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 CONTENTS

Preface
Acknowledgments
About the Author
Introduction: The Five-Step Program

STEP 1 Set Up Your Study Plan

1 What You Need to Know About the AP Calculus
AB Exam
1.1 What Is Covered on the AP Calculus AB Exam?
1.2 What Is the Format of the AP Calculus AB Exam?
1.3 What Are the Advanced Placement Exam Grades?
How Is the AP Calculus AB Exam Grade Calculated?
1.4 Which Graphing Calculators Are Allowed for the
Exam?
Calculators and Other Devices Not Allowed for the
AP Calculus AB Exam
Other Restrictions on Calculators
2 How to Plan Your Time
2.1 Three Approaches to Preparing for the AP Calculus
AB Exam
Overview of the Three Plans
2.2 Calendar for Each Plan
Summary of the Three Study Plans

STEP 2 Determine Your Test Readiness

 3 Take a Diagnostic Exam
3.1 Getting Started!
3.2 Diagnostic Test
3.3 Answers to Diagnostic Test
3.4 Solutions to Diagnostic Test
3.5 Calculate Your Score
Short-Answer Questions
AP Calculus AB Diagnostic Test

STEP 3 Develop Strategies for Success

4 How to Approach Each Question Type
4.1 The Multiple-Choice Questions
4.2 The Free-Response Questions
4.3 Using a Graphing Calculator
4.4 Taking the Exam
What Do I Need to Bring to the Exam?
Tips for Taking the Exam

STEP 4 Review the Knowledge You Need to Score High

5 Review of Precalculus
5.1 Lines
Slope of a Line
Equations of a Line
Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
5.2 Absolute Values and Inequalities
Absolute Values
Inequalities and the Real Number Line
Solving Absolute Value Inequalities
Solving Polynomial Inequalities
 Solving Rational Inequalities
5.3 Functions
Definition of a Function
Operations on Functions
Inverse Functions
Trigonometric and Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
5.4 Graphs of Functions
Increasing and Decreasing Functions
Intercepts and Zeros
Odd and Even Functions
Shifting, Reflecting, and Stretching Graphs
5.5 Rapid Review
5.6 Practice Problems
5.7 Cumulative Review Problems
5.8 Solutions to Practice Problems
5.9 Solutions to Cumulative Review Problems

Big Idea 1: Limits

6 Limits and Continuity
6.1 The Limit of a Function
Definition and Properties of Limits
Evaluating Limits
One-Sided Limits
Squeeze Theorem
6.2 Limits Involving Infinities
Infinite Limits (as x → a)
Limits at Infinity (as x →±∞)
Horizontal and Vertical Asymptotes
 6.3 Continuity of a Function
Continuity of a Function at a Number
Continuity of a Function over an Interval
Theorems on Continuity
6.4 Rapid Review
6.5 Practice Problems
6.6 Cumulative Review Problems
6.7 Solutions to Practice Problems
6.8 Solutions to Cumulative Review Problems

Big Idea 2: Derivatives

7 Differentiation
7.1 Derivatives of Algebraic Functions
Definition of the Derivative of a Function
Power Rule
The Sum, Difference, Product, and Quotient Rules
The Chain Rule
7.2 Derivatives of Trigonometric, Inverse
Trigonometric, Exponential, and Logarithmic
Functions
Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic
Functions
7.3 Implicit Differentiation
Procedure for Implicit Differentiation
7.4 Approximating a Derivative
7.5 Derivatives of Inverse Functions
7.6 Higher Order Derivatives
 7.7 L’Hôpital’s Rule for Indeterminate Forms
7.8 Rapid Review
7.9 Practice Problems
7.10 Cumulative Review Problems
7.11 Solutions to Practice Problems
7.12 Solutions to Cumulative Review Problems
8 Graphs of Functions and Derivatives
8.1 Rolle's Theorem, Mean Value Theorem, and
Extreme Value Theorem
Rolle’s Theorem
Mean Value Theorem
Extreme Value Theorem
8.2 Determining the Behavior of Functions
Test for Increasing and Decreasing Functions
First Derivative Test and Second Derivative Test for
Relative Extrema
Test for Concavity and Points of Inflection
8.3 Sketching the Graphs of Functions
Graphing without Calculators
Graphing with Calculators
8.4 Graphs of Derivatives
8.5 Rapid Review
8.6 Practice Problems
8.7 Cumulative Review Problems
8.8 Solutions to Practice Problems
8.9 Solutions to Cumulative Review Problems
9 Applications of Derivatives
9.1 Related Rate
 General Procedure for Solving Related Rate
Problems
Common Related Rate Problems
Inverted Cone (Water Tank) Problem
Shadow Problem
Angle of Elevation Problem
9.2 Applied Maximum and Minimum Problems
General Procedure for Solving Applied Maximum
and Minimum Problems
Distance Problem
Area and Volume Problems
Business Problems
9.3 Rapid Review
9.4 Practice Problems
9.5 Cumulative Review Problems
9.6 Solutions to Practice Problems
9.7 Solutions to Cumulative Review Problems
10 More Applications of Derivatives
10.1 Tangent and Normal Lines
Tangent Lines
Normal Lines
10.2 Linear Approximations
Tangent Line Approximation (or Linear
Approximation)
Estimating the nth Root of a Number
Estimating the Value of a Trigonometric Function of
an Angle
10.3 Motion Along a Line
Instantaneous Velocity and Acceleration
 Vertical Motion
Horizontal Motion
10.4 Rapid Review
10.5 Practice Problems
10.6 Cumulative Review Problems
10.7 Solutions to Practice Problems
10.8 Solutions to Cumulative Review Problems

Big Idea 3: Integrals and the Fundamental Theorems

of Calculus
11 Integration
11.1 Evaluating Basic Integrals
Antiderivatives and Integration Formulas
Evaluating Integrals
11.2 Integration by U-Substitution
The U-Substitution Method
U-Substitution and Algebraic Functions
U-Substitution and Trigonometric Functions
U-Substitution and Inverse Trigonometric Functions
U-Substitution and Logarithmic and Exponential
Functions
11.3 Rapid Review
11.4 Practice Problems
11.5 Cumulative Review Problems
11.6 Solutions to Practice Problems
11.7 Solutions to Cumulative Review Problems
12 Definite Integrals
12.1 Riemann Sums and Definite Integrals
Sigma Notation or Summation Notation
 Definition of a Riemann Sum
Definition of a Definite Integral
Properties of Definite Integrals
12.2 Fundamental Theorems of Calculus
First Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
12.3 Evaluating Definite Integrals
Definite Integrals Involving Algebraic Functions
Definite Integrals Involving Absolute Value
Definite Integrals Involving Trigonometric,
Logarithmic, and Exponential Functions
Definite Integrals Involving Odd and Even
Functions
12.4 Rapid Review
12.5 Practice Problems
12.6 Cumulative Review Problems
12.7 Solutions to Practice Problems
12.8 Solutions to Cumulative Review Problems
13 Areas and Volumes
13.1 The Function
13.2 Approximating the Area Under a Curve
Rectangular Approximations
Trapezoidal Approximations
13.3 Area and Definite Integrals
Area Under a Curve
Area Between Two Curves
13.4 Volumes and Definite Integrals
Solids with Known Cross Sections
The Disc Method
 The Washer Method
13.5 Rapid Review
13.6 Practice Problems
13.7 Cumulative Review Problems
13.8 Solutions to Practice Problems
13.9 Solutions to Cumulative Review Problems
14 More Applications of Definite Integrals
14.1 Average Value of a Function
Mean Value Theorem for Integrals
Average Value of a Function on [a, b]
14.2 Distance Traveled Problems
14.3 Definite Integral as Accumulated Change
Business Problems
Temperature Problem
Leakage Problem
Growth Problem
14.4 Differential Equations
Exponential Growth/Decay Problems
Separable Differential Equations
14.5 Slope Fields
14.6 Rapid Review
14.7 Practice Problems
14.8 Cumulative Review Problems
14.9 Solutions to Practice Problems
14.10 Solutions to Cumulative Review Problems

STEP 5 Build Your Test-Taking Confidence

AP Calculus AB Practice Exam 1
AP Calculus AB Practice Exam 2
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of A handbook of
systematic botany
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
you are located before using this eBook.

Title: A handbook of systematic botany

Author: Eugenius Warming

Contributor: Emil Knoblauch

Translator: Michael Cresse Potter

Release date: July 21, 2022 [eBook #68580]

Language: English

Original publication: United Kingdom: Swan Sonnenschein, 1895

Credits: Peter Becker, Karin Spence and the Online Distributed

Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
produced from images generously made available by The
Internet Archive)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A

HANDBOOK OF SYSTEMATIC BOTANY ***
 A HANDBOOK
OF

SYSTEMATIC BOTANY
BY

DR. E. WARMING
Professor of Botany in the University of Copenhagen
With a Revision of the Fungi by
DR. E. KNOBLAUCH,
Karlsruhe

Translated and Edited by

M. C. POTTER, M.A. F.L.S.
Professor of Botany in the University of Durham
College of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne
Author of “An Elementary Text-book of Agricultural Botany”

WITH 610 ILLUSTRATIONS

London
SWAN SONNENSCHEIN & CO
NEW YORK: MACMILLAN & CO
1895

Butler & Tanner,

The Selwood Printing Works,
Frome, and London.
 P R E FA C E .

The present translation of Dr. E. Warming’s Haandbog i den

Systematiske Botanik is taken from the text of the 3rd Danish Edition
(1892), and from Dr. Knoblauch’s German Edition (1890), and the
book has been further enriched by numerous additional notes which
have been kindly sent to me by the author. Dr. Warming’s work has
long been recognised as an original and important contribution to
Systematic Botanical Literature, and I have only to regret that the
pressure of other scientific duties has delayed its presentation to
English readers. Dr. Warming desires me to record his high
appreciation of the careful translation of Dr. Knoblauch, and his
obligation to him for a number of corrections and improvements of
which he has made use in the 3rd Danish Edition. In a few instances
I have made slight additions to the text; these, however, appear as
footnotes, or are enclosed in square brackets.
In the present Edition the Thallophytes have been revised and
rearranged from notes supplied to me by Dr. Knoblauch, to whom I
am indebted for the Classification of the Fungi, according to the
more recent investigations of Brefeld. The Bacteria have been
revised by Dr. Migula, the Florideæ rearranged after Schmitz, and
the Taphrinaceæ after Sadebeck. The main body of the text of the
Algæ and Fungi remains as it was originally written by Dr. Wille and
Dr. Rostrup in the Danish Edition, though in many places
considerable alterations and additions have been made. For the
sake of comparison a tabular key to the Classification adopted in the
Danish Edition is given in the Appendix.
In the Angiosperms I have retained the sequence of orders in the
Danish original, and have not rearranged them according to the
systems more familiar to English students. In any rearrangement
much of the significance of Dr. Warming’s valuable and original
observations would have been lost, and also from a teacher’s point
of view I have found this system of great value. Although at present it
may not be completely satisfactory, yet as an attempt to explain the
mutual relationships, development and retrogression of many of the
orders, it may be considered to have a distinct advantage over the
more artificial systems founded upon Jussieu’s Divisions of
Polypetalæ, Gamopetalæ, and Apetalæ.
With reference to the principles of the systematic arrangement
adopted, I may here insert the following brief communication from
the author (dated March, 1890), which he has requested me to quote
from the preface of Dr. Knoblauch’s edition:—“Each form which, on
comparative morphological considerations, is clearly less simple, or
can be shown to have arisen by reduction or through abortion of
another type having the same fundamental structure, or in which a
further differentiation and division of labour is found, will be regarded
as younger, and as far as possible, and so far as other
considerations will admit, will be reviewed later than the ‘simpler,’
more complete, or richer forms. For instance, to serve as an
illustration: Epigyny and Perigyny are less simple than Hypogny;
the Epigynous Sympetalæ, Choripetalæ, Monocotyledones are,
therefore, treated last, the Hydrocharitaceæ are considered last
under the Helobieæ, etc. Zygomorphy is younger than
Actinomorphy; the Scitamineæ and Gynandræ therefore follow
after the Liliifloræ, the Scrophulariaceæ after the Solanaceæ, Linaria
after Verbascum, etc. Forms with united leaves indicate younger
types than those with free leaves; hence the Sympetalæ come after
the Choripetalæ, the Sileneæ after the Alsineæ, the Malcaceæ after
the Sterculiaceæ and Tiliaceæ, etc.
“Acyclic (spiral-leaved) flowers are older than cyclic (verticillate-
leaved) with a definite number, comparing, of course, only those with
the same fundamental structure. The Veronica-type must be
considered as younger, for example, than Digitalis and Antirrhinum,
these again as younger than Scrophularia; Verbascum, on the
contrary, is the least reduced, and therefore considered as the oldest
form. Similarly the one-seeded, nut-fruited Ranunculaceæ are
considered as a later type (with evident abortion) than the many-
seeded, folicular forms of the Order; the Paronychieæ and
Chenopodiaceæ as reduced forms of the Alsineæ type; and the
occurrence of few seeds in an ovary as generally arising through
reduction of the many-seeded forms. The Cyperaceæ are regarded
as a form derived from the Juncaceæ through reduction, and
associated with this, as is so often the case, there is a complication
of the inflorescence; the Dipsacaceæ are again regarded as a form
proceeding from the Valerianaceæ by a similar reduction, and these
in their turn as an offshoot from the Caprifoliaceæ, etc. Of course
these principles of systematic arrangement could only be applied
very generally; for teaching purposes they have often required
modification.”
In preparing the translation considerable difficulty has been
experienced in finding a satisfactory rendering of several terms
which have no exact equivalent in English. I may here especially
mention the term Vorblatt (Forblad) which I have translated by the
term bracteole, when it clearly applied to the first leaf (or leaves) on
a pedicel; but in discussing questions of general morphology a term
was much needed to include both vegetative and floral shoots, and
for this I have employed the term “Fore-leaf.” Also, the term “Floral-
leaf” has been adopted as an equivalent of “Hochblatt,” and the term
“bract” has been limited to a leaf subtending a flower. I have followed
Dr. E. L. Mark in translating the word “Anlage” by “Fundament.”
At the end of the book will be found a short appendix giving an
outline of some of the earlier systems of Classification, with a more
complete account of that of Hooker and Bentham.
In a book of this character it is almost impossible to avoid some
errors, but it is hoped that these will be comparatively few. In
correcting the proof-sheets I have received invaluable assistance
from Dr. Warming and Dr. Knoblauch, who have kindly read through
every sheet, and to whom I am greatly indebted for many criticisms
and suggestions. I have also to thank Mr. I. H. Burkill for his kind
assistance in looking over the proofs of the Monocotyledons and
Dicotyledons, and Mr. Harold Wager for kindly reading through the
proofs of the Algæ and Fungi. My thanks are also especially due to
Mr. E. L. Danielsen, and I wish to take this opportunity of
acknowledging the very considerable help which I have received
from him in translating from the Original Danish.
 M. C. POTTER.
January, 1895.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS.
BEING THE SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION ADOPTED IN THE
PRESENT VOLUME.
(The Algæ and Fungi rearranged in co-operation with Dr. E.
Knoblauch, the other Divisions as in the 3rd Danish Edition.)

PAGE
DIVISION I. THALLOPHYTA 4
A. Sub-Division. Myxomycetes, Slime-Fungi 5
B. Sub-Division. Algæ 8
Class 1. Syngeneticæ 14
„ 2. Dinoflagellata 16
„ 3. Diatomeæ 18
„ 4. Schizophyta 22
Family 1. Schizophyceæ 22
„ 2. Bacteria 26
Class 5. Conjugatæ 41
„ 6. Chlorophyceæ 46
Family 1. Protococcoideæ 47
„ 2. Confervoideæ 53
„ 3. Siphoneæ 59
Class 7. Characeæ 64
„ 8. Phæophyceæ (Olive-Brown Seaweeds) 68
Family 1. Phæosporeæ 68
„ 2. Cyclosporeæ 73
Class 9. Dictyotales 76
„ 10. Rhodophyceæ (Red Seaweeds) 77
Family 1. Bangioideæ 77
„ 2. Florideæ 78
C. Sub-Division. Fungi 84
Class 1. Phycomycetes 96
Sub-Class 1. Zygomycetes 96
„ 2. Oomycetes 100
Family 1. Entomophthorales 102
 „ 2. Chytridiales 102
„ 3. Mycosiphonales 104
Class 2. Mesomycetes 108
Sub-Class 1. Hemiasci 108
„ 2. Hemibasidii 109
Class 3. Mycomycetes (Higher Fungi) 114
Sub-Class 1. Ascomycetes 114
Series 1. Exoasci 116
„ 2. Carpoasci 118
Family 1. Gymnoascales 118
„ 2. Perisporiales 119
„ 3. Pyrenomycetes 125
„ 4. Hysteriales 132
„ 5. Discomycetes 132
„ 6. Helvellales 136
Ascolichenes 136
Sub-Class 2. Basidiomycetes 144
Series 1. Protobasidomycetes 145
„ 2. Autobasidiomycetes 157
Family 1. Dacryomycetes 159
„ 2. Hymenomycetes 159
„ 3. Phalloideæ 172
„ 4. Gasteromycetes 173
Basidiolichenes 176
Fungi Imperfecti 176

DIVISION II. MUSCINEÆ (MOSSES) 181

Class 1. Hepaticæ 188
Family 1. Marchantieæ 190
„ 2. Anthoceroteæ 191
„ 3. Jungermannieæ 191
Class 2. Musci frondosi 192
Family 1. Sphagneæ 193
„ 2. Schizocarpeæ 195
„ 3. Cleistocarpeæ 195
„ 4. Stegocarpeæ 195

DIVISION III. PTERIDOPHYTA 198

Class 1. Filicinæ 205
Sub-Class 1. Filices 205
Family 1. Eusporangiatæ 210
„ 2. Leptosporangiatæ 212
Sub-Class 2. Hydropterideæ 215
Class 2. Equisetinæ (Horsetails) 221
Sub-Class 1. Isosporous Equisetinæ 221
„ 2. Heterosporous Equisetinæ 225
Class 3. Lycopodinæ (Club Mosses) 226
Sub-Class 1. Lycopodieæ 226
„ 2. Selaginelleæ 228
Transition from the Cryptogams to the Phanerogams 234
Asexual Generation of the Cormophytes 234
Sexual Generation; Fertilisation 243

DIVISION IV. GYMNOSPERMÆ 251

Class 1. Cycadeæ (Cycads) 252
„ 2. Coniferæ (Pine-Trees) 255
Family 1. Taxoideæ 259
„ 2. Pinoideæ 262
Class 3. Gneteæ 270
Fossil Gymnosperms 271

DIVISION V. ANGIOSPERMÆ 273

Class 1. Monocotyledones 274
Family 1. Helobieæ 278
„ 2. Glumifloræ 283
„ 3. Spadicifloræ 297
„ 4. Enantioblastæ 308
„ 5. Liliifloræ 309
„ 6. Scitamineæ 323
„ 7. Gynandræ 328
Class 2. Dicotyledones 334
Sub-Class 1. Choripetalæ 337
Family 1. Salicifloræ 337
„ 2. Casuarinifloræ 339
„ 3. Quercifloræ 340
„ 4. Juglandifloræ 349
 „ 5. Urticifloræ 351
„ 6. Polygonifloræ 358
„ 7. Curvembryæ 363
„ 8. Cactifloræ 375
„ 9. Polycarpicæ 377
„ 10. Rhœadinæ 393
„ 11. Cistifloræ 406
„ 12. Gruinales 416
„ 13. Columniferæ 421
„ 14. Tricoccæ 430
„ 15. Terebinthinæ 435
„ 16. Aesculinæ 439
„ 17. Frangulinæ 443
„ 18. Thymelæinæ 448
„ 19. Saxifraginæ 451
„ 20. Rosifloræ 456
„ 21. Leguminosæ 466
„ 22. Passiflorinæ 475
„ 23. Myrtifloræ 482
„ 24. Umbellifloræ 490
„ 25. Hysterophyta 498
Sub-Class 2. Sympetalæ 504
A. Pentacyclicæ 506
Family 26. Bicornes 506
„ 27. Diospyrinæ 510
„ 28. Primulinæ 511
B. Tetracyclicæ 514
Family 29. Tubifloræ 514
„ 30. Personatæ 517
„ 31. Nuculiferæ 531
„ 32. Contortæ 541
„ 33. Rubiales 548
„ 34. Dipsacales 556
„ 35. Campanulinæ 560
„ 36. Aggregatæ 564
Appendix 574
Index 593
 CORRIGENDA.

Page 9, line 12 from top, for Hydrodicton read Hydrodictyon.

„ 14, lines 1 and 2 from top, for as in the preceding case read
in this case.
„ 14, „ 2 and 15 from top, for zygote read oospore.
„ 88, line 15 from bottom, for Periphyses read periphyses.
„ 124, „ 7 „ „ for Chæromyces read Choiromyces.
„ 142, „ 2 „ „ and in Fig. 137, for Bœomyces read
Bæomyces.
„ 152, „ 2 „ top, for Pirus read Pyrus.
„ 152, „ 5 „ „ for Crategus read Cratægus.
„ 216, Fig. 215, for Salvina read Salvinia.
„ 306, line 6 from top, for Pista read Pistia.
„ 316, „ 26 „ „ after Dracæna insert a comma.
„ 337, „ 13 „ „ for end read beginning.
„ 483, „ 11 „ bottom, for Lagerstrœmia read
Lagerstrœmeria.

For ä, ö and ü read æ, œ and ue throughout.

The following are not officinal in the British Pharmacopœia:—page
316, Dracæna (Dragon’s-blood), Smilax glabra; p. 321, “Orris-root”;
p. 326, species of Curcuma, Alpinia officinarum; p. 333, Orchis-
species (“Salep”). On page 296, par. 4, only Pearl Barley is offic. in
the Brit. Phar.
 CLASSIFICATION OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM.
The Vegetable Kingdom is arranged in 5 Divisions.
Division I.—Thallophyta, Stemless Plants, or those which are
composed of a “thallus,” i.e. organs of nourishment which are not
differentiated into root (in the sense in which this term is used among
the higher plants), stem, or leaf. Vascular bundles are wanting.
Conjugation and fertilisation in various ways; among most of the
Fungi only vegetative multiplication.
In contradistinction to the Thallophytes all other plants are called “Stem-plants”
(“Cormophyta”), because their shoots are leaf-bearing stems. The name
Thallophyta (Stemless-plants) is to some extent unsuitable, since many of the
higher Algæ are differentiated into stem and leaf.
The Thallophytes are again separated into 3 sub-divisions,
namely:
Sub-Division A.—Myxomycetes, Slime-Fungi, with only 1 class.
Sub-Division B.—Algæ, with 10 classes:
Class 1. Syngeneticæ.
„ 2. Dinoflagellata, Peridinea.
„ 3. Diatomeæ, Diatoms.
„ 4. Schizophyta, Fission Algæ.
„ 5. Conjugatæ.
„ 6. Chlorophyceæ, Green Algæ.
„ 7. Characeæ, Stone-worts.
„ 8. Phæophyceæ, Brown Algæ.
„ 9. Dictyotales.
„ 10. Rhodophyceæ, Red Algæ.
Sub-Division C.—Fungi, with 3 classes:
Class 1. Phycomycetes.
„ 2. Mesomycetes.
„ 3. Mycomycetes, Higher Fungi.

Division II.—Bryophyta or Muscineæ, Mosses. These have leaf-

bearing shoots, but neither true roots nor vascular bundles. The
lowest Mosses have, however, a thallus. Fertilisation is
accomplished by means of self-motile, spirally coiled spermatozoids,
through the agency of water. From the fertilised oosphere a “fruit-
body” (capsule) with unicellular organs of reproduction (spores) is
produced. The spore on germination gives rise to the vegetative
system, which bears the organs of sexual reproduction; and this
system is divided into two stages—the protonema, and the leaf-
bearing plant produced on it.
Alternation of generations:
I. The protonema and the entire nutritive system which bears the organs of
sexual reproduction.
II. The capsule-like sporangium, with spores.
2 Classes: 1. Hepaticæ, Liverworts.
2. Musci, Leafy Mosses.

Division III.—Pteridophyta or Vascular Cryptogams, Fern-like

Plants having leaf-bearing shoots, true roots, and vascular bundles
with tracheides and sieve-tubes. Fertilisation as in the Mosses. From
the fertilised oosphere the leaf-bearing shoot arises, which bears on
its leaves the reproductive organs, the spores, in capsule-like
sporangia. From the germination of the spore a small prothallium is
formed, which bears the sexual reproductive organs.
Alternation of generations:
I. Prothallium with organs of sexual reproduction.
II. Leaf-bearing shoot with capsule-like sporangia.
3 Classes: 1. Filicinæ, True Ferns.
2. Equisetinæ, Horsetails.
3. Lycopodinæ, Club-mosses.

Division IV.—Gymnospermæ. The vegetative organs are in the

main similar to those in the 3rd Division; special shoots are modified
into flowers for the service of reproduction. From the oosphere,
which is fertilised by means of the pollen-tube, the leaf-bearing plant
is derived; this passes the first period of its life as an embryo in the
seed, and continues its development when the germination of the
seed takes place. The organs corresponding to the spores of the two
preceding Divisions, are called respectively the pollen-grain and
embryo-sac. The pollen-grains are multicellular; i.e. they contain an
indistinct prothallium. In the embryo-sac a prothallium, rich in reserve
material (endosperm), with female organs of reproduction, is
developed before fertilisation. The pollen-grains are carried by