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Under the Bhasha Gaze: Modernity and Indian Literature
PP Raveendran
https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192871558.001.0001
Published: 2023 Online ISBN: 9780191967801 Print ISBN: 9780192871558
FRONT MATTER
Copyright Page
https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192871558.002.0003 Page iv
Published: February 2023
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above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
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P.P. Raveendran
Under the Bhasha Gaze: Modernity and Indian Literature
PP Raveendran
https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192871558.001.0001
Published: 2023 Online ISBN: 9780191967801 Prin BN: 9780192871558
FRONT MATTER
Acknowledgements
Published: February 2023
The author wishes to acknowledge the following publications in which lier versions of some of the
chapters were printed, as detailed below:
Chapter 5: Methodology in Translating Pre-modern Texts, ed. C. Nagan Bengaluru: Sahitya Akademi,
2017. (The essay originally titled ‘Translation as Rewriting: Coloniali , Modernity and the Idea of
Literature’)
Chapter 6: Indian Literature, No. 252 (July–August 2009) (The essay o inally titled ‘Decolonization and
the Dynamics of Translation: An Essay in Historical Poetics’)
Chapter 10: Literary Criticism in India: Texts, Trends and Trajectories, ed V Ramakrishnan. New Delhi:
Sahitya Akademi, 2021. (The essay originally titled ‘Modernity and I anence: The Contexts of Kesari
Balakrishna Pillai’)
Chapter 11: Chandrabhaga, No. 16 (2018) (The essay originally titled ‘ ere is Bharatvarsha? Region and
Nation in Indian Poetry’)
Chapter 12: Journal of Literature and Aesthetics, Vol. 14 (2014) (The ess originally titled ‘Bilingualism and
the Everyday: Bhakti and Vibhakti in Indian Writing in English’)
Chapter 16: S.K. Pottekkat, The Story of the Time-piece: A Collection of S rt Stories. Trans. Venugopal
Menon. New Delhi: Niyogi Books. (Foreword titled ‘SK Pottekkat: Writing as Fantasy Travel’)
Chapter 18: Rajelakshmy, A Path and Many Shadows and Twelve Stories. Trans. RK Jayasree. Hyderabad:
Orient BlackSwan. (Introduction titled ‘Rajelakshmy: The Tale and the Teller’)
p. x
Introduction: Bhasha in Focus
Under the Bhasha Gaze. PP Raveendran, Oxford University Press. © PP Raveendran 2023.
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192871558.003.0001
2 Under the Bhasha Gaze
‘Modernity’ is understood here not as a singular event, but as a com-
plex and layered phenomenon that manifests across languages, both
in India and abroad, in multiple forms. Traditionally, especially in the
European context, modernity used to be identified with the breakdown of
the feudal order and the emergence of new social formations in the wake
of large-scale industrialization. It is this understanding of modernity
that Anthony Giddens draws upon when he formulates a preliminary
definition for it: ‘Modernity refers to modes of social life or organiza-
tion which emerged in Europe from around the seventeenth century on-
wards and which subsequently became more or less worldwide in their
influence’ (1990: 1). The assumption here is that modernity is a universal
state of being towards which all cultures travel, discarding past beliefs.
This monolithic view of modernity certainly is important in the history
of contemporary social theory. However, one cannot ignore the fact that
this view is under challenge from various quarters today, both on account
of its Euro-centric bias and its positivistic orientation. On the one hand,
while there are important thinkers such as Perry Anderson (1984) and
Bruno Latour (1993) who consider modernity more as a matter of faith
or misrecognition and who question its conceptual and historical bases,
there are also writers like K.M. Panikkar (1953), Walter Rodney (1972),
and Eduardo Galeano (1973) who, on the other hand, draw attention to
the grave injustice it has perpetrated on the people of Asia, Africa, and
South America. Besides, as argued by scholars like Shmuel Eisenstadt
and Lawrence Grossberg who talk about multiple and, especially non-
western, modernities, while one is justified in granting ‘historical prece-
dence’ and status as a point of reference to the western form, it can by
no means be regarded as the only ‘authentic’ version of modernity today
(Eisenstadt 2000: 2–3). Modernity can manifest in diverse forms across
cultures, and it is not imperative that it should have an adversarial relation
with tradition in all societies. There could be interpenetrations between
the values connected with tradition and modernity in specific societies,
situations that might prompt one to be suspicious of simplistic definitions
that consider ‘modern’ to be wholly and exclusively non-traditional and
‘traditional’ as everything that is dated and obsolete. One might do well
to remember in this context that the social awakening in India associated
with such ‘traditional’ figures as the Buddha, Tiruvalluvar, the poets affili-
ated to the medieval Bhakti movement, or saints of modern times like Sri
Introduction 3
Narayana Guru can also be regarded as constituting important moments
in the evolution of distinctively Indian versions of modernity.
The present study, therefore, adopts the idea of a proliferation of mod-
ernities as a way of dealing with the concept’s nuanced, contested, and
contradictory character. While modernity’s leverage as a desirable term
for a mindset promoting liberal, enlightened, and scientific vision is in-
deed valuable, it is impossible to ignore its negative meaning as a rep-
resentation of the language of ‘tyranny’ associated with the discourse
of western rationality. This is where one feels compelled to talk about
an Indian context for modernity in which concepts such as ‘everyday’,
‘worldliness’, ‘sociality’, ‘secularism’, ‘bilingualism’, ‘polyphony’, ‘democ-
racy’, ‘resistance’, ‘nationalism’, and so on gain varied and vibrant reson-
ances. These and other terms are used in this study not in any narrowly
defined sense in which specific theorists might have used them in their
formulations, but are deployed in a larger, often non-European, context
where one can interweave questions of history, culture, and politics with
literary texts. The idea of the historical and the social in this context can
be seen entering into a critical dialogue with concepts such as ‘ideology’,
‘hegemony’, ‘habitus’, and ‘social imaginary’ as well as with their more re-
cent variants appearing in the writings of such social thinkers as Michel
Foucault, Jurgen Habermas, Pierre Bourdieu, Romila Thapar, Partha
Chatterjee, Dipesh Chakrabarty, Charles Taylor, Edward Said, Arjun
Appadurai, and several others.
The concept of the ‘everyday’ that figures prominently in these pages,
though borrowed from the social theory of Henri Lefebvre, is used here
to describe bhasha literatures’ interest not only in the ordinary and the
non-elite, but in forms and structures that would allow a sense of this-
worldliness to be worked into the conception of literature. Though
the principles of art as handed down to Indian literary scholarship by
western aesthetics leave little room for an understanding of literature in
non-esoteric terms, it is art’s turn to the social and the everyday that has
arguably allowed bhasha literatures to weave new forms of critical con-
sciousness into the experience of literature at various stages of the evo-
lution of modernity in India. It is in this sense that the everyday signals
the advent of a new epistemology concerned with the representation of
immanent objects rather than of a transcendent reality, and implies the
emergence of a new aesthetic that is geared to a radical understanding of
4 Under the Bhasha Gaze
culture. Lefebvre makes a distinction between ‘everyday’ and ‘daily life’,
and alludes, echoing in some sense Baudelaire’s definition of the ‘modern’,
to the transience and impermanence of the mundane and the common-
place. The everyday, as he sees it, is what is excluded from philosophy, and
it is this exclusion that accounts for its departure from elite responses and
forms of thought, including art and literature of the esoteric kind. This is
what makes modernity’s relation with high art and elite literature a matter
of concern in considerations of the sociology of writing. Also, while the
everyday represents the quotidian at the temporal level, it can also get
spatialized in artworks and literary pieces to include the minor and the
marginalized. Art and literature in the past revelled in epic and philo-
sophical themes expressed in a grand, secure, and self-assured language,
but the advent of modernity in the alternative sense cited here appeared
to pose severe threats to this security and self-assurance.
The theoretically sensitive cultural deliberation that the book repre-
sents cannot be divorced from the postcolonial and comparative reading
of texts and trends from diverse Indian bhashas being carried out by
countless scholars in Indian languages today. In that sense, the book may
also be regarded as an attempt at formulating a new critical paradigm
for the study of Indian literature from a comparative and interliterary
perspective. The repeated references made herein to the bilingualism
and multilingualism inherent to the Indian literary ethos would per-
haps require further comment. Though one might differ on the precise
ways in which the presence of multilingualism in the literary imagin-
ation was theorized in ancient days, no one would dare to contest, in the
face of historical evidence unearthed from both literary and non-literary
sources, that exchanges between languages and literatures in India in the
past were considerable. Such exchanges indeed went beyond instances
of women and the working-class speaking Prakrit in ancient Sanskrit
drama, or of the manifestations of linguistic hybridity in medieval and
early modern South Indian literatures, especially Malayalam literature,
whose Manipravalam traditions are being subjected to fresh critical scru-
tiny by cultural studies scholars today. It seems to have been natural for
an Indian text in the past to move from one language to another in the
form of what we today broadly describe as ‘translation’, but which circu-
lated through narrative reconstructions realized, sometimes in the name
of literature, but more often in the name of devotional songs, oral tales,
Introduction 5
moral fables, and hagiographies. This certainly was a question that Indian
scholars such as Buddhadev Bose, Sisir Kumar Das, Sujit Mukherjee,
A.K. Ramanujan, U.R. Ananthamurthy, Meenakshi Mukherjee, Namvar
Singh, and Ayyappa Paniker who did pioneering work in comparative lit-
erature in the past were serious about, but who, in the absence of material
evidence from individual languages, apparently could not make much
headway in their efforts. The situation, to be sure, has improved in re-
cent days, primarily because of the significant work that is being done in
several bhashas today, not by literary scholars alone, but by historians,
social scientists, folklorists, and cultural studies specialists as well. In the
light of the new developments, one might feel compelled to reimagine the
literary landscape of premodern and modern India as a dynamic terrain
marked by interliterary exchanges and the circulation of texts and ideas
across cultures. One might also be persuaded to consider the polyphonic
culture associated with the Indian creative mind as an integral character-
istic of Indian modernity.
No exaggerated significance needs to be read into the use of the word
bhasha in the title or in the text. It is significant to the extent that bhasha,
its root sense of expressive lucidity apart, is the common word for ‘speech’
or ‘a regional dialect’ in most Indian languages, especially when used in
opposition to the hegemonic language of Sanskrit. Sometimes the term
is used as an affix to indicate the translation in the regional language of
a well-known text in Sanskrit as, for example, in Bhasha Kautaliyam, the
twelfth-century Malayalam rewriting of Kautilya’s Arthasasthra. In pre-
modern times, when the word appears prefixed or suffixed to the title of
a literary work, it invariably means a non-Sanskritic work as in Bhasha
Bhushan, the seventeenth century Hindi treatise on poetics by Jaswant
Singh, Gita-govinda Bhasha, the seventeenth-century Maithili trans-
lation of Jayadeva’s Gita Govinda, or Bhasha Naishadham Champu,
the eighteenth-century Malayalam retelling of the story of Nala by
Mazhamangalath Nampoothiri. The word indeed is of Sanskrit origin,
though its anti-hegemonic thrust in the Indian linguistic context con-
fers on it a degree of political power. There are a few more implications
that the word has gained from its historically evolving semantic environ-
ment that might further deepen its political potential. One of these is that
the word is sometimes used in opposition to chandah or a Vedic verse,
and in that sense, enjoys a lowly status in the hierarchically organized
6 Under the Bhasha Gaze
order of linguistic practice in past societies. It is possible that the inferior
status of bhasha in relation to Sanskrit as a language is an extension of
this. Added to this is the fact that the corresponding word for bhasha that
the colonial officers used in the imperial days was ‘vernacular’, a word
that originally signified a Latinate dialect spoken by domestic slaves in
ancient Roman provinces. In the past, bhashas often implied languages
used by the common people both for day-to-day communication and
for the oral rendering of tales and narratives in a multilingual ambience,
for which the dominant languages of Sanskrit, and later, English, had
remained unavailable. Bhasha can also signify the possibility of inter-
pretive plurality, especially in the expression bhashya, where it suggests
a ‘vernacular’ reading of a master text in Sanskrit. Perhaps it was the pol-
itical significance that the word acquired from these and other aspects
of its semantic context that prompted Indian scholars critical of the he-
gemony of Sanskrit to use the word bhasha with reference to the litera-
ture written in the regional languages. ‘With such happenings a profound
egalitarian impulse entered the hegemonic structure of Indian society’,
says Ananthamurthy, one of the earliest to use the word in this sense
(2014: 81). It is the subaltern and resistance potential implied by the term
bhasha that this book seeks to draw upon in talking about bhasha litera-
ture and the bhasha gaze.
The perspective outlined here should certainly provide a new critical
angle to the scholar engaged in the study of the interaction between lan-
guage, history, identity, power, subjectivity, culture, genre, gender, region,
nation, tradition, fantasy, and imagination—elements that contribute to-
wards the making of the ideology of a people. Questions pertaining to
the social, the marginal, the literary, the colonial, and the postcolonial,
when deployed in the specific context of the construction and evolution
of literary cultures in Indian bhashas will also be viewed differently in
the altered environment. Inasmuch as the matter impinges on the im-
aginary constitution of the Indian nation with its inevitable entangle-
ments with the larger, international world, this is not merely a literary
question, but is one that is deeply political in import. It is this import that
scholars like A.K. Ramanujan, Amiya Dev, Bhalchandra Nemade, Ngugi
wa Thiong’O, Ganesh Devy, and others recognize when they choose to
talk critically about the border-crossing function of literature, whether
the concept debated is Indian literature or world literature. The kind of
Introduction 7
aesthetic abstraction that accompanies the iconization and canonization
of literary texts, in this context, perhaps cannot be looked upon as the
norm in Indian literature. Though such abstractions and iconizations
might suit the tyrannical purposes of colonial modernity, what manifests
in Indian bhasha literatures of the modern period, enriched as they are
with the culture of polyphony as well as the architecture of the social and
the everyday, is a drift away from aesthetic abstraction towards a more
concrete and politically significant articulation of experience.
It is as an expression of the understanding of the literary process
described above that the present book has been conceived and de-
signed. Though the chapters that constitute the study have their
origin as independent essays written over the past decade, they are
held together in the present volume by the subtle political connec-
tion mentioned above. All the chapters have been reworked thor-
oughly for the present publication, so that their originals exist only
as spectral presences in them. The book itself is divided into three
sections, the first two consisting of seven chapters and the third of
six chapters: Section I: Historicizing Bhasha Literature; Section
II: Border-Crossing Bhasha Literature; and Section III: Six Ways of
Being Modern: Reading a Bhasha Canon.
The key concepts around which the discussion in the book turns have
been broached and elaborated in the chapters forming Section I. The ar-
guments here seek to historicize bhasha literatures, and are set against a
broad canvas. The section establishes the book’s general perspective on
Indian literature and inquires into the various ways in which bhasha lit-
eratures engaged with modernity both as a concept and as an aspect of
reality during the colonial and postcolonial periods. The deliberations
carried out, however, are not exclusively theoretical, because what the
chapters in this section attempt to do in essence is throw open the con-
ceptual world, before letting it fuse gently with the larger literary cosmos
of Indian bhashas. Specimens from Indian literature come alive in these
chapters against the dynamic background of a world of cultural inter-
action where concepts like the everyday, the social imaginary, the her-
metic aesthetic, translation, decolonization, literary history, and so on
cease to be articulations of pure theory with no connection with lived
and imagined reality. Thus in the first three chapters titled ‘Modernity
and Indian Literature’, ‘The Everyday as Modernity’, and ‘Print Capitalism
8 Under the Bhasha Gaze
and Modernity’, the bhasha-centred resonances associated with specific
concepts are illustrated with copious examples from Indian literatures,
especially from the Malayalam missionary literature of the nineteenth
century, as well as from writings and translations from Malayalam and
Indian English. Chapters 1 and 2 try to make sense of Indian modernity
by scrutinizing the signals of everydayness animating the specimens of
bhasha writing and by analysing the spirit of pluralism and secularism
that they are imbued with. Chapter 3 takes up the question of the evolu-
tion of printed prose as a medium of creative communication in Indian
languages in the nineteenth century which, even as it can be interpreted
as a process marking the passage from the traditional to the modern,
can also be construed as indicating the advent of a logic that disregards
the emotional make-up of the colonized subject. Chapter 4, titled ‘The
Literary Process and the Social Imaginary’ critically examines the evolu-
tion of twentieth-century Malayalam poetry as a prototype of the history
of modern Indian literature. The chapter reveals that the successive stages
of nationalist-progressive writing, modernist writing, and postmodernist
writing, which are stereotypically represented as following one after the
other in literary history are to be viewed in fact as expressions of contests
and contradictions within the social imaginary surrounding the Indian
literary mind. Though literary history in a narrowly defined sense cannot
be considered the main focus of attention in these four chapters, their
implication in the debates on the literary evolution of India can hardly
be overlooked. Questions concerning literary history loom large in the
remaining chapters of the section too. The principles underlying transla-
tion in Indian literary history are debated in all their inherent complexity
in Chapters 5 and 6, titled, respectively, ‘Translation and Literary History’
and ‘Decolonizing Translation’. These two chapters chart the epistemo-
logical connection between modernity and translation. Inasmuch as
translation is understood as a matter concerning truth, the two chapters
examine how re-writing truth in diverse ways has been of prime concern
to literary traditions in bhashas. There certainly is the dominant view that
the Indian novels and prose translations of the nineteenth century were
merely translating western modernity into the language of the colonized.
On the other hand, one might also look upon these specimens as con-
tinuing the practices and traditions of literary re-writing that were strong
in several Indian languages from the days of antiquity. These and other
Introduction 9
reflections on the dynamics of translation directed at an expansion of
the universe of literary experience might also warrant a rethinking of the
idea of world literature, which is carried out in Chapter 7, titled ‘Bhasha
Writing as World Literature’.
Section II examines Indian literature from a comparativist per-
spective. The chapters forming this section are text-and-author-based
readings rather than concept-based analyses, and they discuss the is-
sues raised in the earlier section from a more closely focused, albeit
pan-Indian, perspective. The section opens with Chapter 8, ‘Towards a
Comparative Indian Literature’, which initiates a discussion of the gen-
eral problems connected with reading bhasha literatures in comparison.
The chapter examines the radical ways in which the idea of comparative
literature has been rethought in recent days to incorporate into it the les-
sons of the cultural turn that of late has overtaken literary studies. The
approach certainly is important for the study of Indian literature with
its ambivalent attitude to colonial modernity and its inbuilt polyphonic
dynamic. The finer details of this are explored in the subsequent chap-
ters. Chapters 9, ‘Realism in the Bhasha Novel: The Case of Paraja’, and
Chapter 10, ‘Modernity and Kesari’s Ambivalences’ dealing, respect-
ively, with Gopinath Mohanty’s pre-Independence Odia novel Paraja
and Malayalam scholar Kesari Balakrishna Pillai’s critical essays of the
same period, are particularly significant in this regard, for the reason
that they both illustrate the schism and divide in the modern Indian
psyche through their ambivalent attitudes to colonial modernity. The
ambivalence is evident in the writers’ attitude to progress and their vi-
sion, of the future in the case of Mohanty and of the present in the case
of Kesari. Mohanty repudiates the Progressive Writers’ Association’s
official interpretation of progress, while Kesari endorses it through his
acquiescence in the idea of modernity-as-the-present. Both writers in
this sense throw light on the divide in the idea of modernity. Versions
of the divide continue to persist in the post-Independence Indian mind,
as is demonstrated by the discussion in Chapter 11, titled ‘Region and
Nation in Bhasha Poetry’ that follows. The chapter provides an analysis
of the conflicted relationship between the nation and the region as it ap-
pears in selected bhasha poems from the languages of the Northeast as
well as from Bengali, Odia, Telugu, and Malayalam. Though modernity’s
schism is what surfaces as the rift between the local and the national in
10 Under the Bhasha Gaze
the poems reviewed in this chapter, the discussion also demonstrates
that the democratic and egalitarian spirit that underlies bhasha litera-
tures is strong enough to thwart attempts at cultural tyranny by the ad-
vocates of hyper-nationalism. Chapter 12, titled ‘The Bilingual Everyday
in Bhasha Literature’, examines the issue of bilingualism in relation to
Indian literatures as they attempt to articulate questions concerning the
everyday. The chapter has a special focus on Indian English writing, as
it is the literature written in the English language that often raises the
question of bilingualism as a point of debate. This chapter also deals in
a sense with the schism discussed, as crucial to the debate carried out
here is the identification of a maimed language that is directly con-
nected to English’s emotional aloofness from Indian bhashas. The
bhashas are quite fortunate in this respect because of the innately multi-
lingual contexts in which they thrive. They enrich each other by a mu-
tual interanimation of the rhythms and cadences of individual bhashas.
Chapter 13, titled ‘Modernity and Literary Historiography’, is an attempt
to explore the possibilities of conceiving a critical literary historiography
that would stay clear of the colonial cultural baggage that trammels
available models of non-western literary historiography. Chapter 14, ‘A
Latin American Moment in Indian Fiction’, again, is an examination of
selected works from Indian literature read in comparison with a selec-
tion of Latin American writing. The method of reading texts in com-
parison adopted in this chapter indeed has been the main burden of the
discussions carried out in Section II as a whole.
The chapters in Section III are attempts at revisiting a bhasha canon,
which in the present instance happens to be the Malayalam literary canon
of the twentieth century. Six authors are examined in this section, each
representing a seminal aspect of Indian modernity that has not been dis-
cussed in detail in the previous sections. The authors discussed are M.T.
Vasudevan Nair, S.K. Pottekkat, O.V. Vijayan, Rajelakshmy, Ayyappa
Paniker, and Madhavikkutty/Kamala Das, all canonical figures, whose
works exemplify the strengths and weaknesses as well as the conflicts and
contradictions that are identified as markers of modern Indian litera-
ture. Each chapter, even as it enumerates the salient characteristics of an
author’s output that might persuade one to place him/her in what can be
described the ‘modern’ tradition in the language, also aims at a compre-
hensive assessment of the writer as a bhasha artist. The Epilogue, a kind
Introduction 11
of coda to the volume, is a two-pronged reminder to the reader: a fairly
sober reminder to the general reader of the fact that no ‘literary’ question
can stay purely literary forever and, more particularly, a somewhat grim
reminder specifically to the Indian reader of the troubled modern times
in which she lives. The moral that one might draw from the Epilogue is
clear: perhaps the calm confidence regarding the almost absolute impos-
sibility of the emergence of linguistic fascism in the multilingual Indian
context might appear to be illusory, given the fact of the more direct
threat that the idea of Indian modernity is facing at the cultural–political
level today.
1
Modernity and Indian Literature
Under the Bhasha Gaze. PP Raveendran, Oxford University Press. © PP Raveendran 2023.
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192871558.003.0002
16 Under the Bhasha Gaze
circulation today, with reference especially to history and literature (e.g.,
Chatterjee 1997; Eisenstadt 2000; Chakrabarty 2001; Mohanty 2011).
Though the Europeanizing impulse underlying the colonial mod-
ernity project has been the focus of attention in debates on modernity,
one must be sensitive to the presence of premodern, non-European tra-
ditions of radical social reform that can only be interpreted in terms of
the aforementioned alternative versions, whose tenets run counter to the
idea of a monolithic modernity project. No serious social theorist would
nowadays talk about ‘a singular modernity’, though the theorist of post-
modernity who used that phrase as the title of his work on modernity is
fully aware of the complexity of the issue (Jameson 2002). ‘Modernity
is a historical fact, but each culture has its own native modernity, a desi
modernity’, writes Bhalchandra Nemade (2009: 14). ‘To think through
the possibilities of refusing euro-modernity’, according to Lawrence
Grossberg, has become a primary concern of much of the non-European
world today (2012: 73). Making his case for a precolonial bhasha mod-
ernity without actually naming it so, G.N. Devy suggests, choosing his
words cautiously and quoting critic R.B. Patankar, that ‘India might have
brought itself to the threshold of modernity even without the British im-
pact’ (1992: 56). Most alternative theories are capable of unsettling the
central principles undergirding western modernity, whose discourse is
being critically scrutinized for emblems that invoke its implication in
the imperialist ideology. Scholars are also becoming increasingly aware
of Europe’s continuing efforts at appropriating historiography in a glo-
balized environment where, as Dipesh Chakrabarty argues, Europe has
for long been geographically ‘provincialized’ by history (Chakrabarty
2001: 3). Even models of ‘rational’ language, of the finest order, can be
shown to have existed in the non-European world. An example is that of
the fourteenth–fifteenth century Malayalam mathematician Jyeshtadeva,
whose Yuktibhasha (Rational Language) is today regarded as ‘the first
book of calculus in the world’ (Gurukkal 2019: 95). In this context, the
ideas of ‘reason’, ‘enlightenment’, and ‘renaissance’, sometimes proffered
as the distinguishing characteristics of western modernity, may acquire
new resonances in relation to the social trends in non-European cultures
as, for example, in relation to the cultural awakening in India at the time
of the Buddha, Tiruvalluvar, Basavanna, or Tukaram.
Modernity and Indian Literature 17
What this points to is the difficulty in treating modernity as an idea
exclusively connected with the ‘modernization’ efforts initiated by the co-
lonial forces. However, we should not also ignore the hegemonic form
of modernity that exerted tremendous influence on the constitution of
the idea of Indian literature. The Euro-centric sense in which the term
has generally been used in scholarly discussions till recently also cannot
be overlooked. Because of the ‘universalizing’ tendency associated with
dominant versions of modernity, we see an open contradiction, an in-
ternal divide develops within the concept when we propose an Indian
version of it.1 The hegemonic version would not, theoretically at least,
allow for other roads to modernity, other than what has been prescribed
by the dominant European form, and any deviation from this would ap-
pear to be a methodological flaw. Hence the divide in the conception of
modernity, which appears as a schism between a few binaries—between
the global and the national, the national and the regional, the abstract
and the concrete, the secular and the non-secular, the eternal and the
everyday, and the elite and the popular. Perhaps the schism itself is a
primary characteristic of Indian modernity, suspended as it is between
a monolithically organized power and a heterogeneously distributed
agency. Indigenous ideas force themselves into Indian modernity
through this schism and serve as an effective agency, resisting the powers
of Euro-centrism and colonial domination. Modernity in the European
context, after all, implies a social upheaval arising from a repudiation of
the past, whereas the multiple forms of Indian modernity, even as they
aim at a total overhauling of the culture by rejecting what is unhealthy
in the past, also attempt to reconstitute the self by recovering from the
past the memory of their struggles over history and cultural identity. As
Walter Benjamin said in a famous passage, retrieving the past historic-
ally would mean recapturing ‘a memory as it flashes up at a moment of
danger’ (1973: 257). This is a difficult process, a process marked by ten-
sions and contradictions, and taking place, especially in the contem-
porary world situation, in a site that is shared by cultural agencies with
1 The position on modernity outlined here is developed from the arguments given in the