someone else, then? Tell me, Cynthia!”
“No—no one else,” she breathed. What could she say? She was
not speaking for herself; but for Cynthia; and now she was absolutely
sure that, for Cynthia, there could have been no one else. But she
could not deceive him.
“My God!” he gasped the realization to himself, drawing back a
little farther from her. “Then that’s—that’s been the matter all the
time.”
“All what time?” she asked.
“Since you met Gerry Hull in Chicago.”
He meant, of course, since the girl who had loved him had died;
but he did not know that. He had felt a change in the letters which
had come to him which he could not explain as merely the result of
their quarrel. Another man seemed to him the only possible
explanation.
 Someone opened a door behind them; and Ruth withdrew from
the shaft of light. “We can’t stay here, George,” she said.
She thought that now he was noticing a difference in her voice;
but if he did, evidently he put it down as only part of her alteration
toward him.
“Where can we go?” he asked her.
“Not back to the pension,” Ruth said.
“No; no! Can’t you stay out with me here? We can walk.”
“Yes.”
He faced down the street of the Holy Fathers away from the
pension; she came beside him. He took her hand and for a moment
held it as, undoubtedly, he and Cynthia had done when walking in
darkened streets together; but after a few steps he released her.
“Your hand’s thinner, Cynthia.”
“I suppose so.”
“You’re a little thinner all over. I can’t see you well; but you felt that
way,” he said a little sadly, referring to his embrace which she had
broken. “You’ve been overdoing, of course.”
She made no reply; and for several seconds he offered nothing
more but went on, gazing down at her. “You’ve been fine, Cynthia, in
getting those people out.” He spoke of what he had heard of her
work in the retreat. “I knew ten days ago you were in it; but I couldn’t
go to you! I tried to; I tried to get into the fight. We all tried—our men;
but they didn’t want us. Except Gerry Hull, of course, and a few like
him.”
He said this so completely without bitterness—with envy, only—
that Ruth felt more warmly for him. “It’s Gerry Hull, isn’t it, Cynthia?”
he demanded directly.
“Yes,” she admitted now. Denial had become wholly impossible;
moreover, by telling the truth—or that much of the truth which had to
do with Gerry Hull—she might send George Byrne away. It was a
cruel wrong to him, and to the girl who was dead; but the wrong
already was done. Ruth merely was beginning herself to reap some
of the fruits of her deception.
“You love him?” Byrne inquired of her inevasively.
“Yes.”
 “He loves you?”
“I don’t know.”
“What’s he said to you?”
“Nothing—about loving me.”
“But he loves you, all right; he must, if he knows you!” Byrne
returned in pitiful loyalty to his Cynthia. “How much has gone on
between you?” he demanded.
Ruth related to him much about her meetings with Gerry, while
they walked side by side about the Paris streets. A dozen times she
was on the point of breaking down and telling him all the truth; when
his hand reached toward hers, instinctively, and suddenly pulled
away; when they passed a light and, venturing to gaze up, she saw
his face as he looked down at her; when he asked her questions or
offered short, hoarse interjections, she almost cried out to him that
she was a fraud; the girl he had loved, and who she was saying had
turned from him, was dead and had been dead all that time during
which he had felt the difference; she had never met Gerry Hull at all.
“What are you stopping for?” he asked her at one of these times.
“Thinking about the Sangamon River?”
That was the Illinois river which flowed close by Cynthia Gail’s
home. And Ruth knew from his voice that by the river Cynthia and he
first had known love.
“Yes,” Ruth said; but now her courage completely failed her.
“What did you say to me, then; oh, what did we both say,
Cynthia?”
This was no test or challenge of Ruth; it was simply a cry from his
heart.
How do I love thee? Let me count the ways,
I love thee to the depth and height....
He was starting to quote something which they used to repeat
together.
“Go on, Cynthia!” he charged.
“I can’t,” Ruth cried.
“You can’t—after you found it and taught it to me? ‘I love thee with
the breath, smiles, tears, of all my life,’” he quoted bitterly to her. “Let
me look at you better, Cynthia!”
They were passing a light and he drew her closer to it.
“What has happened to you?” he whispered to her aghast when
he had searched her through and through with his eyes. Then, “Who
are you?”
He had made, he realized, some frightful mistake; how he could
have come to make it, he did not know. “You’re not Cynthia Gail!” he
cried. For an instant, that discovery was enough for him. The agony
which he had been suffering this last half hour was not real; the girl
whom he had found on the street never had been his; they had both
been going about only in some grotesque error.
“No; I’m not Cynthia Gail,” Ruth told him.
“Then where is she?” he demanded. “Where is my Cynthia?” His
hands were upon Ruth and he shook her a little in the passion of his
demand. He could not even begin to suspect the truth; but—from
sight of her now—fear flicked him. If this girl was not Cynthia——
“How are you so like her?” he put his challenge aloud. “Why did
you pretend to be her? Why? You tell me why!”
“I’ll tell you,” Ruth said. “But not here.”
“Where?”
“We must find some place where we can talk undisturbed; where
we can have a long talk.”
“Take me to her, first. That’s all I care about. I don’t care about you
—or why you did that. I don’t care, I say. Take me to Cynthia; or I’ll
go there.”
He started away toward the Rue des Saints Pères and the
pension; so Ruth swiftly caught his sleeve.
“You can’t go to her!” Ruth gasped to him. “She’s not there.
Believe me, you can’t find her!”
“Why not?”
“She’s—we must find some place, Mr. Byrne!”
“She’s—what? Killed? Killed, you were going to say?”
“Yes; she’s been killed.”
“In Picardy, you mean? Where? How? Why, she was at her rooms
two hours ago. Miss Wetherell told me; or was she lying to me?”
 “I was at the rooms two hours ago,” Ruth said. “Miss Wetherell
knows me as Cynthia Gail. I’ve been Cynthia Gail since January.”
“What do you mean? How?”
“Cynthia Gail died in January, Mr. Byrne.”
“What? How? Where?”
“She was killed—in Chicago.”
“That’s a lie! Why, I’ve been hearing from her myself.”
“You’ve been hearing from me. I’m Cynthia Gail, I tell you. I’ve
been Cynthia Gail since January.”
He caught another glimpse of her face; and his impetuousness to
start to the Rue des Saints Pères collapsed, pitifully. “Where shall we
go?” he asked.
Ruth gazed about, uncertainly; she had not attended to their
direction; and now she found herself in a strange, narrow street of
tiny shops and apartments, interrupted a half square ahead by a
chasm of ruins and strewn débris, where one of those random shells
from the German long-range gun, or a bomb dropped from a night-
raiding Gotha recently had struck. The destruction had been done
sufficiently long ago, however, for the curiosity of the neighborhood
to have been already satisfied and for all treasures to have been
removed. The ruin was fenced off, therefore, and was unguarded.
Ruth gazed into the shell of the building and Byrne, glancing in also,
saw that in the rear were apartments half wrecked and deserted, but
which offered sanctuary from the street.
 CHAPTER XIV
FULL CONFESSION
“No one will be likely to come in here,” Ruth said, and stepped into
the house.
Byrne followed her without comment, quite indifferent to their
surroundings. When Ruth spoke to him again about the house, he
replied vacantly; his mind was not here, but with Cynthia Gail, where
he had last seen her in Chicago that Sunday night in January when
they had parted. What had thereafter happened to her was the first
matter to him.
Ruth, exploring the ruin, came upon a room which seemed to
have been put in some sort of order, so far as she could see from the
dim light which came through the doorway.
“Give me a match,” she asked Byrne; he took a matchbox from his
pocket and, striking a light, he held it while they peered about. There
was a fixture protruding from the wall, but no light resulted when
Ruth turned the switch. Byrne’s match went out; he struck several
others before their search discovered a bit of a candle in an old
sconce in a corner. Byrne lit it, and Ruth closed the door which led
into what had been a hallway. She returned to Byrne, who had
remained in the corner where the candle diffused its light. There was
a built-in bench there beside an old fireplace, a couple of old chairs
and a table.
“Let’s sit down,” Ruth said.
“You sit down,” Byrne bid. “I’ll—” he did not finish his sentence; but
he remained standing, hands behind him, staring down at her as she
seated herself upon the bench.
“Now,” he said to her.
His lips pressed tight and Ruth could see that he jerked with short
spasms of emotion which shuddered his shoulders suddenly
together and shook his whole body.
 Ruth had desired the light instinctively, with no conscious reason;
the same instinct which made her need to see him before she could
go on, probably affected him; but with him had been the idea that the
light would banish the illusion which overswept him again and again
that this girl still was his Cynthia. But the faint, flickering illumination
from the candle had failed to do that; it seemed, on the contrary, at
times to restore and strengthen the illusion. A better light might have
served him more faithfully; and if he brought her close to the candle
and scrutinized her again as he had under the light of the street, he
would see surely that she was someone else. But here, Ruth
realized, she was falling into the postures of the girl who was dead.
“Cynthia!” Byrne whispered again to her.
“What I know about Cynthia Gail,” Ruth said to him gently then, “is
this.” And she told, almost without interruption from him, how Cynthia
had met her death. Ruth did not explain how she had learned her
facts; for a while the facts themselves were overwhelming enough.
He made sure that he could learn nothing more from her before he
challenged her as to how she knew.
“You read this in a newspaper, you said?”
“Yes; in all the Chicago newspapers,” Ruth replied. “I read the
accounts in all to find out everything which was known about her.”
“Wait now! You said no one knew her; she was not identified.”
“No; she was not.”
“Then you saw her? You identified her?”
“No; I never saw her.”
“Then how do you know it was Cynthia? See here; what are you
holding from me? How do you know she’s dead at all?”
“The Germans told me. The Germans said that she was the girl
who was killed in that wreck.”
“The Germans? What Germans? What do you mean?”
“A German—I don’t know who—but some German identified her
from her passport and took the passport.”
“Why? How do you know that? How did you get into her affairs,
anyway?”
“Because I was like her,” Ruth said. “I happened to be so very like
her that——”
 “That what?” He was standing over her now, shaking, controlling
himself by intervals of effort; and Ruth faltered, huddling back a little
farther from him and gazing up at him aghast. She had determined,
a few minutes earlier, that there had become no alternative for her
but to confess to him the entire truth; but the truth which she had to
tell had become an incredible thing, as the truth—the exact truth of
the circumstances which fix fates—has a way of becoming.
Desperately her mind groped for a way to arrange the events of
that truth in a way to make him believe; but each moment of delay
only made her task more impossible. He had roused from the
suspicion, which had begun to inflame him when they were yet on
the street, to a certainty that the girl whom he loved had been foully
dealt by.
“That what?” he demanded again.
So Ruth told him about herself, and the first meeting with Gerry
Hull, and the pencil boxes, and the beggar on State Street. She did
not proceed without interruptions now; he challenged and catechized
her. If he had refused her whole story, it would not have been so
bad; but he was believing part of it—the part which fitted his
passions. He believed that the Germans had found the body of
Cynthia Gail, and he believed more than that. He believed that they
had killed her, and he cried out to Ruth to tell him when, and how. He
believed that the Germans, having killed Cynthia, had tried to make
use of her identity and her passport; and that they had succeeded!
His hands were upon Ruth once more, holding her sternly and firmly.
“I put you under arrest,” he said to her hoarsely, “as accessory in
the murder of Cynthia Gail and as a German spy.”
And yet, as he held her there before him in the dim light of the
tallow wick in the sconce upon the wall, she seemed to him, for
flashes of time, to be the girl he accused her of having killed.
“Cynthia; where are you?” he pleaded with her once as though,
within Ruth, was the soul of his love whom he could call to come out
and take possession of this living form.
Then he had her under arrest again. “Come with me!” he
commanded, and he thrust her toward the door. But now Ruth fought
against him.
 “No; we must stay here!”
“Why?”
“Till you will believe in me!”
“Then we’ll never leave here. Will you come, or must I take you?”
“Leave me alone just a minute.”
“So you can get away?”
“No; just you stay here. I’ll go back there,” Ruth tossed toward the
corner where she had sat. “There’s no way out. Only—let go of me!”
He did so, watching her suspiciously. She dropped into her seat in
the corner under the candle. “I’ve told you why I did this,” she said.
“And you didn’t fool me.”
“I’ve no proof of anything I’ve told you,” Ruth went on, “only
because, if you’ll think about it, you’ll see I couldn’t carry proof.”
“I should say not.”
“But I’ve done something since I’ve been here which proves what I
am.”
“What? Helping refugees out of Picardy? What does that prove—
except that you’ve nerve?”
“Nothing,” Ruth admitted. “If I was a German agent, I might have
done that. I wasn’t thinking of that.”
“What of, then?”
She was thinking about her exposure of De Trevenac; but, though
now it was known that Louis de Trevenac had been proved a spy,
had been tried and punished, no explanation had been given as to
how he had been caught. Those who tried him had not known,
perhaps; only Gerry knew.
“Gerry Hull will tell you,” Ruth replied. “I don’t ask you to take my
word about myself anymore; I ask you only, before you accuse me,
to send for him.”
“Gerry Hull!” Byrne iterated, approaching her closely again and
gazing down hostilely. For an instant he had not been able to
disassociate Gerry Hull from himself as a rival for Cynthia Gail. “So
he knows all about you, does he?”
“No; he thinks I am Cynthia Gail; but——”
“What?”
 “He knows—he must know that, whoever I am, I’m loyal! So send
for him, or go and speak to him before you do anything more; that’s
all I ask. Oh, I know this has been horrible for you, Mr. Byrne.” For
the first time Ruth was losing control of herself. “But do you suppose
it’s been easy for me? And do you suppose I’ve done it for myself or
for any adventure to see the war or just to come here? I’ve done it to
go into Germany! Oh, you won’t stop me now! For if you leave me
alone—don’t you see—I may get into Germany tomorrow or this
week or anyway before the next big attack can come! What do I
count, what do you count, what can the memory of Cynthia Gail
count in comparison with what I may do if I can go on into Germany?
What——”
“Don’t cry!” Byrne forbade her hoarsely, seizing her shoulder and
shaking her almost roughly. “My God, Cynthia,” he begged, “don’t
cry.”
He had called her by that name again; and Ruth knew that, not
her appeal, but her semblance in her emotion to Cynthia, had
overcome him for the moment.
“I’m not going to cry,” Ruth said. “But——”
He stopped her brusquely. He seemed afraid, indeed, to let her go
on. “Whether I’ve got to bring you to the army authorities and give
you over at once under arrest,” he said coldly, “is up to you. If you
agree to go with me quietly—and keep your agreement—I’ll take you
along myself.”
“Where?” Ruth asked.
“I know some people, whom I can trust and who can take you in
charge till I can talk to Hull. He’s the only reference you care to
give?”
“Yes,” she said.
“If he stands for you, that won’t mean anything to me, I might as
well tell you,” Byrne returned. “You’ve probably got him fooled; you
could do it, all right, I guess.”
“Then what’s the use in your sending for him?”
“Oh; you think now there’s none? It was your idea, not mine.”
“I’ll go with you quietly to your friends,” Ruth decided, ending this
argument. “I’ll understand that you’re going to communicate with
Gerry Hull about me.”
She arose and Byrne seized her arm firmly. He blew out the
candle and, still clasping her, he groped his way to the door. Some
one stepped in the rubbish on the other side. They had been
conscious, during their stay in the room, that many people had
passed outside; once or twice, perhaps, a passer-by might have
paused to gaze at the ruin; but Ruth had heard no one enter the
house. Byrne had heard no one; for his grasp on Ruth’s arm
tightened with a start of surprise as he realized that the someone
who now suddenly moved on the other side of the door must have
come there moments before.
Byrne stepped back, drawing Ruth with him, and thrusting her a
little behind him. The person on the other side of the door was a
watchman, perhaps, or the owner of this house or a neighbor
investigating to what use these ruined rooms were now being put.
Byrne, thinking thus, spoke loudly in labored French, “I am an
American officer, with a companion, who has looked in here.”
“Very well,” came in French and in a man’s voice from the other
side of the door. Byrne advanced to the door and opened it,
therefore, and was going through when a bludgeon beat down upon
him. Byrne reeled back, raising his left arm to shield off another
blow; he tried to strike back with his left arm and grapple his
assailant; but with his right, he still held to Ruth as though she would
seize this chance to escape; and yet, at the same time, Ruth felt that
he was protecting her with his body before hers.
“Let me go!” she jerked to be free. “I’ll—help you!”
He did not mean to let her go when she struggled free; he was still
trying to hold to her and also fight the man who was beating at him.
But her getting free, let him close with his assailant and grapple with
him. They spun about and went down, rolling over and over in the
débris. Ruth grabbed up a bit of iron pipe from among the wreckage
on the floor; and she bent over trying to strike at the man with the
bludgeon.
“Help!” she called out. “Secours!”
She knew now that the man who had waited outside was no mere
defender of the house; the treachery and the violence of his attack
could not be explained by concern for safety of that ruin. Ruth could
not think who the man might be or what was his object except that
he was fighting to kill, as he struck and fought with Byrne on the
floor. And Byrne, knowing it, was fighting to kill him, too.
“Secours!” Ruth screamed for help again and with her bit of iron,
she struck—whom, she did not know. But they rolled away and
pounded each other only a few moments more before one overcame
the other. One leaped up while the other lay on the floor; the one
who had leaped up, crouched down and bludgeoned the other again;
so that Ruth knew that Byrne was the one who lay still. She
screamed out again for help while she flung herself at the man who
was bending over. But he turned about and caught her arms and
held her firmly. He bent his head to hers and whispered to her while
he held her.
“Weg!” The whisper warned her. It was German, “Away!” And the
rest that he said was in German. “I have him for you struck dead!
Careful, now! Away to Switzerland!”
He dropped Ruth and fled; she went after him, breathless, trying
to cry out; but her cries were weak and unheard. He ran through the
rear of the house into a narrow alley down which he disappeared;
she went to the end of the alley, crying out. But the man was gone.
She stopped running at last and ceased to call out. She stood,
swaying so that she caught to a railing before a house to steady
herself. The words of the whisper ran on her lips. “I have him for you
struck dead!”
They gave her explanation of the attack which, like the words of
De Trevenac to her, permitted only one possible meaning. The man
who had waited in the ruined house must have been one of the
German agents in Paris whom Ruth had returned to meet. Evidently,
while Byrne had been inquiring for her, the Germans too had been
vigilant; they had awaited her return either to get her report of what
she had seen in Picardy or to assign her to another task or—she
could not know why they awaited her; but certainly they had. One of
them had learned that afternoon that she had returned; he was
seeking her, perhaps, when Byrne found her. Perhaps he had known
the peril to her from Byrne; perhaps he merely had learned, from
whatever he had overheard of their talk in that ruined room, that
Byrne accused her of being a German spy; and so he had taken his
chance to strike, for her, Byrne dead.
The horror of this realization sickened her; the German murderer
“for her” had made good his escape; and it would be useless to
report him now. She would be able to offer no description of him; and
to report that a large man, who was a German spy, had been about
that part of Paris this evening would be idle. But she must return at
once to Byrne who might not be dead. So she steadied herself and
hastened down the street seeking the ruined house.
It was a part of Paris quite unfamiliar to her; and, as she had not
observed where she and Byrne had wandered, she passed a square
or two without better placing herself; and then, inquiring of a passer-
by, where was a ruined house, she obtained directions which
seemed to be correct; but arriving at the ruin, she found it was not
the one which Byrne and she had entered. Consequently it was
many minutes before she found the ruined house which gave her no
doubt of its identity. For people were gathered about it; and Ruth,
approaching these, learned that a monstrous attack had been made
upon an American infantry officer who, when first found, was
believed to have been killed; but the surgeon who had arrived and
had removed him, said this was not so. Robbery, some said, had
been the motive of the crime; for the officer had much money in his
pocket; but the murderer had not time to remove it. Others, who
claimed to have heard a girl’s voice, believed there might have been
more personal reasons; why had a man and a girl been in those
rooms that night?
Ruth breathed her thankfulness that Byrne was not dead; and she
withdrew. Since Byrne had been taken away, she could do nothing
for him; and she would simply destroy herself by giving herself up to
the authorities. If Byrne lived and regained consciousness,
undoubtedly he would inform against her.
But though she would not give herself up, certainly she would not
try to escape if Byrne accused her; she would return to her room and
go about her work while she awaited consequences.
None followed her that night. She admitted to Milicent, when
questioned, that she had met Lieutenant Byrne upon the street and
they had walked together; Ruth said also that she had seen her
brother. Milicent evidently ascribed her agitation to a quarrel with
Byrne.
Ruth lay awake most of that night. The morning paper which
Milicent and she read contained no mention, amid the tremendous
news from the front, of the attack upon an American officer in a
ruined house; and no consequences threatened Ruth that morning.
She planned for a while to try to trace Byrne and learn whether he
had regained consciousness; then she abandoned that purpose. She
was satisfied, from one of those instincts which baffle question, that
Byrne lived; and it would be only a question of time before he must
accuse her.
Yet she might have time enough to leave Paris and France—to
get away into Switzerland and into Germany. For the fact that a
German had for her attempted to strike her accuser dead was final
proof that the Germans had not connected her with the betrayal of
De Trevenac; they believed that she had been in Picardy all this time
on account of orders given her by De Trevenac.
It was possible, of course, that the German who had struck for her
and whom she had pursued, would now himself suspect her. Yet her
flight after him might have seemed to him only her ruse to escape.
What he had last said to her, she must receive as her orders from
the Germans in Paris. “Away to Switzerland!”
That concurred with the sentence of instruction given upon that
page which she had received with her passport that cold January
morning in Chicago.... “You will report in person, via Switzerland;
apply for passport to Lucerne.”
At this moment when, for the cause of her country and its allies,
she had determined that she must make the attempt to go on to
Germany, the Germans were ready to have her. And that was easy
to understand; she had spent weeks going about freely behind the
newly formed English and French lines which bagged back about the
immense salient which the Germans had thrust toward Amiens; she
was supposed, as a German, to have ready report about the
strength of those lines as seen from the rear, of the strength of the
support, the morale of soldiers and civilians and the thousand other
details which the enemy desired to know.
 So Ruth went early that morning to the United States Consul
General with her passport which long ago had been substituted for
that ruined passport of Cynthia Gail’s; and she offered it for visé,
asking permission to leave Paris and France for a visit to the neutral
country of Switzerland, and, more particularly, to Lucerne. She
stated that the object of her journey was rest and recuperation; she
knew that, not infrequently in the recent months, American girls who
had been working near the war zones had been permitted vacations
in Switzerland; but she found that times were different now. She
encountered no expressed suspicion and no discourtesy; she simply
was informed that in the present crisis it was impossible to act
immediately upon such requests. Her application would be filed and
passed upon in due time; and a clerk questioned Ruth concerning
the war service which she had rendered which was supposed to
have so exhausted her that she desired rest in Switzerland.
Ruth, hot with shame, perforce related what she had been through
in the retreat. She was quite aware when she went away and
returned to her work that her application for permission to go to
Switzerland would be the most damning evidence against her, when
Byrne should bring his accusation; and now, having made
application, she could do nothing but wait where she was. However,
she heard nothing from Byrne or from the authorities upon that day
nor upon the succeeding days of the week during which she worked,
as she had when she first came to Paris, in the offices of the relief
society; upon almost every afternoon she visited Charles Gail who
was slowly sinking.
After three days and then after a wait of three more, she revisited
the consulate and inquired about her permission for Switzerland; but
she got no satisfaction either time. But when at last the week wore
out and she met no interference with her ordinary comings and
goings, she was beginning to doubt her beliefs that George Byrne
lived; he must have died, she thought, and without having been able
to communicate his knowledge of her to anyone. Then one night she
was returning to the Rue des Saints Pères a little later than usual;
the mild, April afternoon had dimmed to twilight and, as she passed
the point where George Byrne had encountered her, fears
possessed her again; they lessened only to increase once more, as
they now had formed a habit of doing, when she approached the
pension.
“Letters for me, Fanchette?” she said to the daughter of her
landlady who was at the door when Ruth came in.
“No letters, Mademoiselle; but Monsieur le Lieutenant!”
Ruth stopped stark. Many Messieurs les Lieutenants and men of
other ranks called at the pension for Milicent or for Ruth, just for an
evening’s entertainment; but such did not appear at this hour.
“He is in the salon, Mademoiselle.”
Ruth went in. If it was George Byrne, at least then he was alive
and now strong again. The lamp in the little salon had been lit; and a
tall, uniformed figure arose from beside it.
“Hello, Cynthia,” a familiar voice greeted. Gerry Hull’s voice!
Ruth retreated a little and held to the door to support her in her
relaxation of relief. A hundred times during this terrible week, Ruth
had wanted to send for him.
“I’m so glad to see you, Gerry.”
“That’s good.” His tall, lithe self was beside her; his strong, steady
fingers grasped her arm and gently supported her when she let go
the door. He closed the door and led her to a chair where the light of
the lamp would fall full upon her. “Sit down there,” he commanded
kindly; and, when she obeyed, he seated himself opposite pulling his
chair closer the better to observe her but at the same time bringing
himself under the light.
He had changed a great deal since last she saw him, Ruth
thought. No; she corrected herself, not so much since she had
parted from him after the retreat from Picardy; but he had altered
greatly since last he sat opposite her in this little salon at that time
they talked together about De Trevenac. The boy he had been when
she first saw him on the streets of Chicago; the boy he had been
when he had spoken at Mrs. Corliss’, had been maturing with
marvelous swiftness in these last weeks into a man. His eyes
showed it—his fine, impulsive, determined eyes, no less resolute
and not less impatient, really, but somehow a little more tolerant and
understanding than they had been. His lips showed it—thinner a trifle
and a trifle more drawn and straight though they seemed to smile