Sociology Test Series

Model Answer Test-II

Q1. What are variables? Discuss their role in experimental research.

Ans- [ Framework-1) what are variables 2) different types of variables 3) what is experimental
research 4) what is the role of variables?]

Experimental research mainly focuses on the relationship between two or more variables.

Variables are the aspects of reality to be studied. They are the characteristics of some events,
objects, persons, places, or a thing that are observable measurable, and can take more than one
value or vary.

Looking at the relationship between variables, one can distinguish between

i. Independent variables and

ii. Dependent variables

Independent variables have causal significance and precede dependent variables which are seen as
the effect. For example – smoking (Independent ) may lead to cancer (dependent).

Experimental research tries to test the hypothesis under controlled conditions wherein the sample
is to be studied in two like parts by matching and randomisation viz

i. Experimental group and

ii. Control group which is used as a standard for comparison with the experimental group.

Independent variables are introduced in the experimental group while the control group is
insulated.

The effect of the independent variable on the dependent variables is observed by comparing the
experimental groups with the control group.

Thus the relationship between independent and dependent variables forms the basis of
experimental research.
However, such a classic design of experimental research is only rarely possible in sociology.
Modified forms of experimental research are adopted wherever conditions permit.

Q2. Examine the basic postulates of Positivism and post-Positivism.

Ans- The term Positivism was popularised by the French founder of sociology Auguste Comte. It
referred to the idea that society needs to be studied scientifically. Other prominent sociologists
who subscribe to positivist traditions include Spencer, Durkheim, A R Radcliffe-Brown,
Malinowski, Parsons, and Merton, etc.

Basic postulates of the Positivist approach in sociology include the following-

i. Unity of scientific method. Sociology is no different from natural sciences as far as

methodology is concerned although they admit that experimentation is rarely possible in
sociology.
ii. Social reality is amenable to empirical observation.
iii. There exist patterns of inter-connection in social reality which can be discovered through
repeated observation and presented in the form of Generalisations.
iv. Positivists emphasize on close interplay between theory and research where theory guides
research.
v. Positivism celebrates objectivity and value neutrality separating the facts from value and
the knower from the known.

However, the positivist approach has been criticized for failing to be adequately scientific. Also,
many critics have questioned the very desirability of adopting the positivist approach.

Post-positivisim is a stance that amends Positivism in the light of the above-mentioned criticism.
While positivists emphasize independence between researchers and the object of research, post-
Positivists admit that background knowledge and values of the observer influence what is
observed. They do pursue objectivity but acknowledge limited success because of biases which
are inevitable.

Positivists emphasize quantitative methods, post- positivists regard qualitative methods also as
valid approaches. Unlike Positivists, post-positivists believe that reality can be known only
imperfectly and probabilistically.
However, post-positivism is not a rejection of positivism but rather, it is an attempt to reform
positivism. In fact, it re-introduces the basic assumptions of positivism, for example, the
desirability of objective truth, etc.

Q3. Examine Ethnomethodological and Phenomenological perspectives as a critique of

Positivism?

Ans- As positivism developed as the dominant tradition in sociology. Anti-positivist critique also
developed as manifested in approaches like Ethnomethodology and Phenomenological Anti-
positivist perspective questions. Some of the basic assumptions of Positivism regarding the nature
of social reality and the methods to be adopted to understand and explain social reality.

Positivists like Durkheim claimed that social reality consists of objective social facts which are
independent of the observer.

There exist patterns of interconnection that can be discovered through detached observation and
presented as generalizations.

Anti-positivists contest these assumptions-

According to Ethnomethodological and Phenomenological perspectives, social reality does not

have an objective existence. Social reality is socially constructed. Human beings make sense of
the world on the basis of common sense, meanings, and classifications. These meanings and
classifications make up social reality. There is no objective reality beyond this. Even statistical
data are social products reflecting the meanings of those who created them.

Furthermore, Ethnomethodological and Phenomenological perspectives deny the possibility of

discovering causal generalizations rather they emphasize on the internal working of the human
mind and the way humans classify and make sense of the world.

According to phenomenologists sociologists should limit themselves to understanding meanings

and classification which people use to create a semblance of order in the social world and make
sense of this world.

Ethnomologists go a step further and also explore the methods which people use to give meaning
to the world around them. However, Ethnomethodological and Phenomenological perspectives are
only micro-sociological approaches that rely on qualitative methods.
Q4. How do you distinguish between sociology and common sense?

Ans- [Framework- 1)what is sociology? 2) what is common sense 3) how do they differ?

Sociology is systematically and methodically acquired knowledge. The sociologist follows well-
defined procedures to collect information that forms the basis of knowledge. The knowledge so
acquired is subjected to rational critical review before it is accepted.

On the other hand, common sense refers to randomly or even haphazardly acquired beliefs and
attitudes that guide everyday practical life. These beliefs and attitudes are often accepted
uncritically.

Sociologists use a variety of methodical approaches. Positivists adopt methods of natural sciences.
Even critiques of Positivism follow methodical procedures. For example, Phenomenologists and
Ethnomethodologists are opposed to Positivism. They are concerned with how people make sense
of their everyday world using common sense. Though they focus on common sense ideas to explain
how people produce meaning, even they make a clear distinction between common sense based
everday life of people and the methodical and rational approach of the sociologist.

Sociological ideas are based on carefully observed data and assumptions are empirically tested.
On the other hand, common sense ideas lack sound empirical basis and assumptions remain
untested.

Sociologists adopt a debunking attitude towards the social world. They try to go beyond the
obvious and search for underlying causes and latent consequences (Marx, Merton). But common
sense is very often based on uncritically acquired superficial knowledge.

Sociologists have a special way of looking at a social life. They recognize the existence of social
reality as a distinct level of reality and explain human behavior in its social context.

On the other hand, common sense treats social life as a mere collection of individuals and explains
human behavior in terms of either sociological nature or individual-based pseudo-psychological
factors.

However, sometimes sociological ideas are in agreement with common sense-based beliefs but
very often sociology questions and reject such beliefs.
Q5. Explain the social and intellectual conditions which contributed to the emergence of sociology.

Ans- Sociology, an attempt toward the scientific study of social life, emerged only in 19th-century
western Europe. Its origins and character were shaped by the social and intellectual conditions that
prevailed at that time.

The social conditions created the need for new knowledge to understand the emergent chaotic
situation and to transform it. the intellectual conditions provided the means to do so.

Social conditions-

-Western Europe underwent profound changes with the rise of capitalist industrial society that
followed the decimation of a feudal agrarian society.

-These changes produced a paradoxical situation characterized by the coexistence of hope and
despair.

-On the positive side, the growth of science and technology-enhanced mastery over nature and
capitalism created unprecedented wealth for some. These conditions raised hope for a better future.

-There was a traumatic side too.

-Emergence of new social classes of Bourgeoisie and Proletariat polarized society and accentuated
inequality. Proletariat, who constituted the majority, lived in abject poverty.

- Misery of the poor further increased as the protection of community and kinship bonds was
destroyed due to rapid urbanization.

- Class wars, crime, disease, pollution, and unhygienic life for the majority came to characterize
social life.

- As the locus of economic power shifted from the landed class to the new class of Bourgeosie, the
traditional feudal monarchical political order was challenged. Beginning with the French
revolution in 1789, violent revolution spread throughout Western Europe creating a state of near-
anarchy.

- These problems led to a craving for harmony and order.

- Traditional wisdom and religion had nothing to offer t solve these new problems. Hence, the need
for a new knowledge to understand and reconstruct society. Intellectual conditions helped to build
this new knowledge.

Intellectual conditions-

- As traditional beliefs and religions lost plausibility, science and scientific method gained
respectability for unraveling the mysteries of nature and for solving practical problems through
mastery over nature.

-By 18th century, a new current of social thought, called Enlightenment, emerged which
contributed to the emergence of sociology.

-Enlightened thinkers believed that

a) society was undergoing orderly progress. Therefore a better society could be created.

b) contemporary problems were seen as temporary blemishes which could be eliminated with
better knowledge.

c) a science of society, by combining reason and research could yield new knowledge for social
reconstruction.

- Counter-Enlightenment thought also contributed by emphasizing on peace and harmony as the

goals of the new science of society.

Q6. Is Sociology a science? Discuss

Ans- Science refers to a systematic body of certified and changing knowledge based on observable
facts.

A narrow view limits the idea of science to only natural sciences. Even sociology initially was
modelled on the pattern of natural science as is evident in the works of Comte, Durkheim,
Malinowski, Radcliffe-Brown, etc.

However, numerous shortcomings were encountered while practicing sociology on the positivistic
line.
 i. Problem of Experimentation- Experimentation is only rarely possible in sociology.
ii. Problem of Qualification- Qualification is possible only to a limited degree.
iii. Problem of Objectivity- at best the sociologist can minimize subjectivity.
iv. Problem of Generalisation- causal Generalisations are not possible, only correlations can
be established.

So, sociology has a poor record as natural science. However, these problems are inherent in the
very nature of the subject matter of sociology. Even matured sciences like Physics and Astronomy
encounter various subject matter-related problems.

Given the special nature of the subject matter of sociology, Weber cautioned that following the
natural science approach alone in sociology would be a serious mistake.

Social reality is characterized by the presence of meanings that can only be interpreted.In fact
Phenomenology and Ethnomethodology treat sociology as an interpretive discipline. Even Weber
supplemented positive science methods with new methods like Verstehem and Ideal type etc.

If we take a broad view of the idea of science wherein being scientific means being methodical
and relying on empirical data to the extent possible. Then sociology can be accepted as a science
of its own kind or rather it is a social science that relies on methods of positive sciences in macro-
level studies but tends to be as an interpretive discipline in microlevel investigation.

Q7. What is meant by value-free sociology? Examine Weber’s views in this context.

Ans- Sociology aspires to be a science therefore sociological inquiry should be unbiased and
uncontaminated by the personal and cultural values of the social scientist. But values are
inseparable from social behavior. Social research is itself a type of social behavior and therefore
involves values.

Weber tried to solve this conundrum. He admitted that values cannot be altogether eliminated from
social research. He distinguished between the area of value relevance and value neutrality.

In the course of the research, values enter at various levels.

i. The very choice of the topic of research is influenced by the values of the researcher.
 ii. Values are involved in the philological interpretation of texts as the source of data.
iii. At the level of assigning value to an object of inquiry
iv. At the level of rational interpretation in which the sociologist seeks the meaningful
relationship between phenomena for causal analysis.

In all the above cases values can not be avoided but according to Weber values should be confined
to these areas of technical competence otherwise the researcher should maintain value neutrality
which means-

i. Researcher should exclude ideological assumptions from research.

ii. Sociologists should not make an evaluative judgement about empirical evidence.
iii. Sociologists should refrain from advocating particular values.
iv. Sociologists should be value frank and should make their own values open and clear.

However, in practice, it is extremely difficult to observe value neutrality. Even Weber himself
could not adhere to his own prescriptions in his studies. Approaches like critical social research
advocate value committed research. Even feminists question the desirability of total value
neutrality.

Q8. “Participant observation is the most effective tool for collecting facts”. Comment.

Ans- Participant observation originally developed in social anthropology as a tool for data
collection but now has been widely accepted in sociology by sociologists following different
theoretical approaches.

As the name suggested, in participant observation, the observer carries out long-term observation
by becoming a passive and unobtrusive participant in the social life to be studied.

Participants observation involves the following steps-

i. Establishing a rapport so that the observer is accepted and wins the trust of the members
of the group. Here one has to strike a balance between being an outsider and being close to
the people. Observer is generally partly an overt and partly a covert participant in group
life.
 ii. Next step is nativization. Here the observer assumes a role in the group and at the same
time carry out observation. Participant observation is generally considered the most
effective tool for collecting data when either the sociologist is observing “other cultures”
or is interested in the collection of “qualitative” data.

Participant Observation is preferred for the following reasons-

a) It provides a first-hand picture of social life in its normal and natural setting. Consequently,
it has high ecological validity.
b) Prolonged contact with the group gives an opportunity for an in-depth understanding of
social life from the native subjective point of view.
c) In participant observation, there are no pre-set questions to be asked so the observer’s
biases are eliminated. As William Whyte commented, “As I sat listening, I got answers for
which I had no sense to ask questions”.
d) Since the observer wins the trust of the people, there is greater authenticity in the responses.
e) As the observation is direct the respondent's biases are also eliminated.

However, there are some limitations-

i. It cannot be replicated, reliability is low.

ii. Very time-consuming and demands a very high level of commitment from the observer.
iii. There is the danger of being too close and too involved on the part of the observer.
iv. Researcher may change the behavior of the group members.
v. Sample size being small, it is not suitable for arriving at generalization.

Q9. Non-Positivistic methodology is essential for understanding human behavior. Discuss.

Ans- Non-Positivist methodology refers to the methodological approaches suggested by Max

Weber, Symbolic Interactionists, and the Phenomenologist. These approaches developed as a
critical response to the dominant positivist tradition in Sociology.

The Positivists confine themselves to the externally observable and verifiable aspects of human
behavior. Their goal is to discover patterns of interconnection through repeated observation.
Although they have lent a scientific rigor to social research, their approach remains at best partial
and incomplete.

Following Neo-Kantians, Max Weber argued that human beings are endowed with consciousness
and respond to external stimuli meaningfully. Therefore the goal of social science methodology is
to understand human behavior. Something that is never achieved by relying upon the positivist
approach alone. For Weber, sociology is an interpretive understanding of social action. He
suggested the Verstehen method to understand human behavior at the level of meaning and
motives.

Other Non-Positivists like Phenomenologists go a step further. They believe that social reality has
no objective existence as presumed by the positivists, social reality is socially constructed by the
members on the basis of common-sense meanings. The task of the sociologists is to identify the
common-sense meanings and how the social reality is classified on the basis of these meanings.

The subjective dimension is ignored by the Positivists, therefore Non-Positivists methodology is

essential for understanding human behavior.

However, Non-Positivist approaches remain relevant in micro-sociological inquiry, while macro-

sociological research is dominated by Positivists.

Q10. “ The sociological imagination enables us to grasp history and biography and the relation
between the two in a society”. Explain.

Ans- The above-mentioned statement by C.W Mills explains the meaning of sociological
imagination.

The concept of sociological imagination was employed by him to refer to one of the basic issues
in sociology i.e, the relationship between individual and society. According to Mills individuals,
life is closely connected to the conditions of collective living.

Life, as it unfolds at the level of the individual, is manifested as biography and at the level of
society, is manifested as history. Both of them are interconnected. The individual while living out
his biography contributes to the shaping of history. At the same time, individual lives are molded
by the course of history. In fact, private troubles of the individual are caused by public issues.
However, this connection between the two is not appreciated by ordinary people who lack the
faculty of mind that Mills labels as sociological imagination. Endowed by this facility, the
sociologist describes the social structure and locates it in the course of history, and demonstrates
how individual personality is shaped by the nature of collectivity.