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Autism Spectrum
Disorders
Foundations, Characteristics, and Effective Strategies
Second Edition
E. Amanda Boutot
Texas State University
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authors, licensees or distributors.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Boutot, E. Amanda, editor of compilation, author. | Myles,

Brenda Smith, editor of compilation, author.
Title: Autism spectrum disorders : foundations, characteristics, and
effective strategies / edited by E. Amanda Boutot, Texas State University.
Description: Second edition. | Pearson : Boston, 2017. | Includes index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2015039818| ISBN 9780133436877 (alk. paper) |
ISBN 013343687X (alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Youth with autism spectrum disorders—Education—United
States. | Youth with autism spectrum disorders—United States. | Inclusive
education—United States.
Classification: LCC LC4718 .A87 2017 | DDC 371.9—dc23 LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2015039818
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
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ISBN 13: 978-0-13-352264-8
Access Code Card ISBN 10: 0-13-377988-2
ISBN 13: 978-0-13-377988-2
Loose Leaf Version ISBN 10: 0-13-343687-X
ISBN 13: 978-0-13-343687-7
Brief Contents
Chapter 1 Overview of Autism Spectrum Disorders 1

Chapter 2 Evidence-Based Practices for Educating Students with
Autism Spectrum Disorders 21
Chapter 3 Working with Families of Children with Autism 40
Chapter 4 Environmental Arrangement to Prevent Contextually
Inappropriate Behavior 59
Chapter 5 Teaching Students with Autism Using the Principles
of Applied Behavior Analysis 79
Chapter 6 Teaching Students with Autism to Communicate 96
Chapter 7 Social Challenges of Children and Youth with Autism
Spectrum Disorders 123
Chapter 8 Daily Living Skills 141
Chapter 9 Effective Practices for Teaching Academic Skills to
Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders 157
Chapter 10 Play-Focused Interventions for Young Children
with Autism 169
Chapter 11 Assistive Technology for Learners with Autism
Chapter 12 Motor Consideration for Individuals with Autism
Spectrum Disorder 192
Chapter 13 Sexuality Education for Students with ASD 205
Chapter 14 Transition to Postsecondary Environments for
iii
Contents
Preface viii
Chapter 1 Overview of Autism Spectrum Disorders 1

Chapter Objectives 1
Case Study Examples 1
Introduction 2
Diagnosing Autism Spectrum Disorders 4
Causes of Autism Spectrum Disorders 6
Characteristics of Autism Spectrum Disorders 8
Development of the Individualized Education Program 16
Summary 20 • Chapter Review Questions 20 • Key Terms 20 • Internet Resources 20
Chapter 2 Evidence-Based Practices for Educating Students

with Autism Spectrum Disorders 21
Introduction 21
Evidence-Based Practices: Definition and Rationale 23
Unestablished and Fad Treatments 30
Child and Family-Centered Decision Making 33
Selecting an Instructional Approach 35
Chapter 3 Working with Families of Children with

Autism 40
Introduction 42
Getting the Diagnosis 42
Parental Priorities for Their Children with Autism 44
Impact of Autism on Parents 45
Siblings 53
Family Issues Across the Life Span 55
iv
Contents v
Chapter 4 Environmental Arrangement to

Prevent Contextually Inappropriate Behavior 59
Introduction 61
Motivation 62
Functional Assessment and Behavior Support Planning 63
Antecedent-Based Intervention 68
Chapter 5 Teaching Students with Autism Using the

Principles of Applied Behavior Analysis 79
Introduction to Applied Behavior Analysis 80
Using Aba to Teach Students with Autism 82
Using Aba to Teach Skill Acquisition (New Learning) 82
Variations of Instructional Focus and Delivery 89
Using Aba to Address Challenging Behaviors 92
Summary 95 • Chapter Review Questions 95 • Key Terms 95
Chapter 6 Teaching Students with Autism to

Communicate 96
Introduction 97
What Is Social Communication and Why Is It Important? 97
Communication Characteristics of Learners with Autism 103
Communication Assessment and Intervention 105
Summary 121 • Chapter Review Questions 121 • Key
Terms 122 • Internet Resources 122
Chapter 7 Social Challenges of Children and Youth with

Introduction 124
Common Social Skills Deficits 124
Social Skills Assessment 128
Social Skills Training 130
vi Contents
Chapter 8 Daily Living Skills 141

Introduction 142
Core Characteristics That Impact Daily Living Skill Deficits 143
Independence 145
Concerns When Skills Are Not Developed 145
Barriers to Learning and Dependence on Others 145
Challenging Behaviors 147
Daily Living Skills—Developmental Milestones 147
Instructional Strategies 149
Development of Goals and Objectives for Daily Living Skills 152
Measurement of Goals and Progress 152
Data Collection Procedures 153
Visual Analysis of Progress 154
Chapter 9 Effective Practices for Teaching

Academic Skills to Students with Autism
Looking Ahead: Academic Expectations That Impact Students
with ASD 158
Academic Outcomes 159
Connecting Research and Practice 160
Chapter 10 Play-Focused Interventions for Young Children

with Autism 169
Overview of Play Characteristics and Issues for Young Children with Autism 170
Teaching Children with Autism to Play 174
Adapting Play Materials 175
Chapter Review Questions 180
Chapter 11 Assistive Technology for Learners with

Introduction 182
Areas of Human Function 183
Contents vii
Assistive Technology Service Delivery Systems 188

Collaboration 189
Summary 190 • Key Terms 190 • Chapter Review
Questions 190 • Internet Resources 190
Chapter 12 Motor Consideration for Individuals

with Autism Spectrum Disorder 192
Introduction 193
The Importance of Movement 193
Movement Taxonomies 193
Why Is the Investigation of Motor Deficits an Important Question? 194
What Is the Evidence for Motor Deficits in Children with ASD? 196
Can Motor Impairments Be Part of Early Detection? 200
What Is the Importance of Physical Therapy? 201
Standard Motor Skill Assessments 202
Chapter 13 Sexuality Education for Students with ASD 205

Case Study 1: Understanding the Need for Sexuality Education 205
Sexuality Education 206
Teaching Sexuality Across the Life Span 207
Case Study 2: Teaching Sexuality Education Through Collaboration 208
Collaboration of the IEP Team 208
Choosing a Curriculum to Teach Sexuality 209
Individualizing Curricula with Evidence-Based Strategies 209
Case Study 3: Individualizing Sexuality Education Training 211
Building Sexuality Education Intervention Plans 211
Summary 216 • Chapter Review Questions 216 • Key Terms 216 • Internet
Resources 216
Chapter 14 Transition to Postsecondary Environments for

Introduction 217
Overview and History of the Transition Process and Services 218
Issues and Considerations in Transition Programming for Students with ASD 220
Autism Intervention Models and the Transition Process 222
Components of Effective Transition Programming 224
References 233
Index 261
Preface
This is an introductory text on Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). When I began in this field
as a graduate student and teacher in 1990, the prevalence was 5–10 in 10,000; today it is
1 in 68, with a recent survey suggesting it is even higher. Over the years, this field has seen
not only extreme growth in the number of diagnoses, but also in the number of theories as
to cause and treatment. Autism has always been a field fraught with myth and mystery, and
has seen its fair share of snake oil salesmen and bandwagons. The truth is that it is still enig-
matic; we know more about cause (genetics; not vaccines) than we have in the past, yet we are
still without a cure. Until such time as a cure is discovered, education will remain the most
important and validated tool we have to help these individuals and their families. I chose to
teach at a university so that I could share with others the truths, as we know them today, so
that they could help improve the lives of children and youth with ASD and their families on a
regular, daily basis.
This book is intended for introductory courses on ASD at both the undergraduate
(pre-service teacher) and graduate (pre- or in-service teacher) student. Given the increasing
prevalence of children and youth with ASD in public schools and the extraordinary number
of opinions and options for educating these students, this book will be valuable for current
and future practitioners seeking a deeper understanding of ASD as well as a clear explanation
of intervention strategies. This book will be useful for special and general education courses
covering the autism spectrum, as well as other courses dealing with ASD such as psychol-
ogy, applied behavior analysis, school psychology, speech pathology, occupational therapy, and
child development.
The goal in developing this text was to provide a comprehensive, up-to-date, research-
based introduction to and overview of Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) for future and
current educators and other practitioners. The primary aim was to bring together, in one text-
book, all of the things university instructors need to present a broad yet in-depth overview of
ASD, rather than having to pull pieces from multiple sources. The book was developed to pro-
vide necessary background information so that students studying the autism spectrum would
(a) understand the disorder, including its many manifestations and associated characteristics;
(b) understand and appreciate the issues faced by the families of children and youth on the
autism spectrum so that students could more empathetically work with them; and (c) have
sufficient information on the myriad instructional strategies from which students with ASD
may benefit, and based on this knowledge, be able to make an appropriate decision as to which
strategy may benefit a particular student and why. Most importantly, the purpose of this text
was to provide sufficient information in major areas related to educating students with ASD
so that current and future teachers would not have to fall back on what is found in the media,
social media, or through their own sometimes limited experiences. One of the most important
concepts a student in an introductory ASD course can understand is that no two individuals
with ASD are alike, and there is no quick fix or “one size fits all” for this population. I hope
this message is clear in this second edition of this text. The original goal was to create a
resource so that future or current teachers could be informed consumers in the field of ASD, so
that they could distinguish fad and snake oil from evidence-base and fact. This second edition
continues with that tradition.
viii
Preface ix
Text Organization
Instructors will find that the major issues and questions faced by teachers and future teach-
ers of students on the autism spectrum have been addressed within this text. The expertise
of multiple individuals from a variety of disciplines (e.g., special education, speech-language
pathology, psychology, behavior analysis, and motor behavior) has been brought together to
provide a comprehensive resource for professionals. As with the first edition, the book has been
organized to follow the scope and sequence of an introductory course on ASD, and instructors
of such courses will hopefully find the progression of information as useful for their courses as
I do for my own. The goal was to provide both depth and breadth, so that current and future
teachers of students with ASD have a solid foundation of knowledge on ASD with which to
make important educational decisions for this population of students.
Updated and Expanded Coverage

In preparing this edition, I, the editor, considered both the ever-changing field of ASD as
well as the expected knowledge and skills of the teachers who work with these students and
expanded the text to include both more in-depth foundational information as well as broader
contexts. The goal was to develop a text that could serve not only as an introductory text on
ASD, but also as a resource for the professional working with students with ASD on a day-to-
day basis.
New to this Edition

• We have updated the first chapter on the overview of ASD for the reader. Not only do
we include the current Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the American Psychiatric
Association, Fifth Edition (DSM-V) diagnostic criteria, we also discuss the current prev-
alence rate, and various characteristics of ASD that may impact how these students learn.
• In Chapter 2 we have provide an expanded overview of the research-supported strategies
for students with ASD.
• As professionals, one of our most important assets in our work is the child’s family.
Chapter 3 covers the impact of ASD on the family across the lifespan and discusses ways
to improve communication and collaboration with this important constituency.
• When working with students with ASD, behavioral issues are often one of the largest
hurdles teachers face. Chapter 4 presents a comprehensive overview of environmental
modifications that can assist teachers in addressing these behavioral challenges.
• In chapter 5, we provide an overview of Applied Behavior Analysis, which is considered
an evident-based practice for working with individuals with ASD.
• The updated and expanded chapter on Communication Interventions (Chapter 6) pro-
vides more detail on the development of language for children with and without ASD,
as well as more recent evidence-base on strategies for communication instruction.
• As with the previous edition, the Social Skills chapter (7) provides an in depth review
of the socialization needs of individuals with ASD as well as current research supported
strategies for social skills instruction.
• Because of the importance of daily living skills instruction for many students on the
autism spectrum, Chapter 8 was also expanded to include current evidence-based strate-
gies and program development considerations for teachers.
• As the spectrum of autism includes not only students who have daily living skills needs,
but also those who require academic skills instruction, Chapter 9 provides an overview
of the current literature on strategies relevant to teaching reading, math, and writing
skills to students with ASD.
• An expanded Assistive Technology chapter (11) provides up-to-date evidence-based
information for teachers, who regularly make important assistive technology decisions
for their students.
x Preface
• Finally, Chapter 14 provides an expansion on Transition services for youth with ASD.
The chapter includes strategies and resources for instructing secondary students with
ASD and suggestions for preparing for post-secondary life.
• As previously stated, the field of autism is ever changing, and this second edition was
designed to keep up with these changes. Three new chapters were added to improve
upon the comprehensiveness of the text and to provide more breadth for teachers of
students with ASD:
Chapter 10, Play Focused Interventions for Young Children with Autism
Chapter 12, Motor Considerations for Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Chapter 13: Sexuality Education for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder.
Features of the Text

Each chapter begins with learning objectives, which serve as an advanced organizer to guide
the reader through the more salient concepts that are presented. At the end of each chapter are
study questions, derived directly from the learning objectives, to promote self-reflection of the
reader. Throughout each chapter we provide real-life scenarios, anecdotes, and case studies to
support the concepts presented. In addition, we provide synopses of current or classic research
(Research Boxes), which further support these concepts. Information related to diversity is
infused in selected chapters throughout the text in Diversity Boxes. Trends and Issues Boxes
provide current information on important topics in the field. Each chapter has a list of key
terms to guide study and a list of Internet resources is also available in most chapters for those
wishing to take their studies beyond the text.
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank the individuals who helped in the revision of this text. I am, as always,
grateful for the support of the Pearson editing team, Ann Davis, Lindsay Bethoney, Sridhar
Annadurai, and Kerry Rubadue for their unwavering support and never-ending patience as my
co-contributors as I endeavored to complete this second edition. I wish to also thank those con-
tributors who assisted with these edits, to make old chapters new again: Gena B arnhill, Scott
Bellini, Christina Carnahan, Tricia Cassel, Charles Dukes, Jennifer Durocher, Ketty Patino
Gonzales, Melissa Olive, Jonathan Tarbox, Jennifer Loncola Walberg, and Elizabeth West.
I’d also like to extend a warm welcome to the authors who contributed to expanded or new
chapters, bringing their wisdom, experience, and expertise to the project to make it special and
unique: Christie Aylsworth, Justin Aylsworth, Amarie Carnett, Clare Chung, Stephen Ciullo,
Shana Gilbert, Mark Guadagnoli, Jennifer Hamrick, Amy Harbison, Kara Hume, Allyson Lee,
Anna Merrill, Lyndsey Nunes, Amber Paige, Tracy Raulston, Tal S lemrod, Jason Travers, Amy
Tostonoski, Lauren Tuner-Brown, Michael Wehmeyer, Peggy Whitby, and Dianne Zager.
I wish also to thank Dr. Brenda Smith Myles. Without her vision and her faith in me as
an educator, an advocate, and a writer the first edition would not have been possible. Dr. Myles
gave me confidence and encouragement early in my career and for that I am grateful.
Many thanks also go to the reviewers of the first edition: Kevin J. Callahan, University
of North Texas; Thomas McLaughlin, Gonzaga University; Shanon Taylor, University of
Nevada-Reno; Jane R. Wegner, University of Kansas; and Thomas Williams, Virginia Tech.
Finally, I’d like to thank my family: my children Georgia and Isaac; my mom, Essie; and
my partner, Sam. Their encouragement and support were instrumental in completion of this
project.
EAB
Austin, Texas
Chapter 1
Overview of Autism
Spectrum Disorders
Ketty Gonzalez, Ph.D.
Tricia Cassel, Ph.D.
Psychologists in Private Practice
Jennifer S. Durocher, Ph.D.
University of Miami Center for
Autism and Related Disabilities
Allyson Lee, M.Ed., BCBA
Clinic for Autism, Research, Case Study Examples
Evaluation, and Support at Case of Robert
Texas State University
Robert was only 7 years old and his parents had no idea how they would
be able to manage getting him through the next 11 years of school. While
Robert had always been a bit temperamental and knew what he wanted,
his parents never had any significant difficulties parenting him until he
began preschool at age 3.
From the time he entered preschool, Robert was ostracized by his
peers because of his lack of social graces and high activity level. In fact,
Chapter Objectives Robert was labeled as hyperactive from the moment he set foot in school. He
would not sit down during Circle Time, refused to share his toys, and would
After reading this chapter, frequently hide under a table. Robert’s mother took him to his pediatrician,
learners should be able to: who felt that Robert was a little overactive but that he would “grow out of
1. Describe the characteristics of it.” Unfortunately, things continued to go badly in school. Robert always
Autism Spectrum Disorders. seemed upset about something and occasionally bit or physically fought
with his peers. Time-outs had no effect, and he was kicked out of two pre-
2. Explain how Autism Spectrum schools. Robert was labeled a bad seed. Robert’s parents did not understand
Disorders are identified and why Robert would behave this way at school, while at home he could spend
diagnosed. hours with his trains. They started to believe that the teachers were right
3. Identify the changes in the and that they were doing something wrong.
definition of Autism Spectrum Unfortunately, kindergarten was not any better, and his teacher sug-
Disorders. gested that Robert may have Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
4. Discuss causal theories (ADHD). A school psychologist confirmed this suspicion. Then, in addition to
associated with autism. his aggressive behavior, Robert began to lag behind his classmates in penman-
5. Describe instructional ship and coloring. He was also terrible at sports and always the last child picked
planning for students with for a team. Robert started getting stomachaches every morning before school.
autism. By the time Robert entered first grade he hated school and wondered
why he did not have any friends. His parents started to consider home
schooling him. At home, his parents were sometimes puzzled by Robert.
His facial expressions did not always match his mood and sometimes he
would have explosive meltdowns, making his parents feel as if he were a time
bomb ready to explode at any moment. His parents also began noticing that
Robert did not understand jokes and had difficulty following movie plots.
They began to worry that perhaps he was not very intelligent. In addition
to diagnosing Robert with ADHD, doctors suggested that he may have
early-onset bipolar disorder, which could explain Robert’s explosive behavior.
Something called Oppositional Defiant Disorder was also mentioned. In the
summer between first and second grade, Robert attended a summer camp,
1
2 Chapter 1 • Overview of Autism Spectrum Disorders
and one of the counselors suggested to his parents that an assessment test for Asperger Syndrome
(AS), a form of autism, should be given to Robert. His parents took him to a u niversity-based
clinic, where they were immediately told that while Robert certainly exhibited many symp-
toms consistent with ADHD, a significant number of his problems were not explained by
ADHD. After a thorough assessment, Robert was diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder.
Recommendations included treating the co-occurring ADHD symptoms through a combination
of medication and behavioral techniques, specific behavioral recommendations, school accommo-
dations, plus therapies for specific deficits. Robert’s parents were worried, but relieved, with the
diagnosis. At this time, Robert is getting ready to start middle school. Although things are not
perfect and he continues to struggle, he has made much progress socially and has one good friend
who is described as somewhat odd himself. However, the match between the two of them has
done wonders for Robert’s self-esteem and he enjoys going to school again.
Case of Jacob
Jacob’s parents first became concerned about his development when he was around 18 months
old, when they realized he was not talking, or even babbling, like other children his age. As Jacob
got a little older, he showed limited interest in playing with his toys and tended to line them up
or examine them while waving them in front of his face. He occasionally babbled, but this bab-
bling did not seem to be an attempt to communicate. In fact, Jacob rarely communicated with
his family unless he wanted something. Even when something was important to him, he rarely
made eye contact with his mother or smiled at her. Jacob frequently flapped his arms, spun
around in circles, or tensed his body when he was upset or excited. Jacob’s parents had him eval-
uated when he was almost 3 years old. Results of the evaluation indicated that Jacob had severe
deficits in the primary areas associated with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Jacob is now 5 and con-
tinues to flap his arms and rock back and forth. He does not have friends, nor does he have any
interest in other children. Although he can be loving with his family, it is always on his terms.
Jacob is able to say several words, but mainly uses pictures to communicate with his family.
He is obsessed with Thomas the Tank Engine and carries a train with him wherever he goes.
Introduction
One in 68 individuals in the United States is diagnosed with an Autism Spectrum Disorder
(ASD), according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC, 2014). This rep-
resents a substantial increase in overall prevalence over the last two decades. In 1990, for
example, that figure was 5 to 10 in 10,000. In fact, autism is the fastest growing childhood
disorder and is more common than childhood cancer, cystic fibrosis, and multiple sclerosis
combined (Autism Society of America, 2008). Teachers in public schools today will almost
certainly encounter a student with ASD, and for those entering the field of special education,
the chances are probably greater that you will win the lottery than not have a student with
ASD during the course of your career. Autism is a relatively recent disorder, having only been
recognized in the early 1940s. Therefore, what we know and understand about ASD is still
in its infancy; there is still much unknown and misunderstood about this exceptionality. The
purpose of this chapter is to provide the reader with a basic overview to help guide under-
standing of the complexities of ASD as well as changes to the diagnosis. This text is written
for teachers who are new to the field and for those who have taught children with autism for
years. It is our intention that the information provided herein will aid you in providing the
most successful learning experience possible for your students with ASD. The field of ASD
is ever-changing; what we understand of ASD today is far different from what we knew of
yesterday, and this will likely not be the same as that of tomorrow. Teachers are encouraged
to remain current on the research, trends, and issues related to educating students with ASD,
because information continually shifts and changes. The more the teachers understand the
students they teach, the better able they are to teach them.
Chapter 1 • Overview of Autism Spectrum Disorders
3
Autism Spectrum Disorders

Until recently, there were five Pervasive Developmental Disorders listed in the Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR; American
Psychiatric Association [APA], 2000), the publication that psychiatrists and psychologists use
to diagnose psychiatric disorders, psychological problems, and learning difficulties, among
others. However, with the release of the fifth edition of the DSM, diagnostic criteria have
changed. Rather than three disorders making up the formerly Pervasive Developmental Disor-
ders one label of Autism Spectrum Disorder will categorize all these children according to the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition.
Classic Autism
When a layperson thinks about a child with autism, he probably visualizes the child as having
what clinicians may call classic autism. While autism is no longer a separate category, it will be
referred to as classic autism for ease of understanding throughout the rest of the chapter. Classic
autism was first described in 1943 (Kanner), but was not included in the DSM-III until 1980.
To date, the definition in the DSM has been revised four times. Children with classic autism
may be nonverbal. Alternatively, they may have significant language difficulties, so that their
language may consist primarily of echolalia (immediate repetitions of what they hear) or delayed
echolalia (repetitions of what they have heard from others prior to three conversational turns)—
very commonly from television. Approximately 25% of these children may show normal lan-
guage development when very young, but then regress and lose their skills (Volkmar & Klin,
2005). Children with classic autism are commonly not interested in other children, and those
who are may not express this desire in a typical way. These individuals also experience behaviors
commonly identified in the third group of symptoms. That is, they may rock back and forth,
flap their hands, and show special interests in unusual objects or topics. However, these behav-
iors may not manifest until the child is approximately 3 years of age (APA, 2000), which means
that if a child is formally evaluated at age 2, he may not meet full criteria for a diagnosis.
Many children with classic autism also have below-average intelligence, with some esti-
mates suggesting that approximately 75% of children with autism have a cognitive disability
(Edelson, 2006). Children with classic autism are sometimes classified based on their intelli-
gence quotients (IQs): Those with higher IQs (i.e., standard scores above 70) are referred to
as having high-functioning autism (HFA) and those with IQs below 70 (the cutoff for mental
retardation) are referred to as having low-functioning autism.
It is well established that children with autism are more likely to be male than female.
Estimates from the CDC suggest that five boys are diagnosed for every girl diagnosed. Some
research suggests that girls affected with classic autism are more likely to be severely impaired
(Brown, 2004; Roberts, 2003), so the ratio of boys to girls is even higher in high-functioning
children with autism and those with AS. Despite gender differences, there are no known
racial or ethnic differences is ASD (see Box 1.1). However, in the United States, children who
are Hispanic or Native American have been found to be less likely than their White,
Asian-American, or African American classmates to be identified with autism for special
education (Tincani, Travers, & Boutot, 2010).
Clinically, children with Autism Spectrum Disorders often display a flat affect or a lim-
ited or depressed range of facial expressions. At other times, however, they may display an
overly exaggerated affect. A common mistake among professionals is thinking that because
a child seems attached to his parents, he cannot have ASD. In fact, many children with ASD
are very attached to their parents (Rutgers, VanJzendoorn, & Bakermans-Kranenburg, 2007).
Asperger Disorder
Asperger Disorder was first identified by Hans Asperger, an Austrian pediatrician, in 1944.
Dr. Asperger described a group of boys who had difficulty engaging in social interaction and
noted that many of these boys’ family members evidenced similar difficulties. AS was not
Box 1.1 Diversity Notes
A commonly accepted premise today is that autism “knows no racial, ethnic, or social bound-
aries” according to the Autism Society of America. Unfortunately, the accuracy of this premise
is called into question as researchers (and clinicians alike) have tended to pay little attention
to racial and/or cultural differences in autism. Dyches and colleagues present a provocative
paper raising a number of questions for further examination in the field. Specific questions for
consideration included:
• Are there differences in the prevalence of autism across race/ethnicity?
• Are there factors that may influence children from different races/cultures who are
identified as having ASD (including cultural differences in how symptoms are viewed
and defined, stigmatization of disability status, potential bias from clinicians in diag-
nosis, etc.)?
• Are there differences in family adaptation to the autism diagnosis?
Dyches and colleagues suggest that the relative paucity of research into the specific
challenges faced by families from diverse backgrounds should be a concern to the profession-
als who work with these families. Because of the paucity of research in this area, what we
know about the characteristics of best practice in assessment and intervention for ASDs may
not apply to individuals and families of different cultural, racial, and/or ethnic backgrounds.
Source: Information from Dyches, T. T., Wilder, L. K., Sudweeks, R. R., Obiakor, R. E., & Algozzine, B.
(2004). Multicultural issues in autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34, 211–222.
introduced in the United States until 1991, when Dr. Asperger’s original paper was translated
into English (Frith, 1991). It was removed as a formal diagnosis with the publication of the
fifth edition of the DSM.
According to the DSM-V there are two main areas impacted in ASD. The first area
relates to deficits in social communication and social interaction, which is defined by deficits
in social-emotional reciprocity, deficits in nonverbal communicative behaviors, and deficits
in developing and maintaining relationships. The second area relates to restricted, repetitive
patterns of behavior, interests, or activities. Deficits in the second area are defined as stereo-
typed or repetitive speech or motor movements, excessive rigidity and adherence to routines
or resistance to change, restricted interests, and hyper- or hypo-reactivity to sensory stimuli.
In addition, these symptoms must be at least partially present in childhood, although deficits
may become greater as children’s age and social demands increase. The symptoms in the two
areas must also impair everyday functioning.
Although prevalence is not known, it is estimated that less than 5% of children have AS
(Baird et al., 2000; Chakrabarti & Fombonne, 2001; Ozonoff & Rogers, 2003; Sponheim &
Skjeldal, 1998). It has been fairly well established that approximately four out of five chil-
dren diagnosed with AS are boys, although there are some estimates placing this ratio at 8:1
males over females (Chakrabarti & Fombonne, 2001). Recent CDC (2014) estimates state that
approximately five males are diagnosed with ASD for every female.
Children with ASD in schools are frequently identified according to the Individuals
with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) criteria (see Figure 1.1). Not all, however, are served
under IDEA; some have an individualized 504 Plan and receive modifications and accommo-
dations under Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act.
Diagnosing Autism Spectrum Disorders

The diagnosis of ASD has received a lot of attention from parents, professionals, and
researchers in the past few years. Diagnosing a child with classic autism has been made
much easier with empirically based instruments that have been developed in the past few
5
Figure 1.1 IDEA Definition of Autism
Autism: A developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal communi-

cation and social interaction, generally evident before age 3, that adversely affects a child’s
educational performance. Other characteristics often associated with autism are engagement
in repetitive activities and stereotyped movements, resistance to environmental change or
change in daily routines, and unusual responses to sensory experiences. The term does not
apply if a child’s educational performance is adversely affected primarily because the child has
a serious emotional disturbance as defined below.
From http://www.ericdigests.org/1999-4/ideas.htm, retrieved March 11, 2008.
years. However, d iagnosing a higher-functioning child or adult, despite age, is part sci-
ence and part art. Research, however, shows that the diagnosis of ASD made by a clini-
cian is relatively stable (Chawarska, Klin, Paul, & Volkmar, 2007; Turner, Stone, Pozdol, &
Coonrod, 2006).
When diagnosing ASD, the clinician (a psychologist, psychiatrist, or physician) will
meet with the parent(s) and the child. Various tools may be used to help make a formal diag-
nosis, yet no single assessment measure is considered the one for diagnosis. Further, in public
schools, the definition may not include any specific assessment measure, although schools
routinely use some formal measurement tool when determining eligibility of special educa-
tion. Descriptions of some of the measures used by clinicians as well as school psychologists
follow.
The Autism Diagnostic Interview—Revised (ADI-R; Lord, Rutter, & Le Couteur,
1994) is a comprehensive interview conducted with the parent or caregiver of the individual
being assessed. It is designed to assess the extent of autistic symptoms in individuals with a
mental age of 2 and above. The 85-page interview booklet with 93 items takes approximately
1½ to 2½ hours to administer and score. Questions in the ADI-R are in the following sections:
background information, introductory questions, early development, loss of language or other
skills, language and communicative functioning, social development and play, favorite activi-
ties and toys, interests and behaviors, and general behaviors. Despite its length, it is still only
one piece of the diagnostic puzzle and should never be used as the sole diagnostic tool. It is
frequently used for research and is an important clinical tool, but can be cumbersome and time
consuming.
The Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule—Generic (ADOS-G) is a semi-
structured assessment designed to assess the three areas of impairment associated with autism
that were defined in the DSM-IV-TR (Lord, Rutter, DiLavore, & Risi, 1999). It takes approx-
imately 30 to 45 minutes to administer. The ADOS-G consists of four modules, based on the
cognitive and language levels of the individual being assessed. For instance, Module 1 is for
young children or children with no language, while Module 4 is administered to adults who
speak in full sentences. Modules 1 and 2 are largely play based and assess constructs such as
joint attention (defined as the process of sharing one’s experience of observing an object or
event, by following gaze, or pointing gestures), reciprocal play, social interest, and eye contact.
Modules 3 and 4 assess imaginary play, but are largely interview based, particularly Module 4.
Interview questions focus on social stressors, descriptors of emotions, adaptive behavior, and
daily life events. Both modules provide an opportunity for the assessment of language and con-
versational skills, appropriate eye contact, and imagination. All modules of the ADOS-G allow
for an assessment of repetitive and stereotyped interests and behaviors, although these do not
form part of the diagnostic algorithm (i.e., the way we quantify the findings to decide whether
the individual meets criteria for ASD).
The Social Communication Questionnaire (SCQ; Berument, Rutter, Lord, Pickles, & Bailey,
1999) is a 40-item questionnaire that contains the algorithm items from the ADI-R in a yes/
no format. Designed to screen for ASD, there are two forms of the SCQ: the lifetime and
current versions. The current version investigates the child’s behavior over the past 3 months.
The lifetime version assesses ASD symptoms across the lifetime of an individual, with a partic-
ular focus on the time when a child was between 4 and 5 years of age.
The Social Responsiveness Scale—Second Edition (Constantino & Gruber, 2012) is a
65-item rating scale that measures the severity of autism spectrum symptoms, including
social impairments, social awareness, social information processing, capacity for recipro-
cal social communication, social anxiety/avoidance, and autistic preoccupations and traits
as they occur in natural social settings. It is completed by a parent or teacher in 15 to
20 minutes.
Also available to assess autism symptoms are several screening instruments, including
the Modified-Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (M-CHAT; Robins, Fein, Barton, & Green, 2001),
Asperger Syndrome Diagnostic Scale (Myles, Bock, & Simpson, 2000), and the Childhood Autism
Rating Scale (Schopler, Reichler, & Renner, 1980). However, some of these instruments have
limited standardization and may not be appropriate for children across a variety of age and
ethnic groups. Thus, while you can get an impression of the child’s symptoms by using one or
more of these scales, clinical experience and knowledge are an integral part of the diagnostic
process. For instance, you may need to do something more unconventional, such as taking
an adult to lunch to see how she reacts to social situations. For children, observing a child at
school lets one know how the child interacts with his peers during recess versus one-on-one in
an adult’s office. Such observations are critical, particularly when working with children who
are considered higher functioning.
In addition to obtaining a valid estimate of a child’s level of ASD symptoms, a clini-
cian or the school team should obtain a reliable estimate of the child’s functioning in other
areas, including adaptive behavior and cognitive functioning. Adaptive functioning refers to
a child’s ability to care for himself. For instance, young children should be able to tell a parent
if they are hurt or do not feel well. Teenagers should be capable of fixing simple snacks and
meals for themselves and independently addressing personal hygiene needs. Unfortunately,
research and clinical experience show that even children with ASD who have high IQs show
delays in adaptive functioning (Barnhill et al., 2000; Lee & Park, 2007; Myles et al., 2007).
There are many questionnaires designed to assess a child’s adaptive functioning. Two of the
most popular are the Adaptive Behavior Assessment System (Harrison & Oakland, 2003) and the
Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale (Sparrow, Balla, & Cicchetti, 2005). Both measures have par-
ent/caretaker and teacher forms.
In addition to adaptive behavior, it is also important to gain a valid estimate of a child’s
cognitive abilities. The most commonly used instruments to test children’s cognitive abilities are
the different Wechsler scales (e.g., the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence—Third
Edition [WPPSI-III; Wechsler, 2012] and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—Fourth
Edition [WISC-IV; Wechsler, 2004]). Other scales, such as the Mullen Scales of Early Learning
(Mullen, 1995), the Stanford Binet—Fifth Edition (Roid, 2004), the Differential Abilities Scale—
Second Edition (Elliott, 2007), and the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children—Second Edition
(Kaufman & Kaufman, 1983), can also be used with young children and/or children with limited
verbal abilities.
Causes of Autism Spectrum Disorders

Historical Context
As recently as the 1980s, practitioners believed that the cause of autism was what was termed
Refrigerator Mothers. Specifically, Bruno Bettleheim (1967), a psychologist in the 1960s,
believed that autism was caused by the child’s parents (the mother in particular) not providing
love or attention and was, in fact, cold to the child—hence the term refrigerator. Ivar Lovaas,
well-known behavioral interventionist, also held this belief. The common practice of the day
was to remove the child from his parents and place the parents in psychotherapy. Today, thanks
to the work of individuals such as psychologist Bernard Rimland (1964), a father of a child
with autism, we understand that autism is not caused by parents.
7
Role of Environment
The exact cause of ASD is unknown; however, genetics is the leading suspected cause. Some
believe that the environment plays a role in the development of autism as well as genetics.
Environmental contributors have been theorized to include pre-, peri-, and post-natal factors
(such as second and third trimester uterine bleeding, Rh incompatibility, high bilirubin levels
at birth, and oxygen supplementation at birth). While other environmental culprits, such as
vitamin deficiency, allergies, and toxins, have been suggested, no research exists confirming
these as sole (or in some cases even contributing) causes of autism.
Genetics
Researchers, practitioners, and parents are all invested in investigating possible causes of ASD.
Research clearly indicates that ASDs have a genetic component (cf., Bolton, Macdonald, Pick-
les, & Rios, 1994; Constantino et al., 2006; Constantino & Todd, 2003; Landa & Garrett
Mayer, 2006; Pickles et al., 2000; Rutter, 2000; Veenstra Vanderweele & Cook, 2003; Watson
et al., 2007; Zwaigenbaum et al., 2005). Although the extent of this relationship has not yet
been determined, and no single gene has been identified as a cause in every case, “approxi-
mately 5% of individuals with autism have an identified chromosomal abnormality” (Whit-
man, 2004, p. 120). Faulty genes have been found on the long arm (q) of chromosomes 2, 3,
6, 7, 13, and 15 and on the short arm (p) of chromosomes 1, 11, 13, 16, and 19 (Whitman,
2004, p. 121). According to Whitman (2004), the “most commonly reported anomaly in
research studies is the duplication of a section of the long arm of chromosome 15” (p. 120).
Various autistic characteristics are associated with varying locations of genetic differences. For
example, the 7q region impacts the development of the frontal, parietal, and temporal lobes,
all of which are associated with significant functioning in autism, and speech delays are linked
with an area on chromosome 2 (Whitman, 2004).
The role of genetics in autism has been clearly established. Research indicates that sib-
lings of a child with autism also have a risk of related difficulties. More than 10% of siblings
of children with autism show deficits associated with an ASD diagnosis, such as abnormali-
ties in eye contact, imitation, social smiling, and disengagement of visual interest (Landa &
Garrett Mayer, 2006; Zwaigenbaum et al., 2005). Deficits in language and cognitive abilities
have also been noted in ASD siblings before the age of 5 (Watson et al., 2007), which is much
higher than the risk for the general population. Other research indicates that if one identical
twin has autism, the chance for the other twin to have autism is 60%, but that the risk for the
twin to be somewhere on the autism spectrum is 90%. However, if autism was caused purely
by heritability, we would expect the concordance rates of identical twins to be closer to 100%
(Ozonoff & Rogers, 2003; Rutter, 2000).
Other psychiatric disorders, such as depression or anxiety, are found at higher-than-average
levels in family members of those with ASD. Researchers have even proposed that a broad autism
phenotype exists within families (Goin-Kochel, Abbacchi, & Constantino, 2007). Box 1.2
discusses these issues. This refers to a set of autistic-like subclinical symptoms in members
of the families of children on the autism spectrum. Symptoms range from slow or impaired
Box 1.2 Research Notes
Children with early-onset psychotic disorders or bipolar disorder can also frequently appear
to have autism. In fact, some children with chromosome deletion disorders can appear to have
autism, a psychotic disorder, or both (Vorstman et al., 2006). Children with ASD generally
have more psychiatric disturbances (e.g., depression or bipolar disorder) than children with-
out ASD (Bradley & Bolton, 2006). Bradley and Bolton (2006), in a study of children with
ASD and peers, found that 3 of the 41 children with autism had a comorbid bipolar episode
while none of the comparison children had such a diagnosis.
language development to shyness (Ozonoff & Rogers, 2003). As researchers continue to inves-
tigate the genetic underpinnings of autism, the field will learn more about the broad autism
phenotype.
Characteristics of Autism Spectrum Disorders

Language Deficits
Although some children with ASD may not speak, as noted previously, they may display
echolalia. Echolalia was once thought to be nonfunctional; however, it is now recognized that
echolalia may in fact be the child’s way of speaking (cf., Quill, 1995). For example, I knew a
5-year-old with autism whose speech consisted almost exclusively of echolalia in particular,
delayed echolalia that included songs and quotes from television. His teacher noted increased
singing during story time after recess. The school team asked if I could assist in decreasing
this distracting behavior. When I came to observe, I noted that Keith sang only commer-
cial themes and that they were all for food. Given that story time was just before lunch, I
wondered if he might be hungry. We asked his mother to send a snack that he could eat just
before story time to see if this might be the issue. Once he began eating a snack to tide him
over for lunch, the singing stopped. Although Keith did not have the functional speech to tell
us he was hungry, his echoed singing provided the clue necessary to get his need met. Teachers
are, therefore, encouraged to become investigators when students with autism are engaging in
echolalia and/or challenging behaviors.
When someone has limited or no speech, she will use other methods to communicate
wants and needs. Carly, a child with autism who was completely without speech, used symbols
as an alternative/augmentative communication system. One day she wanted a drink of water,
but the teacher’s back was turned. Carly touched a card symbolizing water that was on a table
rather than bringing it to her teacher. Because the teacher could not see Carly, she did not real-
ize that Carly was asking for a drink. When the teacher did not respond to Carly’s initiation,
Carly approached her teacher and bit her, effectively saying, “Pay attention to me, I want some
water!” Carly’s story clearly indicates that all behaviors have a communicative function and
teachers should first consider what a child might be trying to tell them when a behavior occurs.
Other children with ASD will have speech, although it may be delayed and/or limited.
For these children, speech may consist of a single-word utterance or approximations of words to
communicate entire thoughts. Still others may have seemingly adequate speech, but have dif-
ficulties with forms of language such as pragmatics (see section below). It is important to note
that language deficits in children with autism are not static; a child may have no speech, but
that does not imply that he will never develop speech. With appropriate instruction, including
augmentative and alternative communication systems, children with autism can develop speech.
Pragmatic Language In higher-functioning children with ASD, their functional lan-

guage (i.e., grammar, sentence structure, pronunciation, vocabulary) may be adequate and
their language pragmatics are almost invariably deficient. Pragmatics refers to the rules and
social components associated with language. For instance, there are certain routines that peo-
ple typically use when first meeting another person (e.g., saying “Nice to meet you,” shak-
ing hands). A child with ASD may not necessarily understand these social norms and may,
for example, immediately ask someone she met how old she is or how much she weighs. In
school, a student with ASD may want to talk incessantly about his special interest and will not
understand why peers are not fascinated listening to him speak about decks on cruise ships.
So, while this child’s ability to produce language may not have been delayed, his ability to
use language adaptively may indeed be severely delayed. It is important to remember that the
needs of children with ASD vary greatly; their pragmatic deficits may range from subtle to
significant. Likewise language challenges may appear different based on the structure of the
learning environment and social demands.
9
Children with ASD may also have difficulty understanding the semantics or the mean-
ing of language. For example, in a clinical examination of a child, a psychologist introduced a
set of dolls by saying that they would play with “my family.” The child looked very confused,
wondering how the examiner’s family could be a set of dolls. The subtleties of language and sar-
casm are lost on many children with ASD. They frequently do not understand sarcasm or sub-
tle jokes and may be quite literal thinkers. For instance, a student with ASD may be the only
child in the classroom who does not understand a joke. However, some parents work extremely
hard to socialize their child, and the child may be able to use these learned skills in combina-
tion with strong cognitive skills to understand, and even tell, jokes. For example, one child we
know was chosen master of ceremonies for a school pep rally and, because of direct instruction,
was able to make jokes and spontaneous, funny remarks about classmates and teachers. Do not
assume that a child does not have ASD because she is funny and can use sarcasm.
Some children with ASD may also use language in unusual ways, such as using inap-
propriately formal words. They may also describe things in somewhat odd or indirect ways
(Attwood, 1998; Bashe & Kirby, 2001), such as calling a person by the color of her shirt rather
than by her name. For example, one child we know used to call his school “1214,” which was
the number in front of the school’s main building.
Using Language in Odd Ways

Adrian, a boy with ASD, once stood outside his parents’ bathroom door, where they mistakenly thought
they could hide while having an argument. When he knocked on the door and his parents came out, he
calmly remarked, “This does not seem to be a festive moment between the two of you.”
Children with ASD frequently have difficulty in conversations and following up on
statements made by others (Attwood, 1998). For instance, if somebody said, “My parents are
not from this area,” a typical child may follow up and ask where her parents live, while a
child with ASD may ignore this statement completely and talk about something else with-
out acknowledging this remark. Conversations with a child with ASD do not generally flow
as they do with neurotypical children. There may be frequent, long, and awkward pauses
wherein one party will be uncomfortable, while the child with ASD will be oblivious that he
should be feeling awkward. For those children with particularly intense interests, others may
notice that the conversation invariably ends up on this topic. Similarly, a discussion with an
individual with ASD may sound more like a lecture rather than a conversation (Bashe & Kirby,
2001). While this may be uncomfortable for the conversation partner, the child with ASD will
be comfortable talking about a topic for which he has a “script.” Children with ASD have a
sketchy understanding of social norms, which makes it likely that they will make inappropri-
ate remarks or not notice odd turns of conversations. Even if they do notice an awkward turn,
they may lack the resources they need to repair the conversation.
Individuals with ASD have challenges related to understanding nonverbal commu-
nication, including gestures, facial expression, and proximity, which some experts estimate
accounts for as much as 70% to 90% of communication. In addition to difficulties with non-
verbal aspects of communication, children with ASD may also have difficulty processing lan-
guage in highly distractible environments (Twachtman-Cullen & Twachtman-Reilly, 2007).
The Literal Interpretation of Language

The examiner told Susie that she had a friend who was a dentist who had given her several boxes of free
toothpaste. The examiner told Susie, “I have so much toothpaste I don’t have anywhere to sit.” Susie looked
at her and seriously said, “Maybe you should buy another chair.”
Children with ASD may also have overly formal or pedantic language (Frith, 1991;
Twachtman-Cullen & Twachtman-Reilly, 2007). For example, they may always begin their
questions with “I would like to inquire about. . . .” They may also speak with an unusual rate,
volume, or pitch, or may speak in an extremely loud or monotone voice (Gillberg, Gillberg,
Rastam, & Wentz, 2001).
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Eliza Tillinghast was at that time eighteen years of age, and had
been reared as gently as the reduced circumstances of her father
permitted. Her arguments with her father concerning the proposed
Curwen marriage must have been painful indeed; but of these we
have no record. Certain it is that her engagement to young Ezra
Weeden, second mate of the Crawford packet Enterprise, was
dutifully broken off, and that her union with Joseph Curwen took
place on the seventh of March, 1763, in the Baptist church, in the
presence of one of the most distinguished assemblages which the
town could boast; the ceremony being performed by the youngest
Samuel Winson. The Gazette mentioned the event very briefly, and
in most surviving copies the item in question seems to be cut or torn
out. Ward found a single intact copy after much search in the
archives of a private collector of note, observing with amusement the
meaningless urbanity of the language:
Monday evening last, Mr. Joseph Curwen, of this Town, Merchant,
was married to Miss Eliza Tillinghast, Daughter of Captain Dutie
Tillinghast, a young Lady who has real Merit, added to a beautiful
Person, to grace the connubial State and perpetuate its Felicity.
The social influence of the Tillinghasts, however, was not to be
denied; and once more Joseph Curwen found his house frequented
by persons whom he could never otherwise have induced to cross
his threshold. His acceptance was by no means complete, and his
bride was socially the sufferer through her forced venture; but at all
events the wall of utter ostracism was somewhat worn down. In his
treatment of his wife the strange bridegroom astonished both her
and the community by displaying an extreme graciousness and
consideration. The new house in Olney Court was now wholly free
from disturbing manifestations, and although Curwen was much
absent at the Pawtuxet farm which his wife never visited, he seemed
more like a normal citizen than at any other time in his long years of
residence. Only one person remained in open enmity with him, this
being the youthful ship's officer whose engagement to Eliza
Tillinghast had been so abruptly broken. Ezra Weeden had frankly
vowed vengeance; and though of a quiet and originally mild
disposition, was now gaining a hate-bred, dogged purpose which
boded no good to the usurping husband.
On the seventh of May, 1765, Curwen's only child Ann was born; and
was christened by the Reverend John Graves of King's Church, of
which both husband and wife had become communicants shortly
after their marriage, in order to compromise between their respective
Congregational and Baptist affiliations. The record of this birth, as
well as that of the marriage two years before, was stricken from most
copies of the church and town annals where it ought to appear; and
Charles Ward located both with the greatest difficulty after his
discovery of the widow's change of name had apprised him of his
own relationship, and engendered the feverish interest which
culminated in his madness. The birth entry, indeed, was found very
curiously through correspondence with the heirs of the loyalist Dr.
Graves, who had taken with him a duplicate set of records when he
left his pastorate at the outbreak of the Revolution. Ward had tried
this source because he knew that his great-great-grandmother, Ann
Tillinghast Potter, had been an Episcopalian.
Shortly after the birth of his daughter, an event he seemed to
welcome with a fervor greatly out of keeping with his usual coldness,
Curwen resolved to sit for a portrait. This he had painted by a very
gifted Scotsman named Cosmo Alexander, then a resident of
Newport, and since famous as the early teacher of Gilbert Stuart.
The likeness was said to have been executed on a wall-panel of the
library of the house in Olney Court, but neither of the two old diaries
mentioning it gave any hint of its ultimate disposition.
In 1766 came the final change in Joseph Curwen. It was very

sudden, and gained wide notice amongst the curious townsfolk; for
the air of suspense and expectancy dropped like an old cloak, giving
instant place to an ill-concealed exaltation of perfect triumph. It was
after this transition, which appears to have come early in July, that
the sinister scholar began to astonish people by his possession of
information which only their long-dead ancestors would seem to be
able to impart.
But Curwen's feverish secret activities by no means ceased with this
change. On the contrary, they tended rather to increase; so that
more and more of his shipping business was handled by the
captains whom he now bound to him by ties of fear as potent as
those of bankruptcy had been. He altogether abandoned the slave
trade, alleging that its profits were constantly decreasing. Every
possible moment was spent at the Pawtuxet farm; though there were
rumors now and then of his presence in places which, though not
actually near graveyards, were yet so situated in relation to
graveyards that thoughtful people wondered just how thorough the
old merchant's change of habits really was. Ezra Weeden, though
his periods of espionage were necessarily brief and intermittent on
account of his sea voyaging, had a vindictive persistence which the
bulk of the practical townsfolk and farmers lacked; and subjected
Curwen's affairs to a scrutiny such as they had never had before.
Smuggling and evasion were the rule in Narragansett Bay, and
nocturnal landings of illicit cargoes were continuous commonplaces.
But Weeden, night after night, following the lighters or small sloops
which he saw steal off from the Curwen warehouses at the Town
Street docks, soon felt assured that it was not merely His Majesty's
armed ships which the sinister skulker was anxious to avoid. The
lighters were wont to put out from the black silent docks, and they
would go down the bay some distance, perhaps as far as Namquit
Point, where they would meet and receive cargo from strange ships
of considerable size and widely varied appearance. Curwen's sailors
would then deposit this cargo at the usual point on the shore, and
transport it overland to the farm; locking it in the same cryptical stone
building which had formerly received the Negroes. The cargo
consisted almost wholly of boxes and cases, of which a large
proportion were oblong and heavy, and disturbingly suggestive of
coffins.
Weeden always watched the farm with unremitting assiduity, visiting
it each night for long periods, and seldom letting a week go by
without a sight except when the ground bore a footprint-revealing
snow. Finding his own vigils interrupted by nautical duties, he hired a
tavern companion named Eleazar Smith to continue the survey
during his absences; and between them the two could have set in
motion some extraordinary rumors. That they did not do so was only
because they knew the effect of publicity would be to warn their
quarry and make further progress impossible.
It is gathered that Weeden and Smith became early convinced that a

great series of tunnels and catacombs, inhabited by a very sizable
staff of persons besides the old Indian and his wife, underlay the
farm. The house was an old peaked relic of the middle seventeenth
century with enormous stack chimney and diamond-paned lattice
windows, the laboratory being in a lean-to toward the north, where
the roof came nearly to the ground. This building stood clear of any
other; yet judging by the different voices heard at odd times within, it
must have been accessible through secret passages beneath. These
voices ran the gamut betwixt dronings of dull acquiescence and
explosions of frantic pain or fury, rumblings of conversation and
whines of entreaty, pantings of eagerness and shouts of protest.
They appeared to be in different languages, all known to Curwen,
whose rasping accents were frequently distinguishable in reply,
reproof, or threatening.
Weeden had many verbatim reports of overheard scraps in his
notebook, for English, French, and Spanish, which he knew, were
frequently used; but of these nothing has survived. He did, however,
say that besides a few ghoulish dialogues in which the past affairs of
Providence families were concerned, most of the questions and
answers he could understand were historical or scientific;
occasionally pertaining to very remote places and ages. Once, for
example, an alternately raging and sullen figure was questioned in
French about the Black Prince's massacre at Limoges in 1370, as if
there were some hidden reason which he ought to know. Curwen
asked the prisoner—if prisoner it were—whether the order to slay
was given because of the Sign of the Goat found on the altar in the
ancient Roman crypt beneath the cathedral, or whether The Dark
Man of the Haute Vienne Coven had spoken the Three Words.
Failing to obtain replies, the inquisitor had seemingly resorted to
extreme means; for there was a terrific shriek followed by silence
and muttering and a bumping sound.
None of these colloquies was ever ocularly witnessed, since the
windows were always heavily draped. Later, no more conversations
were ever heard in the house, and Weeden and Smith concluded
that Curwen had transferred his field of action to regions below.
That such regions in truth existed, seemed amply clear from many
things. Faint cries and groans unmistakably came up now and then
from what appeared to be the solid earth in places far from any
structure; whilst hidden in the bushes along the river-bank in the
rear, where the high ground sloped steeply down to the valley of the
Pawtuxet, there was found an arched oaken door in a frame of
heavy masonry, which was obviously an entrance to caverns within
the hill.
It was in January, 1770, whilst Weeden and Smith were still debating
vainly on what, if anything, to think or do about the whole bewildering
business, that the incident of the Fortaleza occurred. Exasperated by
the burning of the revenue sloop Liberty at Newport during the
previous summer, the customs fleet under Admiral Wallace had
adopted an increased vigilance concerning strange vessels; and on
this occasion His Majesty's armed schooner Cygnet, under Captain
Charles Leshe, captured after a short pursuit one early morning the
scow Fortaleza of Barcelona, Spain, under Captain Manuel Arruda,
bound according to its log from Grand Cairo, Egypt, to Providence.
When searched for contraband material, this ship revealed the
astonishing fact that its cargo consisted exclusively of Egyptian
mummies, consigned to "Sailor A. B. C.," who would come to remove
his goods in a lighter just off Namquit Point, and whose identity
Captain Arruda felt himself in honor bound not to reveal. The Vice-
Admiralty Court at Newport, at a loss what to do in view of the non-
contraband nature of the cargo on the one hand and of the unlawful
secrecy of the entry on the other hand, compromised on Collector
Robinson's recommendation by freeing the ship but forbidding it a
port in Rhode Island waters. There were later rumors of its having
been seen in Boston Harbor, though it never openly entered the Port
of Boston.
This extraordinary incident did not fail of wide remark in Providence
and there were not many who doubted the existence of some
connection between the cargo of mummies and the sinister Joseph
Curwen; it did not take much imagination to link him with a freakish
importation which could not conceivably have been destined for
anyone else in the town. Weeden and Smith, of course, felt no doubt
whatsoever of the significance of the thing; and indulged in the
wildest theories concerning Curwen and his monstrous labors.
The following spring, like that of the year before, had heavy rains;
and the watchers kept careful track of the river-bank behind the
Curwen farm. Large sections were washed away, and a certain
number of bones discovered; but no glimpse was afforded of any
actual subterranean chambers or burrows. Something was rumored,
however, at the village of Pawtuxet about a mile below, where the
river flows in falls over a rocky terrace to join the placid landlocked
cove. The fisherfolk about the bridge did not like the wild way that
one of the things stared as it shot down to the still water below, or
the way that another half cried out although its condition had greatly
departed from that of objects which normally cry out.
That rumor sent Smith—for Weeden was just then at sea—in haste
to the river-bank behind the farm; where surely enough there
remained the evidences of an extensive cave-in. Smith went to the
extent of some experimental digging, but was deterred by lack of
success—or perhaps by fear of possible success. It is interesting to
speculate on what the persistent and revengeful Weeden would
have done had he been ashore at the time.
By the autumn of 1770 Weeden decided that the time was ripe to tell
others of his discoveries; for he had a large number of facts to link
together, and a second eye-witness to refute the possible charge
that jealousy and vindictiveness had spurred his fancy. As his first
confidant he selected Captain James Mathewson of the Enterprise,
who on the one hand knew him well enough not to doubt his veracity,
and on the other hand was sufficiently influential in the town to be
heard in turn with respect. The colloquy took place in an upper room
of Sabin's Tavern near the docks, with Smith present to corroborate
virtually every statement; and it could be seen that Captain
Mathewson was tremendously impressed. Like nearly everyone else
in the town, he had had black suspicions of his own anent Joseph
Curwen; hence it needed only this confirmation and enlargement of
data to convince him absolutely. At the end of the conference he was
very grave, and enjoined strict silence upon the two younger men.
The right persons to tell, he believed, would be Dr. Benjamin West,
whose pamphlet on the late transit of Venus proved him a scholar
and keen thinker; Reverend James Manning, President of the
College; ex-Governor Stephen Hopkins, who had been a member of
the Philosophical Society at Newport, and was a man of very broad
perceptions; John Carter, publisher of the Gazette; all four of the
Brown brothers, John, Joseph, Nicholas and Moses, who formed the
recognized local magnates; old Dr. Jabez Bowen, whose erudition
was considerable, and who had much first-hand knowledge of
Curwen's odd purchases; and Captain Abraham Whipple, a
privateersman of phenomenal boldness and energy who could be
counted on to lead in any active measures needed.
The mission of Captain Mathewson prospered beyond his highest
expectations; for whilst he found one or two of the chosen confidants
somewhat skeptical of the possible ghostly side of Weeden's tale,
there was not one who did not think it necessary to take some sort of
secret and coördinated action. Curwen, it was clear, formed a vague
potential menace to the welfare of the town and Colony; and must be
eliminated at any cost.
Late in December, 1770, a group of eminent townsmen met at the
home of Stephen Hopkins and debated tentative measures.
Weeden's notes, which he had given to Captain Mathewson, were
carefully read; and he and Smith were summoned to give testimony
anent details. Something very like fear seized the whole assemblage
before the meeting was over, though there ran through that fear a
grim determination which Captain Whipple's bluff and resonant
profanity best expressed. They would not notify the Governor,
because a more than legal course seemed necessary. With hidden
powers of uncertain extent apparently at his disposal, Curwen was
not a man who could safely be warned to leave town. He must be
surprised at his Pawtuxet farm by a large raiding party of seasoned
privateersmen and given one decisive chance to explain himself. If
he proved a madman, amusing himself with shrieked and imaginary
conversations in different voices, he would be properly confined. If
something graver appeared, and if the underground horrors indeed
turned out to be real, he and all with him must die. It could be done
quietly, and even the widow and her father need not be told how it
came about.
While these serious steps were under discussion there occurred in

the town an incident so terrible and inexplicable that for a time little
else was mentioned for miles around. In the middle of a moonlit
January night with heavy snow underfoot there resounded over the
river and up the hill a shocking series of cries which brought sleepy
heads to every window; and people around Weybosset Point saw a
great white thing plunging frantically along the badly cleared space in
front of the Turk's Head. There was a baying of dogs in the distance,
but this subsided as soon as the clamor of the awakened town
became audible. Parties of men with lanterns and muskets hurried
out to see what was happening, but nothing rewarded their search.
The next morning, however, a giant, muscular body, stark naked,
was found on the jams of ice around the southern piers of the Great
Bridge, where the Long Dock stretched out beside Abbott's distil-
house, and the identity of this object became a theme for endless
speculation and whispering. It was not so much the younger as the
older folk who whispered, for only in the patriarchs did that rigid face
with horror-bulging eyes strike any chord of memory. They, shaking
as they did so, exchanged furtive murmurs of wonder and fear; for in
those stiff, hideous features lay a resemblance so marvelous as to
be almost an identity—and that identity was with a man who had
died full fifty years before.
Ezra Weeden was present at the finding; and remembering the
baying of the night before, set out along Weybosset Street and
across Muddy Dock Bridge whence the sound had come. He had a
curious expectancy, and was not surprised when, reaching the edge
of the settled district where the street merged into the Pawtuxet
Road, he came upon some very curious tracks in the snow. The
naked giant had been pursued by dogs and many booted men, and
the returning tracks of the hounds and their masters could be easily
traced. They had given up the chase upon coming too near the town.
Weeden smiled grimly, and as a perfunctory detail traced the
footprints back to their source. It was the Pawtuxet farm of Joseph
Curwen, as he well knew it would be; and he would have given much
had the yard been less confusingly trampled. As it was, he dared not
seem too interested in full daylight. Dr. Bowen, to whom Weeden
went at once with his report, performed an autopsy on the strange
corpse, and discovered peculiarities which baffled him utterly. The
digestive tracts of the huge man seemed never to have been in use,
whilst the whole skin had a coarse, loosely-knit texture impossible to
account for. Impressed by what the old man whispered of this body's
likeness to the long-dead blacksmith Daniel Green, whose great-
grandson Aaron Hoppin was a supercargo in Curwen's employ,
Weeden asked casual questions till he found where Green was
buried. That night a party of ten visited the old North Burying Ground
opposite Herrenden's Lane and opened a grave. They found it
vacant, precisely as they had expected.
"They found the grave vacant—precisely as they had expected."
Meanwhile arrangements had been made with the post riders to

intercept Joseph Curwen's mail, and shortly before the incident of
the naked body there was found a letter from one Jedediah Orne of
Salem which made the coöperating citizens think deeply. Parts of it,
copied and preserved in the private archives of the Smith family
where Charles Ward found it, ran as follows:
I delight that you continue in ye getting at Olde Matters in your Way,
and doe not think better was done at Mr. Hutchinson's in Salem-
Village. Certainly, there was Noth'g butt ye liveliest Awfulness in that
which H. rais'd upp from what he cou'd gather onlie a part of. What
you sente, did not Worke, whether because Any Thing miss'g, or
because ye Wordes were not Righte from my Speak'g or yr copy'g.
Alone am at a Loss. I have not ye Chymicall art to followe Borellus,
and owne my Selfe confounded by ye VII. Booke of ye
Necronomicon that you recommende. But I wou'd have you Observe
what was tolde to us aboute tak'g Care whom to calle up, for you are
Sensible what Mr. Mather writ in ye Magnalia of ——, and can judge
how truely that Horrendous thing is reported. I say to you againe,
doe not call upp Any that you can not put downe; by the Which I
meane, Any that can in Turne call up somewhat against you,
whereby your Powerfullest Devices may not be of use. Ask of the
Lesser, lest the Greater shall not wish to Answer, and shall
commande more than you. I was frighted when I read of your know'g
what Ben Zariatnatmik hadde in his Ebony Boxe, for I was conscious
who must have told you. And againe I ask that you shalle write me
as Jedediah and not Simon. In this Community a Man may not live
too long, and you knowe my Plan by which I came back as my Son. I
am desirous you will Acquaint me with what ye Blacke Man learnt
from Sylvanus Cocidius in ye Vault, under ye Roman wall, and will
be oblig'd for ye Lend'g of ye MS. you speak of.
Another and unsigned letter from Philadelphia provoked equal
thought, especially for the following passage:
I will observe what you say respecting the sending of Accounts only
by yr Vessels, but can not always be certain when to expect them. In
the Matter spoke of, I require only one more thing; but wish to be
sure I apprehend you exactly. You inform me, that no Part must be
missing if the finest Effects are to be had, but you can not but know
how hard it is to be sure. It seems a great Hazard and Burthen to
take away the whole Box, and in Town (i. e. St. Peter's, St. Paul's,
St. Mary's, or Christ Church) it can scarce be done at all. But I know
what Imperfections were in the one rais'd up October last, and how
many live Specimens you were forced to imploy before you hit upon
the right Mode in the year 1766; so will be guided by you in all
Matters. I am impatient for yr Brig, and inquire daily at Mr. Biddle's
Wharf.
A third suspicious letter was in an unknown tongue and even an
unknown alphabet. In the Smith diary found by Charles Ward a
single oft-repeated combination of characters is clumsily copied; and
authorities at Brown University have pronounced the alphabet
Amharic or Abyssinian, although they do not recognize the word.
None of these epistles was ever delivered to Curwen, though the
disappearance of Jedediah Orne from Salem as recorded shortly
afterward showed that the Providence men took certain quiet steps.
Curwen, despite all precautions, apparently felt that something was
in the wind; for he was now remarked to wear an unusually worried
look. His coach was seen at all hours in the town and on the
Pawtuxet Road, and he dropped little by little the air of forced
geniality with which he had latterly sought to combat the town's
prejudice. The nearest neighbors to his farm, the Fenners, one night
remarked a great shaft of light shooting into the sky from some
aperture in the roof of that cryptical stone building with the high
excessively narrow windows; an event which they quickly
communicated to John Brown in Providence.
Mr. Brown had become the executive leader of the select group bent
on Curwen's extirpation, and had informed the Fenners that some
action was about to be taken. To them Mr. Brown had entrusted the
duty of watching the Curwen farmhouse, and of regularly reporting
every incident which took place there.
The probability that Curwen was on guard and attempting unusual

things, as suggested by the odd shaft of light, precipitated at last the
action so carefully devised by the band of serious citizens. According
to the Smith diary a company of about one hundred men met at ten
P.M. on Friday, April twelfth, 1771, in the great room of Thurston's
Tavern at the Sign of the Golden Lion on Weybosset Point across
the Bridge. Of the guiding group of prominent men in addition to the
leader, John Brown, there were present Dr. Bowen, with his case of
surgical instruments, President Manning without the great periwig
(the largest in the Colonies) for which he was noted, Governor
Hopkins, wrapped in a dark cloak and accompanied by his seafaring
brother Eseh whom he had initiated at the last moment with the
permission of the rest, John Carter, Captain Mathewson, and
Captain Whipple, who was to lead the actual raiding party. These
chiefs conferred apart in a rear chamber, after which Captain
Whipple emerged to the great room and gave the gathered seamen
their last oaths and instructions. Eleazar Smith was with the leaders
as they sat in the rear apartment awaiting the arrival of Ezra
Weeden, whose duty was to keep track of Curwen and report the
departure of his coach for the farm.
About ten-thirty a heavy rumble was heard on the Great Bridge,
followed by the sound of a coach in the street outside; and at that
hour there was no need of waiting for Weeden in order to know that
the doomed man had set out for his last night of unhallowed
wizardry. A moment later, as the receding coach clattered faintly over
the Muddy Dock Bridge, Weeden appeared; and the raiders fell
silently into military order in the street, shouldering the firelocks,
fowling-pieces, or whaling harpoons which they had with them.
Weeden and Smith were with the party, and of the deliberating
citizens there were present for active service Captain Whipple, the
leader, Captain Eseh Hopkins, John Carter, President Manning,
Captain Mathewson, and Dr. Bowen; together with Moses Brown,
who had come up at the eleventh hour though absent from the
preliminary session in the tavern. All these freemen and their
hundred sailors began the long march without delay, grim and a trifle
apprehensive as they left the Muddy Dock behind and mounted the
gentle rise of Broad Street toward the Pawtuxet Road.
An hour and a quarter later the raiders arrived, as previously agreed,
at the Fenner farmhouse; where they heard a final report on their
intended victim. He had reached his farm more than half an hour
before, and the strange light had soon afterward shot once into the
sky. There were no lights in any visible windows, but this was always
the case of late. Even as this news was given another great glare
arose toward the south, and the party realized that they had indeed
come close to the scene of awesome and unnatural wonders.
Captain Whipple now ordered his force to separate into three
divisions; one of twenty men under Eleazar Smith to strike across to
the shore and guard the landing-place against possible
reinforcements for Curwen until summoned by a messenger for
desperate service; a second of twenty men under Captain Eseh
Hopkins to steal down into the river valley behind the Curwen farm
and demolish with axes or gunpowder the oaken door in the high,
steep bank; and the third to close in on the house and adjacent
buildings themselves. Of this last division one third was to be led by
Captain Mathewson to the cryptical stone edifice with high narrow
windows, another third to follow Captain Whipple himself to the main
farmhouse, and the remaining third to preserve a circle around the
whole group of buildings until summoned by a final emergency
signal.
The river party would break down the hillside door at the sound of a
single whistle-blast, waiting and capturing anything which might
issue from the regions within. At the sound of two whistle blasts it
would advance through the aperture to oppose the enemy or join the
rest of the raiding contingent. The party at the stone building would
accept these respective signals in an analogous manner; forcing an
entrance at the first, and at the second descending whatever
passage into the ground might be discovered, and joining the
general or focal warfare expected to take place within the caverns. A
third or emergency signal of three blasts would summon the
immediate reserve from its general guard duty; its twenty men
dividing equally and entering the unknown depths through both
farmhouse and stone building. Captain Whipple's belief in the
existence of catacombs was absolute, and he took no alternative into
consideration when making his plans. He had with him a whistle of
great power and shrillness and did not fear any mistaking or
misunderstanding of signals. The final reserve at the landing, of
course, was nearly out of the whistle's range; hence, would require a
special messenger if needed for help. Moses Brown and John Carter
went with Captain Hopkins to the river-bank, while President
Manning was detailed with Captain Mathewson to the stone building.
Dr. Bowen, with Ezra Weeden, remained in Captain Whipple's party
which was to storm the farmhouse itself. The attack was to begin as
soon as a messenger from Captain Hopkins had joined Captain
Whipple to notify him of the river party's readiness. The leader would
then deliver the loud single blast, and the various advance parties
would commence their simultaneous attack on three points. Shortly
before one A.M. the three divisions left the Fenner farmhouse; one to
guard the landing, another to seek the river valley and the hillside
door, and the third to subdivide and attend to the actual buildings of
the Curwen farm.
Eleazar Smith, who accompanied the shore-guarding party, records

in his diary an uneventful march and a long wait on the bluff by the
bay; broken once by what seemed to be the distant sound of the
signal whistle and again by a peculiar muffled blend of roaring and
crying and a powder blast which seemed to come from the same
direction. Later on one man thought he caught some distant
gunshots, and still later Smith himself felt the throb of titanic
thunderous words resounding in upper air. It was just before dawn
that a single haggard messenger with wild eyes and a hideous
unknown odor about his clothing appeared and told the detachment
to disperse quietly to their homes and never again think or speak of
the night's doings or of him who had been Joseph Curwen.
Something about the bearing of the messenger carried a conviction
which his mere words could never have conveyed; for though he
was a seaman well known to many of them, there was something
obscurely lost or gained in his soul which set him for evermore apart.
It was the same later on when they met other old companions who
had gone into that zone of horror. Most of them had lost or gained
something imponderable and indescribable. They had seen or heard
or felt something which was not for human creatures, and could not
forget it. From them there was never any gossip, for to even the
commonest of mortal instincts there are terrible boundaries. And
from that single messenger the party at the shore caught a nameless
awe which almost sealed their own lips. Very few are the rumors
which ever came from any of them, and Eleazar Smith's diary is the
only written record which has survived from that whole expedition
which set forth from the Sign of the Golden Lion under the Stars.
Charles Ward, however, discovered another vague sidelight in some

Fenner correspondence which he found in New London, where he
knew another branch of the family had lived. It seems that the
Fenners, from whose house the doomed farm was distantly visible,
had watched the departing columns of raiders; and had heard very
clearly the angry barking of the Curwen dogs, followed by the first
shrill blast which precipitated the attack. This blast had been
followed by a repetition of the great shaft of light from the stone
building, and in another moment, after a quick sounding of the
second signal ordering a general invasion, there had come a
subdued rattle of musketry followed by a horrible roaring cry which
the correspondent Luke Fenner had represented in his epistle by the
characters "Waaaahrrrrr—R'waaahrrr." This cry, however, had
possessed a quality which no mere writing could convey, and the
correspondent mentions that his mother fainted completely at the
sound. It was later repeated less loudly, and further but more muffled
evidences of gunfire ensued; together with a loud explosion of
powder from the direction of the river. About an hour afterward all the
dogs began to bay frightfully, and there were vague ground
rumblings so marked that the candlesticks tottered on the
mantelpiece. A strong smell of sulphur was noted; and Luke
Fenner's father declared that he heard the third or emergency
whistle signal, though the others failed to detect it. Muffled musketry
sounded again, followed by a deep scream less piercing but even
more horrible than those which had preceded it; a kind of throaty,
nastily plastic cough or gurgle whose quality as a scream must have
come more from its continuity and psychological import than from its
actual acoustic value.
Then the flaming thing burst into sight at a point where the Curwen
farm ought to lie, and the human cries of desperate and frightened
men were heard. Muskets flashed and cracked, and the flaming
thing fell to the ground. A second flaming thing appeared, and a
shriek of human origin was plainly distinguished. Fenner wrote that
he could even gather a few words belched in frenzy: "Almighty,
protect thy lamb!" Then there were more shots, and the second
flaming thing fell. After that came silence for about three-quarters of
an hour; at the end of which time little Arthur Fenner, Luke's brother,
exclaimed that he saw "a red fog" going up to the stars from the
accursed farm in the distance. No one but the child can testify to this,
but Luke admits the significant coincidence implied by the panic of
almost convulsive fright which at the same moment arched the backs
and stiffened the fur of the three cats then within the room.
Five minutes later a chill wind blew up, and the air became suffused
with such an intolerable stench that only the strong freshness of the
sea could have prevented its being noticed by the shore party or by
any wakeful souls in Pawtuxet village. This stench was nothing
which any of the Fenners had ever encountered before, and
produced a kind of clutching, amorphous fear beyond that of the
tomb or the charnel-house. Close upon it came the awful voice which
no hapless hearer will ever be able to forget. It thundered out of the
sky like a doom, and windows rattled as its echoes died away. It was
deep and musical; powerful as a bass organ, but evil as the
forbidden books of the Arabs. What it said no man can tell, for it
spoke in an unknown tongue, but this is the writing Luke Fenner set
down to portray the daemoniac intonations: "DEESMEES—JESHET
—BONEDOSEFEDUVEMA—ENITEMOSS." Not till the year 1919
did any soul link this crude transcript with anything else in mortal
knowledge, but Charles Ward paled as he recognized what
Mirandola had denounced in shudders as the ultimate horror among
black magic's incantations.
An unmistakably human shout or deep chorused scream seemed to
answer this malign wonder from the Curwen farm, after which the
unknown stench grew complex with an added odor equally
intolerable. A wailing distinctly different from the scream now burst
out and was protracted ululantly in rising and falling paroxysms. At
times it became almost articulate, though no auditor could trace any
definite words; and at one point it seemed to verge toward the
confines of diabolic and hysterical laughter. Then a yell of utter,
ultimate fright and stark madness wrenched from scores of human
throats; a yell which came strong and clear despite the depth from
which it must have burst; after which darkness and silence ruled all
things. Spirals of acrid smoke ascended to blot out the stars, though
no flames appeared, and no buildings were observed to be gone or
injured on the following day.
Toward dawn two frightened messengers with monstrous and
unplaceable odor saturating their clothing knocked at the Fenner
door and requested a keg of rum for which they paid very well
indeed. One of them told the family that the affair of Joseph Curwen
was over, and that the events of the night were not to be mentioned
again. Arrogant as the order seemed, the aspect of him who gave it
took away all resentment and lent it a fearsome authority; so that
only these furtive letters of Luke Fenner, which he urged his
Connecticut relative to destroy, remain to tell what was seen and
heard. The non-compliance of that relative, whereby the letters were
saved after all, has alone kept the matter from a merciful oblivion.
Charles Ward had one detail to add as a result of a long canvass of
Pawtuxet residents for ancestral traditions. Old Charles Slocum of
that village said that there was known to his grandfather a queer
rumor concerning a charred, distorted body found in the fields a
week after the death of Joseph Curwen was announced. What kept
the talk alive was the notion that this body, so far as could be seen in
its burnt and twisted condition, was neither thoroughly human nor
wholly allied to any animal which Pawtuxet folk had ever seen or
read about.
Not one man who participated in that terrible raid could ever be
induced to say a word concerning it, and every fragment of the
vague data which survives comes from those outside the final
fighting party. There is something frightful in the care with which
these actual raiders destroyed each scrap which bore the least
allusion to the matter.
Eight sailors had been killed, but although their bodies were not
produced their families were satisfied with the statement that a clash
with customs officers had occurred. The same statement also
covered the numerous cases of wounds, all of which were
extensively bandaged and treated only by Dr. Jabez Bowen, who
had accompanied the party. Hardest to explain was the nameless
odor clinging to all the raiders, a thing which was discussed for
weeks. Of the citizen leaders, Captain Whipple and Moses Brown
were most severely hurt, and letters of their wives testify the
bewilderment which their reticence and close guarding of their
bandages produced. Psychologically every participant was aged,
sobered, and shaken. It is fortunate that they were all strong men of
action and simple, orthodox religionists, for with more subtle
introspectiveness and mental complexity they would have fared ill
indeed. President Manning was the most disturbed; but even he
outgrew the darkest shadow, and smothered memories in prayers.
Every man of those leaders had a stirring part to play in later years,
and it is perhaps fortunate that this is so. Little more than a twelve-
month afterward Captain Whipple led the mob who burnt the
revenue ship Gaspee, and in this bold act we may trace one step in
the blotting out of unwholesome images.
There was delivered to the widow of Joseph Curwen a sealed leaden
coffin of curious design, obviously found ready on the spot when
needed, in which she was told her husband's body lay. He had, it
was explained, been killed in a customs battle about which it was not
politic to give details. More than this no tongue ever uttered of
Joseph Curwen's end, and Charles Ward had only a single hint
wherewith to construct a theory. This hint was the merest thread—a
shaky underscoring of a passage in Jedediah Orne's confiscated
letter to Curwen, partly copied in Ezra Weeden's handwriting. The
copy was found in the possession of Smith's descendants; and we
are left to decide whether Weeden gave it to his companion after the
end, as a mute clue to the abnormality which had occurred, or
whether, as is more probable, Smith had it before, and added the
underscoring himself from what he had managed to extract from his
friend by shrewd guessing and adroit cross-questioning. The
underlined passage is merely this:
I say to you againe, doe not call up Any that you cannot put downe;
by the which I meane, Any that can in turn calle up somewhat
against you, whereby your powerfullest Devices may not be of use.
Ask of the Lesser, lest the Greater shall not wish to Answer, and
shall commande more than you.
In the light of this passage, and reflecting on what last
unmentionable allies a beaten man might try to summon in his direst
extremity, Charles Ward may well have wondered whether any
citizen of Providence killed Joseph Curwen.
The deliberate effacement of every memory of the dead man from
Providence life and annals was vastly aided by the influence of the
raiding leaders. They had not at first meant to be so thorough, and
had allowed the widow and her father and child to remain in
ignorance of the true conditions; but Captain Tillinghast was an
astute man, and soon uncovered enough rumors to whet his horror
and cause him to demand that his daughter and grand-daughter
change their name, burn the library and all remaining papers, and
chisel the inscription from the slate slab above Joseph Curwen's
grave. He knew Captain Whipple well, and probably extracted more
hints from that bluff mariner than anyone else ever gained respecting
the end of the accursed sorcerer.
From that time on the obliteration of Curwen's memory became
increasingly rigid, extending at last by common consent even to the
town records and files of the Gazette. It can be compared in spirit
only to the hush that lay on Oscar Wilde's name for a decade after
his disgrace, and in extent only to the fate of that sinful King of
Runagur in Lord Dunsany's tale, whom the gods decided must not
only cease to be, but must cease ever to have been.
Mrs. Tillinghast, as the widow became known after 1772, sold the
house in Olney Court and resided with her father in Power's Lane till
her death in 1817. The farm at Pawtuxet, shunned by every living
soul, remained to molder through the years; and seemed to decay
with unaccountable rapidity. By 1780 only the stone and brickwork
were standing, and by 1800 even these had fallen to shapeless
heaps. None ventured to pierce the tangled shrubbery on the river-

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Autism Spectrum Disorders:

Foundations, Characteristics, and

Pivotal Response Treatment for Autism Spectrum

Autism Spectrum Disorders: From Theory to Practice

Effective Training: Systems, Strategies, and Practices

Language Intervention Strategies in Aphasia and Related

Effective Management 7th Edition – Ebook PDF Version

PEERS? for Young Adults: Social Skills Training for

Introduction to 80×86 Assembly Language and Computer

Effective Grants Management 1st Edition – Ebook PDF

Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Boutot, E. Amanda, editor of compilation, author. | Myles,

Package ISBN 10: 0-13-383369-0

Chapter 1 Overview of Autism Spectrum Disorders 1

Chapter 1 Overview of Autism Spectrum Disorders 1

Chapter 2 Evidence-Based Practices for Educating Students

Chapter 3 Working with Families of Children with

Chapter 4 Environmental Arrangement to

Chapter 5 Teaching Students with Autism Using the

Chapter 6 Teaching Students with Autism to

Chapter 7 Social Challenges of Children and Youth with

Chapter 8 Daily Living Skills 141

Chapter 9 Effective Practices for Teaching

Chapter 10 Play-Focused Interventions for Young Children

Chapter 11 Assistive Technology for Learners with

Assistive Technology Service Delivery Systems 188

Chapter 12 Motor Consideration for Individuals

Chapter 13 Sexuality Education for Students with ASD 205

Chapter 14 Transition to Postsecondary Environments for

Updated and Expanded Coverage

New to this Edition

Features of the Text

Autism Spectrum Disorders

Box 1.1 Diversity Notes

Diagnosing Autism Spectrum Disorders

Figure 1.1 IDEA Definition of Autism

Autism: A developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal communi-

Causes of Autism Spectrum Disorders

Box 1.2 Research Notes

Characteristics of Autism Spectrum Disorders

Pragmatic Language In higher-functioning children with ASD, their functional lan-

Using Language in Odd Ways

The Literal Interpretation of Language

In 1766 came the final change in Joseph Curwen. It was very

It is gathered that Weeden and Smith became early convinced that a

While these serious steps were under discussion there occurred in

Meanwhile arrangements had been made with the post riders to

The probability that Curwen was on guard and attempting unusual

Eleazar Smith, who accompanied the shore-guarding party, records

Charles Ward, however, discovered another vague sidelight in some

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