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bernheim
Bernheim and Whinston’s 2nd edition of Microeconomics is uniquely designed to appeal to a variety of learning
styles. The text offers a current take on core, traditional material and also covers exciting recent developments in whinston
microeconomics, such as game theory, information economics, and behavioral economics. All content is delivered
in a combination of print, digital, and mobile formats appropriate for the modern learner.
microeconomics
new to this edition
Calculus has been integrated in a unique way that makes the content equally appropriate for courses
that require calculus and those that don’t. Features include calculus-related text boxes next to applicable
discussions, calculus versions of Worked-Out Problems and In-Text Exercises, and calculus-based end-of-
chapter problems—all of which can easily be skipped if desired, allowing for fexibility in calculus coverage.
Enhanced and new features include video solutions for every In-Text Exercise, which walk students step-by-
step through the answers. Also, Read More Online content helps expand explanations beyond the text for better
student understanding.
McGraw-Hill Connect® Plus features auto-gradable assignable homework and study content, fully integrated with an
eBook offering search, highlight, and note-taking capability. All end-of-chapter exercises—Questions, Problems, and
Calculus Problems—will be assignable in Connect, along with the book’s Test Bank.
Within Connect, LearnSmart adaptive study modules help students master core concepts and terminology in each
chapter, making it easier for them to engage with the text’s numerous applications and relevant examples.
Barcodes within chapters provide mobile access to online resources, including calculus versions of the
Worked-Out Problems, the Read More Online feature, and video solutions for In-Text Exercises.
For more information, visit www.mhhe.com/bernheim2e
Md. Dalim #1223206 1/16/13 Cyan Mag Yelo Black

2e bernheim | whinston
microeconomics
ISBN 978-0-07-337585-4
MHID 0-07-337585-3
2e
EAN
www.mhhe.com
Rev.Confirming Pages
MICROECONOMICS
SECOND EDITION
B. Douglas Bernheim
Stanford University
Michael D. Whinston
Northwestern University
ber75853_fm_i-xxx.indd iii 25/01/13 10:13 AM

MICROECONOMICS, SECOND EDITION

Published by McGraw-Hill/Irwin, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of
the Americas, New York, NY, 10020. Copyright © 2014 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights
reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous edition © 2008. No part of this publication
may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system,
without the prior written consent of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., including, but not limited to, in
any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.
Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the
United States.
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Bernheim, B. Douglas.
Microeconomics / B. Douglas Bernheim, Michael D. Whinston.—Second edition.
pages cm.—(The McGraw-Hill series in economics)
Includes index.
ISBN 978-0-07-337585-4 (alk. paper)—ISBN 0-07-337585-3 (alk. paper)
1. Microeconomics. I. Whinston, Michael Dennis. II. Title.
HB172.B485 2014
338.5—dc23
2012049438
The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a web-
site does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill, and McGraw-Hill does not guaran-
tee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites.
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ber75853_fm_i-xxx.indd iv 25/01/13 10:13 AM

The McGraw-Hill Series in Economics

ESSENTIALS OF ECONOMICS ECONOMICS OF SOCIAL ISSUES URBAN ECONOMICS
Brue, McConnell, and Flynn Guell O’Sullivan
Essentials of Economics Issues in Economics Today Urban Economics
Third Edition Sixth Edition Eighth Edition
Mandel Sharp, Register, and Grimes LABOR ECONOMICS

Economics: The Basics Economics of Social lssues
Borjas
Second Edition Twentieth Edition
Labor Economics
Schiller ECONOMETRICS Sixth Edition
Essentials of Economics
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Eighth Edition
Basic Econometrics Contemporary Labor Economics
PRINCIPLES OF ECONOMICS Fifth Edition Tenth Edition
Colander Gujarati and Porter PUBLIC FINANCE

Economics, Microeconomics, and Essentials of Econometrics
Macroeconomics Fourth Edition Rosen and Gayer
Ninth Edition Public Finance
MANAGERIAL ECONOMICS Ninth Edition
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Baye and Prince Seidman
Principles of Economics,
Managerial Economics and Public Finance
Principles of Microeconomics,
Principles of Macroeconomics
Business Strategy First Edition
Eighth Edition
Fifth Edition ENVIRONMENTAL ECONOMICS
Brickley, Smith, and Zimmerman
Frank and Bemanke Field and Field
Managerial Economics and
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Principles of Microeconomics, Introduction
Fifth Edition
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Second Edition Thomas and Maurice
Managerial Economics INTERNATIONAL ECONOMICS
McConnell, Brue, and Flynn
Eleventh Edition Appleyard and Field
Economics, Microeconomics, and
Macroeconomics International Economics
INTERMEDIATE ECONOMICS Eighth Edition
Nineteenth Edition
Bernheim and Whinston
McConnell, Brue, and Flynn King and King
Microeconomics
Brief Editions: Microeconomics, and International Economics,
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Macroeconomics Globalization, and Policy:
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Tenth Edition
ber75853_fm_i-xxx.indd v 25/01/13 10:13 AM

Dedication
To our families
ber75853_fm_i-xxx.indd vi 25/01/13 10:13 AM

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

B. Douglas Bernheim is the Edward Ames Edmonds Professor of Economics at
Stanford University. He has also taught in the Department of Finance at Northwest-
ern University’s J.L. Kellogg Graduate School of Management and the Department of
Economics at Princeton University. He received his A.B. from Harvard University in
1979, and Ph.D. from M.I.T. in 1982. Professor Bernheim’s work has spanned a number
of fields, including public economics, political economy, game theory, contract theory,
behavioral economics, industrial organization, and financial economics. He is a Fellow
of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and of the Econometric Society. He
has also served as Co-Editor of the American Economic Review, the profession’s most
widely read journal. Professor Bernheim’s teaching has included undergraduate courses
in microeconomics and public economics, and graduate courses in microeconomics,
public economics, political economy, industrial organization, behavioral economics, and
insurance and risk management.
Michael D. Whinston is the Robert E. and Emily H. King Professor of Business

Institutions in the Department of Economics at Northwestern University, where he
also holds appointments at the Kellogg Graduate School of Management and the Law
School. Prior to moving to Northwestern, he taught at Harvard. Professor Whinston
received his B.S. from the Wharton School at the University of Pennsylvania in 1980,
his M.B.A. from the Wharton School in 1984, and his Ph.D. from M.I.T. in 1984. His
research has covered a variety of topics in microeconomics and industrial organization,
including game theory, the design of contracts and organizations, firm behavior in
oligopolistic markets, antitrust, and law and economics. Professor Whinston is a
co-author of the leading graduate textbook in microeconomics, Microeconomic Theory
[Oxford University Press, 1995]. He is a Fellow of the Econometric Society and has also
served as a Co-Editor of the RAND Journal of Economics, the leading journal in indus-
trial organization. His teaching has included undergraduate microeconomics, as well as
graduate courses in microeconomics, industrial organization, and competitive strategy.
Professors Bernheim and Whinston met during the early 1980s while in graduate school
at M.I.T., where they began a long and productive collaboration, as well as a close
friendship. Together they have co-authored eight published articles in addition to this
book. In the course of their collaboration, they have been known to argue with each
other for hours about trivial details, such as whether a sentence should use the word
“however” or “nevertheless.” It is a miracle that they managed to complete this book
and its revision for the second edition.
vii
ber75853_fm_i-xxx.indd vii 25/01/13 10:13 AM

PREFACE
ll of us confront an endless variety of economic choices. Some of those choices

involve personal matters such as financing the purchase of a new car or saving
for retirement. Some involve business matters such as cost-effective production
techniques or investment in new product development. Some involve matters of public
policy, such as whether to vote for a school bond initiative or a candidate who advocates
a particular flavor of health care reform. Sometimes good economic decision making is
just a matter of common sense. But in many situations, a command of basic microeco-
nomic principles helps us understand the consequences of our choices and make better
decisions.
Our object in writing this book is to provide students with a treatment of intermedi-
ate microeconomics that stimulates their interest in the field, introduces them to the tools
of the discipline, and starts them on the path toward “thinking like an economist.” Most
students will not turn out to be economists, but whether they end up making business
decisions, helping to design public policies, or simply managing their own money, the
tools of microeconomics can prove invaluable.
WHAT’S NEW IN THE

SECOND EDITION?
We received a great deal of helpful feedback on the first edition of Microeconomics, and
we paid careful attention to it. While we worked hard to improve the book in all dimen-
Read More
Online, Calculus sions, our main focus was on the insightful suggestions we received for enhancing its use-
Worked-Out fulness to students and instructors. The following is a quick synopsis of the main ways in
Problems, and
Calculus In-Text which the second edition differs from the first.
Exercises
available at
www.mhhe.com/
bernheim2e, or USE OF TECHNOLOGY
scan here. Need a barcode reader? Try
ScanLife, available in your app store. Recent technological developments have started to blur the boundaries of the traditional
textbook, opening new vistas for improved pedagogy. In producing the second edition,
we have taken advantage of these possibilities, creating a great deal of useful material
that does not appear in the physical book. Microeconomics is the most digitally focused
product available for the intermediate microeconomics course.
For students using smartphones and tablets, scanning barcodes (or QR codes) located
within the chapters provide immediate access to more resources. There are two types of
codes in each chapter.
> The barcode appearing on the first page of each chapter gives students access to
additional chapter resources which include:
• Read More Online features for that chapter.
• Calculus Worked-Out Problems that mirror the chapter’s Worked-Out Problems.
• Calculus In-Text Exercises that mirror the In-Text Exercises in the chapter.
• Solutions to the Calculus In-Text Exercises.
viii
ber75853_fm_i-xxx.indd viii 25/01/13 10:13 AM

> The barcodes next to each In-Text Exercise lead the student to text and video solu-
tions for that chapter’s exercises. Students are encouraged to work through the In-Text
Exercises themselves and then check either solution format to check their answer, or Want the video or
to get help if they’re unsure how to solve the problem. The video solutions add extra text solution? Visit
www.mhhe.com/
commentary so students can clearly understand the thought processes involved in bernheim2e or
solving these exercises. They are valuable study tools for completing homework and scan here. Need a
barcode reader? Try
preparing for exams. ScanLife, available in
your app store.
Students not using smartphones or tablets can access the same resources by clicking
the barcodes when viewing the eBook or by going to www.mhhe.com/bernheim2e.
Microeconomics is also designed to be used with McGraw-Hill Connect Plus® Eco-
nomics, an online assessment and grading program that allows instructors to administer
homework entirely online. (See more details at the end of this preface and on the inside
cover.) Connect Plus Economics includes the following elements:
> End-of-chapter questions and problems available both as they appear in the text and
ber75853_ch05_118-161.indd 123 11/12/12 3:16 PM
as algorithmic variations—the same question but with different values to solve for.
> Graphing problems.
> Detailed feedback for each question and problem. Select problems have video feed-
back so students can view step-by-step solutions and explanations.
> LearnSmart™, an adaptive learning system that uses a series of probing questions to
pinpoint each student’s knowledge gaps, is available as part of Connect. LearnSmart
analyzes the gaps and then provides an optimal learning path for each student.
> A media-rich, interactive eBook is included in Connect Plus, which contains links to
the special features in the barcodes as well as other resources. Also, as students are
working on a homework problem in Connect, there will be a link from that problem
to the appropriate place in the eBook where a student can get more help.
A FLEXIBLE ROLE FOR CALCULUS

We re-engineered the second edition so that it is equally appropriate for courses that
require calculus and those that don’t. The fundamental concepts and intuitions of micro-
economics remain the same regardless of whether calculus is used. For example, in both
cases, students need to learn about marginal cost and its relationship to total cost. Also,
in both cases, all but the most mathematically inclined students understand these con-
cepts best when they are explained with the same clear diagrams. While students who If you have the formula
know calculus can perform the extra step of taking the relevant derivative (for example, for an indifference
to obtain the marginal function curve from the total function curve), this step is easily curve, you can find
the marginal rate of substitution
compartmentalized. That is what we have done in this edition. Calculus is included in the by taking the derivative and
following ways: multiplying by 21. To see a
worked-out example, look at
> Calculus concepts are explained in text boxes and are indicated with an icon. Read More Online 4.3.
> Calculus versions of the text’s Worked-Out Problems and In-Text Exercises are avail-
able to students in two ways.
• Access materials directly online, either through the Connect Plus ebook or through
the text’s website at www.mhhe.com/bernheim2e.
ix
ber75853_fm_i-xxx.indd ix 25/01/13 10:13 AM

IN-TEXT EXERCISE 3.3 Suppose • By scanning a barcode at the beginning of the chapter using a smartphone or
for up to six hours. The total benef tablet, students can get instant access to these materials without needing to log
total cost is C(H ) 5 110H 1 24H
onto their computers. Whenever there is a calculus version of an In-Text Exercise
benefit is MB(H ) 5 654 2 80H
What is your best choice? or Worked-Out Problem, the calculus icon appears next to it.
> The end-of-chapter exercises include calculus problems. To simplify the process of
assigning suitable problems, we organize these exercises into three groups: Discus-
sion Questions, Problems, and Calculus Problems. In many cases, we provide both
calculus and non-calculus versions of the same exercise. While calculus has many
important uses in microeconomics, we take the view that, at the intermediate level,
non-calculus students can solve the same quantitative problems as calculus students,
as long as they are provided with the formulas for marginal cost, marginal, utility,
and the like. The task of deriving those formulas by taking a derivative is primarily a
quick technical step in the solution of the typical problem, rather than an economi-
cally interesting one.
STREAMLINED EXPOSITION
The typical course in intermediate microeconomics covers a lot of ground. But the reality
is that students have limited time and patience for unnecessarily long-winded explanations.
So it is important to address each topic with an economy of words. Short. Clear. Punchy.
We’ve put in a lot of work to make sure each section of our text fits that description. We’ve
also streamlined the text by converting optional materials to Read More Online features.
RETAINED CORE PRINCIPLES

While much has changed between the first and second editions, much has also remained
the same. It is therefore worth reaffirming our commitment to the principles we articu-
lated in the preface to the first edition.
> Accessibility. Microeconomics teaches economic principles and builds economic
intuition without heavy reliance on formal mathematics.
> Clarity. We have worked hard to make sure that the writing in Microeconomics is
transparent, the explanations are clear and intuitive, and the graphs lead students
naturally through the key ideas.
> Up-to-date coverage. The book covers exciting recent developments in microeconom-
ics, drawing for example on game theory, information economics, and behavioral
economics, and providing applications involving topics of current interest.
ber75853_ch03_057-082.indd 71
> Accuracy. Microeconomics employs clear and understandable
10/19/12 8:00 PM
explanations of micro-
economic principals without resorting to common “fudges” that appear in many
other texts.
> Usefulness. Students learn to solve quantitative problems whether or not they use
calculus.
> Relevance. In Microeconomics, we always explain why we ask the student to learn a
particular concept, and underscore the material’s relevance by featuring fact-based
applications.
ber75853_fm_i-xxx.indd x 25/01/13 10:13 AM

PEDAGOGY FOR STUDENT SUCCESS

A wealth of additional learning features and enrichment materials are provided within
the text and online to supplement students’ understanding of the subject matter.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES L EARNING O BJECTIVES

Each chapter begins with a list of key learning
objectives to help focus planning for instructors and After reading this chapter, students should be able to:
studying for students. } Explain what supply and demand curves for a good, and supply and
demand functions, represent.
} Identify various market forces that shift supply and demand curves.
} Use the concept of market equilibrium to calculate the equilibrium price
Application 2.2 and the amount bought and sold.
A Room with a View (and its Price) } Evaluate how changes in demand or supply affect market equilibrium.
} Understand elasticity and the way economists use it to measure the
T he elegant Bar Harbor Inn overlooks beautiful Frenchman’s
Bay in Bar Harbor, Maine, just minutes from Acadia National
Park. At the height of the summer tourist season, the inn’s most
expensive rooms cost over $350 per night. Unfortunately, those
same tourists have little interest in visiting once the leaves have
fallen from the trees. By then, they’re thinking of Caribbean
beaches or the ski slopes in Colorado and Utah.
APPLICATIONS
As a result, the price of hotel rooms at Bar Harbor’s many inns,
which together make up the supply in this market, vary greatly by
These in-text boxes highlight real-world examples
season. As Figure 2.7 shows, the supply curve for hotel rooms in
Bar Harbor is the same in November as in July.3 The quantity Q is
The Bar Harbor Inn
that put concepts into practice.
the total number of rooms. At high prices, innkeepers want to rent
all those rooms, but at low prices, they withdraw some rooms
from the supply, since the price no longer compensates them the price in November (PNov ) is much lower than the price in
for the expense and effort of serving customers. (In the dead of (PJuly ). In 2012, for example, a tourist paid $385 a night to sta
winter, some inn owners close temporarily and take a vacation.) the Bar Harbor Inn’s best room during July, but only $165 a n
The demand in the two months is very different however so that to stay in the same room during November
WORKED-OUT PROBLEMS WORKED-OUT PROBLEM 4.2
Each chapter includes Worked-Out Problems to

ber75853_ch02_024-056.indd 35 10/19/12 7:22 PM
The Problem Mitra enjoys reading books and watching movies. Her utility
show students how to solve the problems posed in function is U(M, B) 5 M 3 B2, where M stands for the number of movies and B
stands for the number of books enjoyed during a month. How does Mitra rank
the chapter and to prepare them for homework and the following bundles? (1) 4 movies and 5 books, (2) 10 movies and 4 books, (3)
25 movies and 2 books, (4) 40 movies and 1 book, (5) 100 movies and no books.
exams. Each problem is clearly stated and the solu- The Solution Applying Mitra’s utility function, we find for part (1) that U(4, 5)
tion contains detailed steps and narrative explana- 5 4 3 52 5 100. Similarly, we have, (2) U(10, 4) 5 160, (3) U(25, 2) 5 100,
(4) U(40, 1) 5 40, and (5) U(100, 0) 5 0. Therefore, Mitra ranks the bundles
tions to show how the problem is solved. Calculus ber75853_ch02_024-056.indd 24
listed in the problem, in order of preference, as follows: first, 10 movies and
10/19/12 7:22 PM
4 books; next, either 4 movies and 5 books or 25 movies and 2 books (she is
versions of the problems and solutions are available indifferent between those two bundles); next, 40 movies and 1 book; and last,
100 movies and no books.
by scanning the barcode at the beginning of the
chapter or at www.mhhe.com/bernheim2e.
IN-TEXT EXERCISES Want the video or

text solution? Visit
www.mhhe.com/
IN-TEXT EXERCISE 4.2 Judy drinks both Coke and Pepsi. Suppose the formula for
her indifference curves is C 5 U 2 1.2P, where C stands for liters of Coke and P
stands for liters of Pepsi consumed over a month. Draw some of Judy’s indifference
These ask students to either redo the Worked-Out bernheim2e or
scan here. Need a curves. Which does she prefer, a bundle consisting of three liters of Coke and no
barcode reader? Try
Pepsi, or a bundle consisting of three liters of Pepsi and no Coke?
Problem or extend the concept in a slightly different ScanLife, available in
your app store.
way. Solutions are available in text form and—new to

this edition—in video format. The videos walk students
through the solutions, reinforcing the lessons from lectures and independent reading. The
videos and text solutions can be accessed at www.mhhe.com/bernheim2e, or by scanning
the barcode next to the exercise with a smartphone. ber75853_ch04_083-117.indd 105 11/12/12 3:15 PM
xi
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ber75853_fm_i-xxx.indd xi 25/01/13 10:13 AM

Figure 5.6
The Best Affordable Bundle
with Perfect Complements.
Bundle A is Maria’s best choice.
Since bundle A lies on the
Right shoes
45-degree line, Maria buys the

Best affordable
bundle same number of left and right
shoes. This conclusion doesn’t FIGURES AND TABLES
A depend on the slope of the
budget line. Even if the prices of
The exhibits, graphs, and tables are critical for students
left and right shoes differ, Maria
will still buy the same number
to understand the world of microeconomics. Color
45°
of each.
is used to help students understand the make-up and
Left shoes meaning of each graph, and an extended caption is
included with figures to further explain the concepts.
READ MORE ONLINE

ber75853_ch05_118-161.indd 125
READ MORE ONLINE 2.1 11/12/12 3:16 PM Read More Online features, which offer additional
in-depth discussion of particular topics, are found
ESTIMATING DEMAND AND SUPPLY CURVES
throughout the book. These can be accessed through
the barcode at the beginning of the chapter, or online
at www.mhhe.com/bernheim2e. A list of these exten-
To answer many questions in economics and business, we need to measure the sions appears on page (pages xxviii and xxix).
relationships between the amount demanded and/or supplied and various factors,
including the product’s price. We’ve already seen that we need to know demand and
supply functions to predict market prices. Later in this book, we’ll see that this same
knowledge is useful for such diverse purposes as evaluating the effects of a tax and
OPTIONAL SECTIONS
*3.4 CONSTRAINED OPTIMIZATION
While we have moved some optional topics to Read More
Online features, we’ve kept ones that strike us and our Many economic problems we’ll study have the feature that a de
constraint that affects several decisions, requiring that she ma
reviewers as particularly important in the text. These are them. For example, the fact that you can’t spend more than is i
is a constraint that affects both where you go for spring break a
marked with an asterisk so that students can easily distin- a new smartphone. Likewise, consider a consumer who has t
guish them from core material.
CALCULUS TEXT BOXES

In addition to Calculus versions of the Worked-Out If you have the formula
for an indifference
Problem and In-Text Exercises, Calculus text boxes curve, you can find
explain how to understand the marginal rate of substitution
the material through by taking the derivative and
the lens of calculus. multiplying by 21. To see a
worked-out example, look at
Read More Online 4.3. D I S C U S S I O N Q U E ST I O N S
IMPROVED AND EXPANDED END-OF-

1. After terrorists destroyed the World Trade Center
CHAPTER EXERCISES and surrounding office buildings on September 11,
2001, some businesspeople worried about the risks
Many instructors who used the first edition asked us to of remaining in Manhattan. What effect would you
expect their concern to have on the price of office
space in Manhattan? Over time, those fears eased
beef up the end-of-chapter exercises. We heard you loud
ber75853_rmo_2.1.indd 1 08/01/13 2:29 PM
and
d the
th area around d the
th World
W ld Trade
T d Center site was
PROBLEMS* made into a park, so the destroyed office buildings
uildin
and clear. Users of the second edition will find a much were never rebuilt. Who would be likely to gain
economically from the creation of this park? Who
k? Wh
larger number of exercises and better representation of the would be likely to lose?
1.A Consider again the demand function for corn
in formula (1). Graph the corresponding demand
4.B Suppose tha
Q d 5 200/P
topics covered in the text. We have also divided the exer- curve when potatoes and butter cost $0.75 and $4 per
pound, respectively, and average income is $40,000 per
the equilibr
5.B The daily w
year. At what price does the amount demanded equal millions of
cises for each chapter into three sections: Discussion Ques- 15 billion bushels per year? Show your answer using
algebra.
supply func
per gallon.
tions, which require thought but no math (or at least very ber75853_ch03_057-082.indd 73
2.A Consider again the supply function for corn in
formula (2). Graph the corresponding supply curve
What is the
6.B Consider ag 10/12/12 10:47 AM
when diesel fuel costs $2.75 per gallon and the price in Worked-
little); Problems, which require algebra, graphs, or both; of soybeans is $10 per bushel. At what price does the
amount supplied equal 21 billion bushels per year?
governmen
for a third-w
and Calculus Problems, which typically include (but are not CA LC U LU S P R O B L E M S *
limited to) calculus versions of some of the Problems. We 1.B The demand function for a product is Q d 5 100 2 BdP. consumers’ total e
also rate the difficulty of each exercise, using A for Easi- Suppose that there is a tax of t dollars per unit that
producers must pay and that the supply function
answer should be i
4.C Let P denote the p
for the product when the tax is t and the price is P is using a single inpu
est, B for More Difficult, and C for Most Difficult. Much Q s 5 Bs (P 2 t) 2 5. What is the equilibrium price
as a function of the tax t? Define the “pass-through
function for the pr
the supply functio
rate” of a small increase in the tax as the derivative Q s 5 0 if P # W. H
thought and effort has gone into creating questions that of the market price consumers pay with respect to the
tax: dP/dt. What is the pass-through rate of a small
depend on W? Wh
price P with respe
students will find tractable and enlightening. tax increase in this market? How does it depend on Bd
and Bs? 5.C Suppose that the d
Q d 5 AP2B and th
2.B Suppose the daily demand for coffee in Seattle is where A, B, C, and
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ber75853_ch02_024-056.indd 55 10/19/12 7:23 PM
Q d 5 100,000(3 2 P)2. What is the elasticity of a. What is the ela
ber75853_ch02_024-056.indd 55
ber75853_fm_i-xxx.indd xii 25/01/13 10:13 AM

ORGANIZATION OF THE BOOK

The organization of Microeconomics is slightly unconventional for an undergradu-
ate microeconomics text, but has the advantage of following the logical progression of
the discipline. Microeconomic theory begins by examining the behavior of individuals
in their roles as either consumers or managers of firms. On this foundation, it builds
a theory of aggregate economic outcomes, with an emphasis on market equilibrium.
Microeconomics follows this logical structure more closely than other texts by clearly
distinguishing the study of individual decision making from the analysis of markets. It is
divided into the following three parts.
Part I contains three introductory chapters. The first introduces the field of micro-
economics. The second reviews the basic principles of supply and demand. The third
elaborates on a central theme of microeconomics reasoning: how to find a decision that
maximizes the difference between total benefits and total costs by equating marginal bene-
fits to marginal costs. We invoke that principle repeatedly throughout the rest of the book.
Part II focuses on individuals’ economic decisions. Three chapters on consumer the-
ory (Chapters 4–6) and three on producer theory (Chapters 7–9) are followed by three
chapters (Chapters 10–12) covering decisions involving time, uncertainty, and strategy
(game theory). An additional chapter (Chapter 13) examines behavioral perspectives on
economic decision making.
Part III concerns markets. We begin with three chapters covering competitive markets
(Chapters 14–16), including one on partial equilibrium theory, one on the analysis of gov-
ernment interventions, and one on general equilibrium. We then turn to market failures,
including three chapters on monopoly and oligopoly (Chapters 17–19), one on externali-
ties and public goods (Chapter 20), and one on informational imperfections (Chapter 21).
While the organization of the book emphasizes the distinction between topics con-
cerning decision making and topics concerning markets, we recognize that instructors
may not wish to teach the material in that order. For example, many instructors may wish
to jump directly from basic producer theory (which concludes in Chapter 9) to competi-
tive equilibrium (which begins in Chapter 14), returning to the additional topics on deci-
sion making as time allows. The book is written to provide instructors with this flexibility.
ALTERNATIVE COURSE DESIGNS

Instructors who use this book can organize their courses in a variety of different ways. A
basic one-semester or one-quarter course might cover all of Chapters 1–9, 14–15, and 17.
Alternatively, by covering fewer sections in some of those chapters, Chapters 18.1–18.3,
19, and 20 might be added. A more ambitious course, or one lasting two terms, might also
cover parts of Chapters 10–13 (additional topics on decision making), 16 (general equi-
librium), the remainder of 18 (price discrimination through self-selection and bundling),
and 21 (informational imperfections). As we’ve noted, the material on decisions involving
time, uncertainty, and strategy (game theory) in Chapters 10–12 could be covered imme-
diately after covering consumer and producer theory, or delayed until later in the course.
Business-oriented courses might instead reduce to some degree their coverage of
consumer theory (Chapters 4–6) and externalities and public goods (Chapter 20) in favor
of covering game theory (Chapter 12) and all of Chapter 18 on pricing policies. More
policy-oriented courses might skip over Chapter 18 entirely in favor of covering general
equilibrium (Chapter 16).
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As we’ve mentioned, the book devotes a separate chapter to behavioral econom-

ics (Chapter 13). That material is entirely compartmentalized, and any instructor who
wishes to teach a conventional course on intermediate microeconomics can simply skip
the chapter. For those who are interested in introducing behavioral perspectives, we have
designed the chapter with a modular structure, so that it can be used in one of two differ-
ent ways. Most obviously, an instructor can introduce behavioral economics as a stand-
alone topic, covering all or part of the chapter. Alternatively, an instructor can integrate
behavioral perspectives with traditional perspectives, for example, covering Sections 13.1
and 13.2 after basic consumer theory (Chapters 4 through 6), Section 13.3 after deci-
sions involving time (Chapter 10), Section 13.4 after decisions involving uncertainty
(Chapter 11), and Section 13.5 after decisions involving strategy (Chapter 12).
McGraw-Hill Learning Solutions provides options for customizing your text. Contact
your McGraw-Hill representative for details.
SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
Microeconomics strives to present economics clearly and logically, giving students insight
into the world around them. To help instructors make the topic more accessible to stu-
dents, Microeconomics offers a range of materials written to integrate seamlessly with the
text, providing extra practice for students and additional resources for teachers. These
resources include:
Instructor’s Manual—The Instructor’s Manual provides instructors with additional
insight into the various chapters and examples in Microeconomics, as well as
resources for bringing the concepts to life within the classroom. It is a must for new
teachers and those new to this book, because it identifies the goals of each chap-
ter and highlights common areas of student difficulty. The Instructor’s Manual also
includes several fully developed case studies that show microeconomics at work in
the world and that offer graduated questions—allowing instructors to cover as much
or as little of the book as they see fit, and making the case studies usable from the
very first week of class. Detailed solutions to the end-of-chapter questions and prob-
lems are also available.
Test Bank and EZTest Online—The Test Bank is comprised of over 50 questions per
chapter, including multiple-choice, short-answer, and essay question options. Each
question is tagged by level of difficulty, section in the book, and AACSB category.
EZTest Online contains all of the questions in the test bank and offers the ability to
create customized exams. This user-friendly program allows instructors to sort ques-
tions by format, edit existing questions or add new ones, and scramble questions for
multiple versions of the same test.
PowerPoint Presentations—The PowerPoint Presentations to accompany Microeco-
nomics are cutting-edge, assisting learning by drawing selected graphs one line at a
time on screen. The animation—simple enough to be clear while complete enough to
be useful—also helps to demonstrate how tables can be assembled and data analyzed
when completing problems. The presentations include exhibits from the book itself,
creating a seamless connection between what students have read and what they see
in the lecture.
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Online Learning Center (www.mhhe.com/bernheim2e)—The Online Learning Center

contains the above materials for instructors and also materials for students, includ-
ing quizzes, Read More Online features, In-Text Exercise solutions, and Calculus In-
Text Exercises and Worked-Out Problems.
MCGRAW-HILL CONNECT® ECONOMICS

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McGraw-Hill Connect Economics is an online assign-
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with the tools and resources they’ll need to achieve
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When it comes to studying, time is precious. Connect Economics helps students learn
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Instructor library
The Connect Economics Instructor Library is your repository for additional resources to
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Student study center

The Connect Economics Student Study Center is the place for students to access addi-
tional resources. The Student Study Center:
• Offers students quick access to lectures, practice materials, eBooks, and more.
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Students want to make the best use of their study time. The LearnSmart adaptive self-
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• Increase intent listening and class participation by easing students’ concerns about
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At McGraw-Hill, we understand that getting the most from new technology can be chal-
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Many people have made important contributions to the development of this book, and
those thanked in the preface to the first edition have our continuing gratitude. The sec-
ond edition has benefited from the unflagging support of the team at McGraw-Hill. We
would like to thank Scott Smith and Michele Janicek, Brand Managers; Alyssa Lincoln
and Christina Kouvelis, Development Editors; Patricia Frederickson, Lead Project
Manager; Keri Johnson, Content Licensing Specialist; and Marianne Musni, Content
Project Manager. We also thank Kane Sweeney for his excellent research assistant work
on this edition.
We also want to thank those that contributed to the digital features for this edition:
Chris Johnson, University of North Florida Debashis Pal, University of Cincinnati
Leonie Stone, SUNY Geneseo Ross vanWassenhove, University of Houston
Daniel Mizak, Frostburg State University
We owe a heartfelt thank you to the many reviewers who helped shape this edition:
Douglas Agbetsiafa, Indiana University– Claire Hammond, Wake Forest University
South Bend Steve Heubeck, Ohio State
Terry Alexander, Iowa State University University–Columbus
Marigee Bacolod, University of Robert Jerome, James Madison University
California–Irvine Sumit Joshi, George Washington University
Amit Batabyal, Rochester Institute of Ernesto Lucas, Hawaii Pacific
Technology University–Honolulu
James Bradfield, Hamilton College Richard Mcgrath, Armstrong Atlantic
Miki Brunyer, Saint John’s University State University
Paul Carrillo, George Washington John Merrifield, University of Texas at
University San Antonio
Tina Carter, Florida State University Farahmand Rezvani, Montclair State
Eliane Catilina, American University University
Ron Cheung, Florida State University Udayan Roy, Long Island University–C.W.
Finn Christensen, Towson University Post Campus
Timothy Classen, Loyola Lynda Rush, California State Polytechnic
University–Chicago University–Pomona
Dennis Coates, University of Maryland– Edward Steinberg, Columbia University
Baltimore County Andrew Stivers, Oregon State University
Yi Deng, University of South Vasant Sukhatme, Macalester College
Florida–Tampa Jane Sung, Truman State University
Joanne Doyle, James Madison University David Switzer, Saint Cloud State
Thomas Grennes, North Carolina State University
University–Raleigh Jason Taylor, Central Michigan University
Each of these individuals invested a great deal of time and effort reviewing the first
edition. Their insightful comments have helped us improve the book immeasurably.
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And, we thank the reviewers who helped us during the development of our first edition:
Arabinda Basistha West Virginia Gabriel Lozada University of Utah, Salt
University Lake City
David Bernotas University of Georgia Tom Lee California State University,
Ravi Bhandri University of California, Northridge
Berkeley James Leonard Lloyd University of Houston
McKinley Blackburn University of South Wolfgang Mayer University of Cincinnati
Carolina Michael Marlow California Polytechnic
Victor Brajer California State University, David McAdams Massachusetts Institute
Fullerton of Technology
Daniel Condon Dominican University, James Meehan Colby College
Illinois Jack Osman San Francisco State University
Jeremiah Cotton University of Edgar Preugschat University of
Massachusetts Minnesota
Carl Davidson Michigan State University Luis Rayo University of Chicago
Richard Eastin University of Southern Lynn Riggs DePaul University
California
Anusuya Roy University of Southern
Raymond Fisman Columbia University, Indiana
Graduate School of Business
George Santopietro Radford University
Craig Gallet California State University,
Sudipta Sarangi Louisiana State University
Sacramento
Timothy Schibik University of Southern
Rajeev Goel Illinois State University
Indiana
Denise Hare Reed College
Sergei Severinov Duke University
Jon Harford California State University
Curtis Simon Clemson University
Govind Hariharan Kennesaw State
Thomas More Smith University of Illinois
University
Jennifer Van Gilder Ursinus College
Joe Hughes Rutgers University
Michele Villinski DePauw University
Todd Idson Boston University
Steve Waters Brigham Young University
Joseph Jadlow Oklahoma State University
Denis Weisman Kansas State University
Geoffrey Jehle Vassar College
Randall Westgren University of Illinois,
David Kamerschen University of Georgia,
Urbana-Champaign
Athens
Finally, we would like to thank our families once again for their loving support and
patience (which we sorely tested) during the many early mornings, long days, and late
nights that we spent working on this project.
B. Douglas Bernheim
Michael D. Whinston
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BRIEF CONTENTS
part Introduction
1 PRELIMINARIES 2
2 SUPPLY AND DEMAND 24
3 BALANCING BENEFITS AND COSTS 57
part Economic Decision Making
II-A: Consumption Decisions 84

4 CONSUMER PREFERENCES 85
5 CONSTRAINTS, CHOICES, AND DEMAND 118
6 DEMAND AND WELFARE 162
II-B: Production Decisions 202
7 TECHNOLOGY AND PRODUCTION 203
8 COST 239
9 PROFIT MAXIMIZATION 279
II-C: Additional Topics Concerning Decisions 308
10 CHOICES INVOLVING TIME 309
11 CHOICES INVOLVING RISK 349
12 CHOICES INVOLVING STRATEGY 387
13 BEHAVIORAL ECONOMICS 430
part Markets
IIIA: Competitive Markets 474

14 EQUILIBRIUM AND EFFICIENCY 475
15 MARKET INTERVENTIONS 513
16 GENERAL EQUILIBRIUM, EFFICIENCY, AND EQUITY 543
IIIB: Market Failures 587
17 MONOPOLY 588
18 PRICING POLICIES 626
19 OLIGOPOLY 660
20 EXTERNALITIES AND PUBLIC GOODS 707
21 ASYMMETRIC INFORMATION 751
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CONTENTS
part Introduction
1 Preliminaries 2
1.1 What Is Microeconomics? 3 / Institutions for Allocating Resources 3 / Economic
Motives 7 / Positive versus Normative Analysis 7 / The Scope of Microeconomics 9
1.2 Tools of Microeconomics 10 / The Scientific Method 11 / Models and Mathematics 12 /
Simplifying Assumptions 13 / Data Analysis 13 / Why Economists Sometimes Disagree 15
1.3 Themes of Microeconomics 16 / Decisions: Some Central Themes 16 / Markets: Some
Central Themes 18
1.4 Uses of Microeconomics 20
Chapter Summary 22 / Discussion Questions 22
2 Supply and Demand 24

2.1 Demand 25 / Demand Curves 25 / Demand Functions 27
2.2 Supply 28 / Supply Curves 28 / Supply Functions 30
2.3 Market Equilibrium 30 / Changes in Market Equilibrium 33 / The Size of Changes in
Market Equilibrium 39
2.4 Elasticities of Demand and Supply 42 / The (Price) Elasticity of Demand 43 / The
(Price) Elasticity of Supply 51 / The Size of Changes in Market Demand, Revisited 52 /
Other Elasticities 52
Chapter Summary 54 / Discussion Questions 55 / Problems 55 / Calculus Problems 56
3 Balancing Benefits and Costs 57

3.1 Maximizing Benefits Less Costs 58 / Maximizing Net Benefits with Finely
Divisible Actions 61
3.2 Thinking on the Margin 62 / Marginal Cost 63 / Marginal Benefit 63 / Best Choices
and Marginal Analysis 64 / Marginal Benefit and Marginal Cost with Finely Divisible
Actions 65 / Best Choices and Marginal Analysis with Finely Divisible Actions 68
3.3 Sunk Costs and Decision Making 71
*3.4 Constrained Optimization 73
Chapter Summary 75 / Discussion Questions 75 / Problems 75 / Calculus Problems 76 /
Appendix: Finding a Best Choice Using Marginal Analysis 78
part Economic Decision Making 83
II-A: Consumption Decisions 84

4 Consumer Preferences 85
4.1 Principles of Consumer Choice 86
4.2 Features of Consumer Preferences 88 / How Do People Rank Consumption
Bundles? 89 / Consumer Indifference Curves 90 / Goods versus Bads 96
xxi
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Another random document with
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from committing treason in this, I am persuaded that it was the
highest part of loyalty towards my prince, the greatest note of
respect I could put upon my superiors, the most real and
unquestionable evidence of a true and tender affection to my
countrymen and the congregation over whom the Holy Ghost made
me, though most unworthy, an overseer, to give seasonable warning
of the heavy judgment which the sin of Scotland’s backsliding will
bring on, that so we may be instructed at length to search and try our
ways and turn to the Lord, lest his soul be separated from us; for wo
unto us if our glory depart! No man will or ought to doubt whether it
be a minister’s duty to preach this doctrine in season and out of
season, which yet is never unseasonable, and to avow that the
backslider in heart shall be filled with his own ways; and if any man
draw back, his soul shall have no pleasure in him. And if so, what
evil have I done, or whose enemy am I become for telling the truth?
“But in order to remove any thing that may seem to give offence in
my practice, I humbly desire it may be considered that a ministerial
protestation against, or a dissent from, any act or acts which a
minister knows and is convinced to be contrary to the word of God, is
not a legal impugnation of that or these acts, much less of the
authority enacting them, which it doth rather presuppose than deny;
it is just a solemn and serious attested declaration, witness, or
testimony, against the evil and iniquity of these things, which, by the
word of God, is a warrantable practice, as is clear from Samuel,
where the prophet was directed by the Lord himself to obey the voice
of the people, howbeit yet protest solemnly unto them, and show
them the manner of the king that shall reign over them; also
Jeremiah xi. 7. There is no act of parliament declaring that it shall be
treason for a minister to protest, in the Scripture sense, against such
acts as are contrary to the covenant and the work of reformation; nay
more, there were acts by which the covenants and vows made to
God for reformation in this church, according to his will revealed in
his word, received civil confirmation; and I, as his unworthy servant,
was authorized to protest that these rights be not invaded—that
these vows be not broken!
“Nor may I conceal, that, when I reflect upon and remember what I
have said and sworn to God in the day when, with an uplifted hand
to the most high, I bound my soul with the bond of the covenant, and
engaged solemnly, as I should answer to the great God, the
searcher of hearts, in that day when the secrets of all hearts shall be
disclosed, never to break these bonds, nor cast away these cords
from me, nor to suffer myself, either directly or indirectly, by terror or
persuasion, to be withdrawn from owning them—when I recollect
that, had they been even things indifferent, I durst not have shaken
them off when I had sworn to God, and consider that, instead of this,
they were duties of indispensable obligation antecedently to all
oaths, and remain unalterably binding independently of them—and
when I considered my duty as a minister, to give warning, to declare,
testify, and bear witness against the sin of violating these covenants,
in order to avoid the wrath that shall follow, and that under no less a
threatening than banishment from the presence of the Lord and the
glory of his power—I had no choice.
“Now I humbly beseech I may not be looked upon as a disloyal
person, either as to my principles or practice; and so clear am I that
there was neither iniquity in my heart, nor wickedness in my hands,
against his majesty, that I only wish the informer’s conduct, be he
who he may, in the place where I live, were compared with mine, and
the issue of my trial depended on this—whether he or I had shown
most loyalty during the prevalence and usurpation of the enemy; but
I suspect he has rather a little more prudence than to agree to such
a test. But as for me, my lord, while I wait the coming forth of my
sentence from his presence, whose eyes behold the things that are
equal, I declare, that however I cannot submit my conscience to
men, yet I humbly, as becometh, submit my person.”
This case appears to have been ably managed; and the
parliament delayed proceeding to any immediate decision. In the
interval, he presented a supplication withdrawing the words “protest
and dissent,” as too legal and forensic, substituting the words
“declaring and bearing witness.” The reasons which he assigned for
so doing are satisfactory, and show that the witnesses of this period
did not stand with obstinacy upon any irrational punctilio, or foolishly
rush upon suffering for the sake of unmeaning distinctions or of
favourite phrases. “I am brought,” are his expressions, “to offer this
alteration, not so much, if my heart deceive me not, for the fear of
prejudice to my person—though being but a weak man, I am easily
reached by such discomposing passions—as from an earnest desire
to remove out of the way any, the least, or remotest, occasion of
stumbling, that there may be the more ready and easy access,
without prejudice of words, to ponder and give judgment of the
matter; and that, likewise, if the Lord shall think fit to call me forth to
suffer hard things on this account, it may not be said that it was for
wilful and peremptory stickling to such expressions; whereas, I
might, by using others, without prejudice to the matter, and no less
significant, have escaped the danger; and lest I should seem to
insinuate that a minister of the gospel could not have sufficiently
exonered his conscience without such formal and legal terms.” But it
was necessary to get rid of men whose abilities were dreaded by
their apostate brethren, and whose consistent piety would have been
a standing reproach to the new prelates. He was therefore, before
parliament rose, sentenced to banishment, though, by an uncommon
stretch of moderation, he was allowed to remain six months in
Scotland—one of them in Glasgow to arrange his affairs—and
empowered to receive his next year’s stipend.
What rendered these rigorous proceedings towards the ablest, the
most pious, and most conscientious loyalists, more flagrantly unjust,
was, the lenity shown to others who had been deeply implicated in
active compliances with the usurpers, not only after their power
became irresistible, but even while Charles was in the country and at
the head of an army. The Laird of Swinton had been suspected, in
the year 1650, of corresponding with Cromwell, and being
summoned to answer before the parliament at Perth, was forfeited
for failing to appear, on which he joined the English, and was
appointed a judge; but having now turned a quaker, he was
pardoned, and went to the north, where he succeeded in making a
few proselytes. Sir John Chiesly, also, who had acted cordially with
the English, and been forfeited by the same parliament, was passed
over; but his safety was attributed to the influence of money; for
rapacity and venality characterized almost every member of
government, and every court of justice, from the Restoration to the
Revolution.
The escape of Mr Patrick Gillespie was more surprising, as he was
personally disagreeable to the king, who had repeatedly refused to
listen to any solicitations on his behalf. Gillespie was a minister in
Glasgow, and afterwards principal of the College. He had been the
most conspicuous of the remonstrators—had approved of “The
Causes of God’s Wrath,” and had been appointed principal by the
English commissioners, or sequestrators as they were called[19]—
had been a great favourite with Cromwell—had preached before him
—prayed for him as chief magistrate—and had received from him
several valuable gifts—all which were now brought forward as
charges against him. But he had many friends in the House, and was
induced to profess civil guilt and throw himself upon the king’s mercy.
His concessions, it is alleged, were strained beyond what he
intended, and represented as of great importance at the time, as he
had been eminent among his brethren; and it was supposed his
example would have a mighty influence in inducing the more
scrupulous to give way. They were, however, grievous to the
Presbyterians and not satisfactory to his majesty; but they procured
a mitigation of his punishment, which was commuted to deprivation
of his office, and confinement to Ormiston and six miles round.
19. At the time when the English ruled, the church of Scotland was divided and
subdivided into a variety of sections. The remonstrators themselves divided;
some of them, among whom were, Messrs P. Gillespie, Samuel Rutherford,
James Durham, William Guthrie of Fenwick, Robert Traill, and other
eminently pious men, complied with the ruling powers on the Christian
principle of obedience to the powers that be, and the absolute necessity of
the case; but they were still more obnoxious to the resolutioners, because
they so far agreed with the sectaries, in only considering as members of the
church persons who gave proof of practical godliness, and opposed the
principle of promiscuous communion and general membership. Against this
schism, Principal Baillie was very violent. “This formed schism,” says he, in a
letter to Mr W. Spang, “is very bitter to us, but remediless, except on
intolerable conditions, which our wise orthodox divines will advise us to
accept:—We must embrace, without contradiction, and let grow, the
principles of the remonstrants, which all reformed divines, and all states in
the world, abhor. We must permit a few heady men to waste our church with
our consent or connivance. We must let them frame our people to the
sectarian model—a few more forward ones among themselves, by privy
meetings, to be the godly party; and the congregation, the rest, to be the
rascally malignant multitude; so that the body of our people are to be cast out
of all churches; and the few who are countenanced, are fitted, as sundry of
them already have done, to embrace the errors of the time for their
destruction.” Letters, vol. ii. p. 375. The other section of the remonstrants
refused to acknowledge in any manner the power of the usurper, lamented
the toleration of sectaries, and maintained, with the resolutioners, the
legitimate principles of a national church—that all who attended were to be
considered members of that church, unless excommunicated for openly
immoral conduct or disobedience to the order and discipline of the church. At
the head of this section were, Mr James Guthrie, Warriston, and many
others, who bore testimony by their blood to the sincerity of their profession.
It is worthy of remark, that the first class were chiefly the older, the second
the younger, race of the Presbyterians.
On the 12th of July, the parliament rose; and, on the last day of
that month, their public acts were proclaimed, with the usual
formalities, from the cross of Edinburgh—a ceremony that employed
the heralds and other functionaries from ten o’clock in the forenoon
till six at night.
About the same time, Samuel Rutherford was relieved by death.
BOOK III.
AUGUST, A.D. 1661-1662.
Lord High Commissioner sets out for Court—His reception—Deliberations of the

Council—Episcopacy resolved upon as the National Religion of Scotland—
Glencairn, Rothes, and Sharpe appointed to carry the tidings to Edinburgh—
King’s letter—Privy Council announce the overthrow of Presbytery—Forbid the
election of Presbyterian Magistrates in Burghs—Prosecute Tweeddale—
Ministers summoned to London to be episcopally ordained—Their characters—
Their consecration—Grief of the Presbyterians—Re-introduction of Episcopacy
—Restrictions on the press—Witchcraft—Synods discharged and Bishops
ordered to be honoured by royal patent—Their consecration—Parliament
restores their rank—Asserts the King’s supremacy—The Covenants declared
unlawful—Act of fines—Defeated—Lord Lorn—Blair and other ministers
deprived—King’s birth-day—Middleton’s visit to the West and South—Case of
Mr Wylie—Brown of Wamphrey—Livingston, &c.—Middleton removed and
Lauderdale appointed.
Leaving the government in the hands of the privy council,[20]

Middleton, after parliament adjourned, set out for court, where he
was received by the Earl of Clarendon, Lord Chancellor, the Duke of
Ormond, and all the cavalier party, with the greatest congratulations
for having quenched the fanatic zeal of Scotland, and carried his
majesty’s prerogative beyond what any preceding monarch, when
present, had ever claimed.
20. The chief members of which were—The Earl of Glencairn, chancellor;
Crawford, treasurer; Rothes, president; Lauderdale, secretary. Members—
Dukes of Lennox and Hamilton; Marquis of Montrose; Earls of Errol,
Marischal, Mar, Atholl, Morton, Cassils, Linlithgow, Perth, Dunfermline,
Wigton, Callender, Dundee, &c. &c. Wodrow, p. 87.
At a council held upon his arrival, Charles, who utterly detested

Presbytery, expressed himself highly gratified at the report of what
he had done; but his councillors were divided. Lauderdale and some
others, who knew perfectly that the established religion was deeply
rooted in the affections of Scottishmen, were unwilling to hazard a
change; and even some who wished an Episcopacy were yet averse
to its being too rashly introduced.[21] Middleton, however, who had
been previously tutored, immediately addressed the king—“May it
please your sacred majesty: You may perceive by the account I have
now given of your affairs in Scotland, that there is no present
government as yet established in that church. Presbytery is, after a
long usurpation, now at last rescinded—the covenant, whereby men
thought they were obliged to it, is now declared to have been
unlawful—and the acts of parliament, whereby it was fenced, are
now removed; so that it is arbitrary to your majesty to choose what
government you will fix there; for to your majesty this is by the last
act of supremacy declared to belong. But if your majesty do not
interpose, then Episcopacy, which was unjustly invaded at once with
your royal power, will return to its former vigour.”
21. When the lords went first up to welcome the king, the question was debated
what form of government should be established in the Scottish church.
“Middleton and Glencairn were resolute for bishops, pronouncing they would
both compose the church and manadge it to the king’s mind; Lauderdale
opposed it stiffely, affirming the king should thereby lose the affectiones of
the people of Scotland, and that the bishops should be so far from enlargeing
the king’s power, that they would prove a burdine too heavy for him to bear;
and therein he proved als true a prophet, as he was a faithful friend to the
king. Within some few days, Glencairn came to visit Lauderdale, and told him
he was only for a sober sort of bishops, such as they were in the primitive
times, not lordly prelats. Lauderdale answered him with ane oath, that since
they hade chosen bishops, they should have them higher than any that ever
were in Scotland, and that he should find.” Kirkton, p. 134.
Glencairn followed, and affirmed that the insolence of the

Presbyterian ministers had so disgusted all loyal subjects, that six for
one longed for the Episcopalian government, which had ever
inculcated obedience and supported the royal interest; whereas,
Calvinism and Presbytery had never been introduced into any
country without blood and rebellion, and instanced, with the most
preposterous absurdity, the struggles for freedom at the Reformation
—in France, during the civil war—in Holland, when they revolted
from Spain—and now twice in Scotland; once by the Regent Murray,
when Queen Mary was banished, and lastly in 1637. Rothes added,
although he had not seen the rise of the innovations, yet he had
witnessed the ruin of the engagement and the treatment of the king
by that persuasion. Lauderdale contended that the proposition was
of too great importance to be slightly determined, and required much
thought and much information; for, upon their resolution, depended
the quiet of the Scots—a people very unmanageable in matters of
religion—and advised that either a General Assembly should be
called, the provincial synods consulted, which, as composed of
ministers and laymen, would acquaint his majesty with the
inclinations of his subjects—or, he might call the ablest divines on
both sides, and learn their sentiments, if neither of the other
proposals were approved of. Middleton replied that all these
methods would only tend to continue Presbytery; for it was probable
the power of the ministers, which had been so irresistible of late,
would preponderate in all. They would easily procure ruling elders of
their own cast to be chosen, and both would be unwilling to resign
the power they possessed; at all events, the leading men whom the
inferior clergy must follow, durst not quarrel the resolutions of their
rabbis, who would adhere to the oaths they had taken, and stoutly
defend their own supremacy; besides, to call General Assemblies or
synods, were to restore them, and thus to infringe the act rescissory.
The Earl of Crawford, whose treasurer’s rod was a desirable
object for Middleton, had declined mingling in the debate, which the
Chancellor of England observing, requested his majesty that he
might be desired to give his opinion, in order that he might either
disclaim Presbytery or displease the king, and thus put his principles
or his place in jeopardy; for it appeared to be a settled rule among
the courtiers of Charles, that whatever Scottishmen were allowed to
interfere in the public affairs of their native country, should sacrifice
either their conscience or their interest.
Crawford perceived the Chancellor’s aim, and vehemently urged
that provincial synods might be consulted, assuring his majesty, the
king, that six for one in Scotland were in favours of Presbytery. “The
offences of the reformers,” he warmly contended, “were not to be
charged upon the Reformation: the best innovations were ever
attended with much irregularity, and therefore it was better to
continue that government which had now past all these hazards—at
first unavoidable—than risk another, which, at its outset, must be
unhappy in the same inconveniences. Nor did the act rescissory cut
off Presbytery, for it was secured by acts of General Assemblies,
which had been countenanced by his majesty’s father’s
commissioners, and were yet unrepealed.”
The Duke of Hamilton supported him, and affirmed that the reason
why the act rescissory had so easily passed, was, because his
majesty had promised to continue Presbytery in his letter addressed
to the ministers of Edinburgh. Clarendon closed the debate, by
observing, that Crawford had owned all that ever was done in
Scotland in their rebellion; “and God preserve me,” said he, “from
living in a country where religion is independent of the state, and
clergy may subsist by their own acts; for there all churchmen may be
kings.” The king then told them that he perceived a majority were for
Episcopacy, and therefore he resolved to settle it without any farther
delay.
Immediately after, Glencairn and Rothes were dispatched to
Edinburgh, accompanied by Mr Sharpe, to convey his majesty’s
determination to the council. Were it not that, in humble life, we see
men equally base and shameless where their own self-interest is
concerned, we might wonder at the unblushing effrontery of the royal
communication; yet the pitiful evasion and vile duplicity in which it
was couched, render the king’s letter at once an object of detestation
and contempt. That the reader may compare it with his former to the
ministers of Edinburgh, I give it at full length:—
“Charles R. Right trusty and well-beloved cousins and councillors,
We greet you well. Whereas, in the month of August 1660, We did,
by our letters to the presbytery of Edinburgh, declare our purpose to
maintain the government of the church of Scotland as settled by law;
and our parliament having since that time not only rescinded all the
acts since the troubles began, but also declared all these pretended
parliaments null and void, and left to us the settling and securing of
church government: Therefore, in compliance with that act
rescissory, according to our late proclamation, dated at Whitehall the
10th of June, and in contemplation of the inconveniences from the
church government, as it hath been exercised these twenty-three
years past—of the unsuitableness thereof to our monarchical state—
of the sadly experienced confusions which have been caused during
the late troubles, by the violences done to our royal prerogative, and
to the government, civil and ecclesiastical, settled by unquestionable
authority, We, from respect to the glory of God and the good and
interest of the Protestant religion; from our pious care and princely
zeal for the order, unity, peace, and stability of that church, and its
better harmony with the government of the churches of England and
Ireland, have, after mature deliberation, declared to those of our
council here our firm resolution to interpose our royal authority for
restoring of that church to its right government by bishops, as it was
before the late troubles, during the reigns of our royal father and
grandfather, of blessed memory, and as it now stands settled by law.
Of this our royal pleasure concerning church government you are to
take notice, and to make intimation thereof in such a way and
manner as you shall judge most expedient and effectual. And we
require you, and every one of you, and do expect, according to the
trust and confidence we have in your affections and duty to our
service, that you will be careful to use your best endeavours for
curing the distempers contracted during those late evil times—for
uniting our good subjects among themselves, and bringing them all
to a cheerful acquiescing and obedience to our sovereign authority,
which we will employ, by the help of God, for the maintaining and
defending the true reformed religion, increase of piety, and the
settlement and security of that church in her rights and liberties,
according to law and ancient custom. And, in order thereto, our will
is, that you forthwith take such course with the rents belonging to the
several bishopricks and deaneries that they may be restored and
made useful to the church, and that according to justice and the
standing law. And, moreover, you are to inhibit the assembling of
ministers in their several synodical meetings through the kingdoms
until our further pleasure, and to keep a watchful eye over all who,
upon any pretext whatever, shall, by discoursing, preaching, reviling,
or any irregular or unlawful way, endeavour to alienate the affections
of our people, or dispose them to an ill opinion of us and our
government to the disturbance of the peace of the kingdom. So,
expecting your cheerful obedience and a speedy account of your
proceedings herein, We bid you heartily farewell. Given at our court,
at Whitehall, August 14, 1661, and of our reign the thirteenth year, by
his majesty’s command.” (Signed) “Lauderdale.”
The privy council received with all due humility this intimation of
the royal pleasure; and, on the 6th of September, an act was drawn
up and published, announcing to the people of Scotland the
overthrow of their beloved Presbytery, under whose shade they had
reposed with so much tranquility during the few last years of the
much abused and unreasonably hated protectorate, and the re-
establishment of that system against which their fathers had ever
contended. A proclamation overturning the freedom of elections,
accompanied the act for overturning the constitution of the church—
so naturally and nearly are civil and ecclesiastical tyranny
connected. The royal burghs were commanded, under the highest
penalties, to elect none for their magistrates who were fanatically—
an epithet which it now became fashionable to apply to the
conscientious Presbyterians—inclined; and such and so sudden had
been the change wrought by the transfer of power, that this illegal
dictation was universally obeyed. Nor did their conduct towards one
of their own number evince a greater regard for their own privileges
or the rights of parliament, than their ready servility had done for the
religion and liberty of their country. Tweeddale and Kincardine had
pressed the council to request the king that he would consult
provincial synods, who would declare the sense of the country; and,
at all events, relieve his majesty from obloquy whatever might be the
ultimate decision. This proposition, however, would have shown too
much deference to men whom it was intended to bring to
unconditional subjection, and was refused accordingly; but Charles
was informed of Tweeddale’s hesitation, and an order was procured
for his imprisonment, not indeed ostensibly for his opinion delivered
in council, but for what was or ought to have been still more sacred,
for his judgment and voice in parliament, because he had spoken in
vindication of Mr James Guthrie, and had not voted him guilty of
death! It was to no purpose that he pled the freedom allowed in
parliament, where he was a councillor upon oath and expressly
indemnified by law for what was spoken there; and the danger which
every member would thus incur who voted any person accused of
treason innocent, if a majority should happen to find him guilty. He
was sent prisoner to the Castle, and was only, upon his submission
and petition, permitted to confine himself to Yester and three miles
round, finding caution to the amount of one hundred thousand merks
to answer when called for! Eight months after, when it was thought
his discipline had taught him obedience, he was, through the
mediation of the council, relieved; and, when his relation Lauderdale
came into power, he joined his government.
Although his majesty could establish Episcopacy by proclamation,
the peculiar holiness which was supposed necessarily to belong to
the office of a bishop, it was beyond his power to confer. This
essential attribute of a prelate, which had passed, as was believed,
untainted from the apostles, through all the corruption, vileness, and
abomination of the church of Rome, had, by hands crimsoned in the
blood of the saints, and defiled with all the pollutions of their
brethren, been communicated to the dignitaries of the English
hierarchy, upon whom it still rested in all its imaginary purity and
vigour. But the feeble portion of the sacred virus that had reached
Scotland upon a former occasion, when James VI. procured the
innoculation of his hierarchate, was now confined to one aged and
almost superannuated subject, Mr Thomas Sydeserf, formerly
bishop of Galloway; and he had been excommunicated by a General
Assembly. It was therefore resolved that a select number of the
Scottish ministers should be consecrated by priests who had never
been polluted by any unhallowed contact with Presbyterians; and
Messrs Sharpe, Fairfoul, and Hamilton were summoned to London
to receive the holy unction.
James Sharpe, designed for the primacy, was already the object of
detestation to every one who had the smallest regard for the
Presbyterian profession, or for consistency of principle. Andrew
Fairfoul, promoted to the archbishoprick of Glasgow, possessed
considerable learning, better skilled, however, in physic than in
theology—a pleasant, facetious companion, but never esteemed a
serious divine. He had taken the covenant and was first minister in
Leith, then in Dunse. Mr James Hamilton, brother to Lord Belhaven,
created bishop of Galloway, was also a covenanter, and minister of
Cambusnethan. His abilities were not above mediocrity, and his
cunning was more remarkable than his piety. They were, however,
joined at London by Mr Robert Leighton, a man of a very different
description, whose meek and gentle spirit, unfitted for the stormy
region of political polemics, delighted more in communion with God
than in contending with his fellows, and who, counting himself a
stranger and a pilgrim upon earth, was only anxious to diffuse the
gospel of the kingdom, and shed around him the charities of life. He
was educated during the reign of pseudo-episcopacy, and never was
a thorough Presbyterian. His character and views may be estimated
from a circumstance which occurred during that period of his life
when he was minister of Newbattle. Some of his zealous co-
presbyters urging on him the duty of “preaching to the times,” (by no
means an unnecessary one, however, in its proper place,) he mildly
replied—“When so many of my brethren are preaching to the times,
they may spare one poor minister to preach for eternity.” He had
retired to London to enjoy the privacy he loved, and was unwillingly
dragged forward to assist in carrying Episcopacy to Scotland.[22]
22. There is just one point in Leighton’s character that appears unaccountable,
that is, after he had solemnly sworn the covenants, and enforced them upon
others, how he could ever turn an Episcopalian.
A commission, under the great seal of England, was directed to

the bishops of London and Worcester, and some other suffragans of
the diocese of Canterbury, to officiate upon this important occasion;
but an unexpected difficulty occurred by Dr Sheldon proposing to set
aside the Presbyterian ordination altogether and commence de
novo. Sharpe quoted the case of Bishop Spottiswood, whose
Presbyterian ordination had been sustained when he was
consecrated, and for a while resisted the proposal; but the other was
peremptory, and would not hear of the validity of any other than
prelatic imposition of hands; and Sharpe, who had now gone too far
to recede for a trifle, submitted to enter his new profession by the
lowest step, that he might attain the wretched object of his ambition
—to him a woful eminence. In the month of December, they were
with great pomp, and before a splendid assemblage of nobility at
Westminster, passed and raised through the various degrees of the
craft, from preaching-deacons to mitred bishops, in one day, which
was concluded by a magnificent entertainment given by the new-
made prelates to their English brethren and a select party of Scottish
and English nobles.
Convinced at length of their error, the honest Presbyterians, of all
parties, lamented that their intestine divisions should have been
allowed to divert them from attempting the security of their religion,
and that they should have indulged in bitterness of spirit against
each other about matters of comparatively lesser moment, while the
common enemy was making such rapid, though covert, advances
against their establishment. Uncertain how long they might enjoy that
liberty, they now throughout Scotland directed the attention of their
hearers to the principles of their church, and the points in dispute
between them and the Episcopalians[23]—they held congregational
fasts in every corner of the land to lament over the misimprovement
of their privileges and deprecate the impending wrath of God—and
they continued their parochial duties among a mourning people who,
with a general sadness, anticipated the lamentable change. Their
synods had been forbid; but they met with little interruption in their
presbyterial duties till the bishops were installed, when they were
informed that their power of ordination had ceased. This intimation
was first made by the council to the presbytery of Peebles, when, in
the month of December, they were proceeding to induct Mr John Hay
to the kirk of Manner; and from thenceforth all presentations to
benefices were ordered to be directed to the archbishops or bishops
within whose diocese the vacant church might lie.
23. The points in dispute between the Presbyterians and Episcopalians were of
much more vital importance than modern Presbyterians seem to be aware
of. They comprehended doctrinal points—the form of church government, the
ceremonies, the festivals, and the forcible intrusion of the whole system upon
the nation, in virtue of the king’s spiritual supremacy. The very essence of
Christianity was at stake. The grand fundamental doctrine which Luther
asserted at the Reformation, was, justification by faith, in opposition to
justification by works; and a more clear statement of this essential article of
Christian belief will nowhere be found than in his exposition of the Epistle to
the Galatians—to this all was subsidiary. He found that attacking the rites,
ceremonies, and fooleries of Rome was wasting shot against pitiful outworks,
the fall of which was of no importance, while the main rampart and the citadel
frowned defiance. It was the same with all the reformers; and it was now a
revival of the old question. The Episcopalians were in general Arminians, and
the Presbyterians contended for “the faith” once delivered to the fathers; and
this faith was the doctrinal creed embodied in the covenants. This should
always be kept in view. The other points were not of little moment; but this
was the foundation.
The re-introduction of Episcopacy into Scotland was accompanied
by a restoration of all the most severe restrictions upon the liberty of
the press and a revival of the absurd and flagitious proceedings
against poor, old, and friendless creatures, ignorantly or maliciously
accused of witchcraft. The council, upon an information that George
Swinton and James Glen, booksellers in Edinburgh, had printed and
sold the speeches of the Marquis of Argyle and Mr James Guthrie,
with other seditious and scandalous publications, such as the
“Covenanter’s Plea,” ordered the Lord Advocate and Lord Provost of
Edinburgh, to seize upon such books and papers, and prohibit them
and the rest of the printers from printing any other books or
pamphlets without a warrant from the king, parliament, or council;
and, “for preventing false intelligence,” they granted liberty to a
creature of their own, Robert Mein, keeper of the letter-office,
Edinburgh, to print the Diurnal, then the only newspaper in the
kingdom. Commissions for the trial of witches were at the same time
issued to gentlemen in almost every shire, and great numbers of
unfortunate creatures, chiefly poor decrepit old women, were
tortured and murdered upon the most contradictory, ridiculous, and
incredible absurdities, which were alleged against them; or upon the
incoherent ravings which, after being kept for nights without sleep,
and tormented without intermission in the height of a delirium, they
uttered as their confessions. And yet such convictions stand upon
record as being in consequence of “clear probation” or voluntary
confessions! But it is deserving of especial notice, that these trials
took place chiefly in the north and the east—the districts least
infected with “fanaticism.”[24]
24. The Dunbar witches were famous in East, as the Borrowstounness witches
were in West, Lothian. It is, however, among the melancholy and
unaccountable problems in the history of the human mind, that persons of
excellent understanding were implicated in these and similar horrid
transactions. In England, even Judge Hale condemned two. Had the witches,
or wizards, been tried for operating upon the fears and the superstitions of
their country folk, as the Africans in the West Indies and on their own coasts
operate on the fears and superstitions of each other by the obi, bitter water,
and other really noxious practices, their persecution might have been proper,
and their punishment just; but, dancing reels with Satan, and flying through
the air upon broomsticks, were accusations so truly ridiculous, that, how they
came to be ever gravely listened to, is passing strange. Dr Hutchinson says,
“the word witch, in old English, according to Dr More, signifies a wise
woman; in the vulgar Latin, it is venefica, a poisoner.” Hist. Essay on
Witchcraft, p. 183.
This eventful year was closed by a letter from the king, December
28, ordering the council to discharge by proclamation all
ecclesiastical meetings in synods, presbyteries, and sessions, until
authorized by the archbishops or bishops upon their entering upon
the government of their respective sees; and requiring that all due
deference and respect should be given by the lieges to these
dignitaries, or, to use the words of the king, “that they have all
countenance, assistance, and encouragement from the nobility,
gentry, and burghs, in the discharge of their office and service to Us
in the church; and that severe and exemplary notice be taken of all
and every one who shall presume to reflect or express any
disrespect to their persons or the authority with which they are
intrusted”—an ominous and unholy introduction to a Christian
ministry, which sufficiently marked the nature of the proposed
establishment; bore witness to the known dislike of the people
towards such a priesthood, and the strong probability that pastors
created by royal patent, and sanctified by prelatic palmistry, would be
received with any thing but respect or affection by the flock over
whom they were to have the oversight.
The new year, 1662, was ushered in by a proclamation, January 9,
from the privy council, announcing, in terms of the king’s letter, the
final extinction of Presbytery. Formerly, such a decree would have
encountered at any rate a formidable show of opposition from the
denounced ecclesiastical judicatories; nor would they have
separated without at least bearing testimony against this
unwarrantable invasion of their legal right. But the blind confidence
that the Presbyterians had so unaccountably reposed in the king,
produced a species of fatuity; nor would they believe till they
experienced the truth of the prognostications of the more discerning,
who saw from the first the ill-dissembled hatred Charles bore to
Presbyterianism as well as to piety. They were like men amazed at
the greatness of the calamity; and although some few of them
attempted to draw up petitions to the council, no united effort was
made to vindicate the oppressed church.
An obsequious crowd of nobility, clergy, and gentry, awaited the
arrival of the new bishops, and obeyed to the letter the orders of the
king. From Cockburnspath to the capital, their numbers increased;
and, as the procession rolled on, it assumed more the splendour of
some earthly potentate marching to take possession of a newly-
acquired conquest, than that of spiritual guides entering upon the
humble duties of a gospel ministry. They were greeted on their
approach to Edinburgh with martial music, and received at the gates
by the magistrates in their robes,[25] and spent several successive
days in sumptuous entertainments. The primate, vieing with the chief
nobility in the elegance of his equipage as well as the magnificence
of his banquets, displayed upon the occasion a handsome London-
built chariot, and was attended by lackeys in purple liveries. Shortly
afterwards, in great pomp, he took possession of his see;[26] then,
returning to Edinburgh on the 7th of May, consecrated other six
bishops in the Abbey of Holyrood-house.
25. Lamont gives the following account of Sharpe’s visit on this occasion:—“As
for Mr Sharpe, he came to Fiffe, Apryl 15th, and dyned that day at Abetsaa,
Sr. Andrew Ramsays, formerly provest of Edenboroughe, his house, and that
night came to Lesly, being attended by divers both of the nobilitie and
gentrie. The nixt day being Weddensday, the 16th Apr., he went to St
Androws from Lesly, attended from the Earle of Rothes his house, with about
60 horse; bot by the way divers persons and corporations (being wretten for
in particular by the said Earle of Rothes a day or two before) mett him, some
at ane place and some at ane other, viz. some from Fawkland,
Achtermowghtie, Cuper, Craill, and about 120 horsemen from St Androws
and elsewhere; so that once they were estimat to be about 7 or 8 hundred
horse. The nobilitie ther were, Earle of Rothes, Earle of Kelley, Earle of
Leven, and the Lord Newarke; of gentrie, Ardrosse, Lundy, Rires, Dury,
Skaddowory, Doctor Martin of Strandry, and divers others. All the way the
said Archbishope rode thus, viz. betwixt two nobelmen, namely, Rothes on
his right, and Kelley on his left hand. No ministers were present ther safe Mr
William Barclay, formerly deposed out of Fawkland, and Mr William Comry,
minister of St Leonards Colledge, that came foorth with the Bishope his sone
out of St Androws to meit his father. (He dwells in the Abbey in Mr George
Weyms house, that formerly belonged to B. Spotswoode, Archb. of St
Androws.) That night ther supped with the said Bishope, the Earles of
Rothes, Kelley, Newarke; Ardrosse, Lundy, Strandry, and divers others; and
divers of this dined with him the nixt day. As for Rothes and Ardrosse, they
lodged with him all night. On the Sabbath after, he preached in the towne
church in the forenoone, and a velvet cushion in the pulpitt before him. His
text, 1 Cor. ii. 2. ‘For I determined to knowe nothing amonge you, save Jesus
Christ, and him crucified.’ His sermon did not run mutch on the words, bot in
a discourse of vindicating himselfe and of pressing of episcopacie and the
utilitie of it; shewing, since it was wanting, that ther hath beine nothing bot
trowbels and disturbancies both in church and state. Apryl 30, 1662, he
tooke journey for Edenboroughe, being accompanied with about 50 horse,
most of them of the citie of St Androws; and, in his way, he gave the Ladys at
Lundy a visit at Lundy: he cam with only 5 or 6 horse, and himselfe staid a
short whille, toke a drink (bot did not dine), and was gone againe.” Diary, p.
183-4.
26. Leighton alone declined all public show. When he understood the manner in
which it was proposed to receive them, he left the cavalcade at Morpeth, and
came privately to Edinburgh. Afterwards, he told Dr Burnet, “he believed they
were weary of him, for he was very weary of them.”
This ceremony, which had been deferred till the arrival of the
Commissioner, was conducted in the grandest and most imposing
style. His Grace, with all the nobles and gentlemen who had come to
town to attend parliament, together with the magistrates of the city,
were present; and none were admitted but by tickets. The two
archbishops who officiated were in their full canonicals—black satin
gowns, white surplices, lawn sleeves, copes, and all the long
desecrated garments, known to the Presbyterians of that day by the
contemptuous epithet of their forefathers—“Rags of Rome.” The
others wore black satin gowns. The passage leading from the pews,
where the bishops elect sat, to the altar, and the space before the
altar, were covered with rich carpets. Mr James Gordon, one of the
northern ministers, preached the consecration sermon from 1 Cor. iv.
1. “Let a man so account of us as of the ministers of Christ, and
stewards of the mysteries of God;” in which, pointing out the errors of
the former, he exhorted the new prelates to beware of encroaching
on the nobles, nor exceed the bounds of their sacred function. They
were then led from their places by the archbishop of Glasgow, and
by him presented to the primate who presided, and set them apart
according to the ritual of the church of England, and to whom they
vowed clerical obedience during all the days of their lives. The
bishops this day consecrated were—Dunkeld, George Halyburton,
late minister of Perth; Ross, George Patterson, minister of Aberdeen;
Moray, Murdoch Mackenzie, minister of Elgin; Brechin, David
Strachan, minister of Fettercairn; Argyle, David Fletcher, minister of
Melrose; The Isles, Robert Wallace, minister of Barnwell, Ayrshire;[27]
none of whom were men either of distinguished talents or exemplary
piety, and all had appeared zealots in the cause of the covenant.
Common report attributed to them a private dissoluteness of
character which might be exaggerated; but for their apostacy from a
cause which they had urged with more than ordinary heat, no
apology was ever attempted. Conviction could not be alleged, and as
self-interest appeared the only ostensible reason, they sunk in the
estimation of the people in proportion to the respect in which they
had been previously held; while they returned the contempt with
which they were deservedly treated by hatred and persecution—a
consequent usual with renegades, who ever remorselessly pursue to
degradation and death the steadfast members of the religion they
have betrayed, whose unshaken integrity is a standing reproof of
their temporizing baseness.

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