Principles of Geotechnical Engineering Braja M.

Das

Chapter 12:
Shear Strength of Soil

1
 Strength of different
materials

Steel Concrete Soil

Tensile Compressive Shear

strength strength strength

Presence of pore water

Complex
behavior
 Consider Bearing Capacity
P
s’v

s’h

• Is there a plane within the soil mass where the induced

shear stresses exceed the shear strength of the soil ?

• Will a “failure plane” develop?

 Shear failure of soils
Soils generally fail in shear

Embankment

Strip footing

Failure surface

Mobilized shear
resistance

At failure, shear stress along the failure surface

(mobilized shear resistance) reaches the shear strength.
Shear failure of soils
Soils generally fail in shear

Retaining
wall
 Shear failure of soils
Soils generally fail in shear

Mobilized
Retaining
shear
wall
resistance

Failure
surface

At failure, shear stress along the failure surface

(mobilized shear resistance) reaches the shear strength.
Shear failure mechanism
failure surface

The soil grains slide over each other along the failure
surface. No crushing of individual grains.
At failure, shear stress along the failure surface ()
reaches the shear strength (f).
Shear failure mechanism

failure surface

The soil grains slide

over each other along
the failure surface.

No crushing of
individual grains.
 Mohr Circle of stress
s’1

s’
s’3 s’3

Soil element q
s’1

Resolving forces in s and  directions,

s 1' − s 3'
= Sin2q ' 2
 ' s +s   s −s 
' 2
' '
2
s + s s − s  + s −
2 1
 = 
3  1 3
 2 
' ' ' '
s ' = 1 3 + 1 3 Cos2q  2   
2 2
 Mohr Circle of stress

' 2
 ' s +s   s −s 
' 2 s 1' − s 3'
' '

 + s −
2 1 3
 = 
1 
3 2
 2 
 2    s’
s 3' s 1' + s 3' s 1'
2
 Mohr Circle of stress


(s’, )

' 2
 ' s +s   s −s 
' 2 s 1' − s 3'
' '

 + s −
2 1 3
 = 
1 
3 2
 2  q
 2    s’
s 3' s 1' + s 3' s 1'
2
 Orientation of Failure Plane
s’1 Failure envelope
s’
s’3 s’3
 (s’, f)
q (90 – q)
s’1

f’ q
s 3' s 1' + s 3' s 1' s’
2

PD = Pole w.r.t. plane

Therefore,
q = 45 + f’/2
90 – q + f’ = q
 Mohr Coulomb failure criterion with Mohr circle
of stress

  s 1' + s 3'   s 1' − s 3' 

c' Cotf '+  Sinf ' =  
  2   2 
(s '
1 ) ( )
− s 3' = s1' + s 3' Sinf '+2c' Cosf '
s (1 − Sinf ') = s (1 + Sinf ') + 2c' Cosf '
'
1
'
3

s =s
' ' (1 + Sinf ') + 2c' Cosf '
1 3
(1 − Sinf ') (1 − Sinf ')

 f'   f' 
s = s Tan  45 +  + 2c' Tan 45 + 
'
1
'
3
2
* V. Important
 2  2
 s’v Shear Strength

Failure plane

• occurs at particle contacts

• particles themselves generally


do not fail (except @ high s’)

Sources of shear resistance:

1) frictional resistance:

• Dependent on effective stress (s’)

• Captured with material property f’

2) Cohesive resistance:

• Independent of stress

• Captured with material property c’

• Important for clays (“cohesive soils”)

 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
s’v

  f = c'+s ' tan(f ')

shear frictional component

 strength (dependent on s’, the
effective stress on the shear
cohesive component surface)

c’ = effective cohesion intercept (units of stress – kPa, psf, psi,

etc.))

f’ = effective angle of internal friction (degrees)

 Factors Affecting f’
1) Mineralogy (e.g., quartz vs. mica)
2) Grain shape (e.g., angular vs. rounded)
3) Grain size distribution (e.g., well-graded vs. poorly-
graded)
4) Void ratio, density, porosity (e.g., compacted vs. loose)
5) Organic material (very weak)

(mica)

(Coduto, 1999)
 Cohesion
Factors affecting c’:

1) Cementation (e.g., CaCO3)

2) Electrostatic attraction – van der Waals forces

appreciable for small, high-surface area materials

3) Negative pore pressure (unsaturated soils)

4) Interlocking
Determination of shear strength parameters of
soils (c, f or c’, f’)

Laboratory tests on Field tests

specimens taken from
representative undisturbed
samples

Most common laboratory tests 1. Vane shear test

to determine the shear strength 2. Torvane
parameters are, 3. Pocket penetrometer
4. Fall cone
1.Direct shear test 5. Pressuremeter
2.Triaxial shear test 6. Static cone penetrometer
7. Standard penetration test
Other laboratory tests include,
Direct simple shear test, torsional
ring shear test, plane strain triaxial
test, laboratory vane shear test,
laboratory fall cone test
Direct shear test
Schematic diagram of the direct shear apparatus
Direct shear test
Direct shear test is most suitable for consolidated drained tests
specially on granular soils (e.g.: sand) or stiff clays

Preparation of a sand specimen

Porous
plates

Components of the shear box Preparation of a sand specimen

Direct shear test
Preparation of a sand specimen
Pressure plate

Leveling the top surface Specimen preparation

of specimen completed
Direct shear test
Steel ball
Test procedure P
Pressure plate
Porous
plates

Proving ring
to measure
shear force

Step 1: Apply a vertical load to the specimen and wait for consolidation
Direct shear test
Steel ball
Test procedure P
Pressure plate
Porous
plates

Proving ring
to measure
shear force

Step 1: Apply a vertical load to the specimen and wait for consolidation

Step 2: Lower box is subjected to a horizontal displacement at a constant rate

Direct shear test
Dial gauge to
measure vertical
Shear box displacement

Proving ring
to measure
shear force

Loading frame to Dial gauge to

apply vertical load measure horizontal
displacement
 Direct shear test
Analysis of test results

Normal force (P)

s = Normal stress =
Area of cross section of the sample

Shear resistance developed at the sliding surface (S)

 = Shear stress =
Area of cross section of the sample

Note: Cross-sectional area of the sample changes with the horizontal

displacement
Direct shear tests on sands
How to determine strength parameters c and f
Shear stress, 

Normal stress = s3
Normal stress = s2
Normal stress = s1
f2
f1
f3
Shear displacement
Shear stress at failure, f

Mohr – Coulomb failure envelope

f

Normal stress, s
Direct shear tests on sands
Stress-strain relationship

Shear stress, 
Dense sand/
OC clay
f
Loose sand/
f NC clay

Shear displacement
Expansion
Change in height
of the sample

Dense sand/OC Clay

Shear displacement
Compression

Loose sand/NC Clay

Direct shear tests on clays
In case of clay, horizontal displacement should be applied at a very
slow rate to allow dissipation of pore water pressure (therefore, one
test would take several days to finish)

Failure envelopes for clay from drained direct shear tests

Shear stress at failure, f

Overconsolidated clay (c’ ≠ 0)

Normally consolidated clay (c’ = 0)

f’

Normal force, s
c and f are measures of shear strength.

Higher the values, higher the shear strength.

Direct shear tests on sands
Some important facts on strength parameters c and f of sand

Direct shear tests are

Sand is cohesionless drained and pore water
hence c = 0 pressures are
dissipated, hence u = 0

Therefore,
f’ = f and c’ = c = 0
Advantages of direct shear apparatus

❑ Due to the smaller thickness of the sample, rapid drainage can

be achieved

❑ Can be used to determine interface strength parameters

❑ Clay samples can be oriented along the plane of weakness or

an identified failure plane

Disadvantages of direct shear apparatus

❑ Failure occurs along a predetermined failure plane

❑ Area of the sliding surface changes as the test progresses

❑ Non-uniform distribution of shear stress along the failure surface

 Consider Bearing Capacity
P
s’v

s’h

• Is there a plane within the soil mass where the induced

shear stresses exceed the shear strength of the soil (c’, f’) ?

• Will a “failure plane” develop?

• How does shear strength depend on effective stress?

Mohr Circles & Failure Envelope


Failure surface  f = c'+s ' tan f '

Y
Y
X X
s’
Soil elements at different locations

Y ~ stable
X ~ failure
Mohr Circles & Failure Envelope
The soil element does not fail if
the Mohr circle is contained
within the envelope

GL

s
sv
Y sh
sh sv+s
Initially, Mohr circle is a point
s

K 0 = (1 − sin f ' )OCR sin f ' Over Consolidated

K 0 = (1 − sin f ' ) Normally Consolidated
Mohr Circles & Failure Envelope
As loading progresses, Mohr
circle becomes larger…

GL

s
sv
Y sh
sh

.. and finally failure occurs

when Mohr circle touches the
envelope
 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion

 f = c'+s ' tan(f ')

c’ = effective cohesion intercept

f’ = effective friction angle

s’ = effective stress on failure
This is a straight line in s’-
plane
space

failure
M-C Failure Envelope
no failure
s’1

f’ Mohr’s
s’
Circle s’3
c’

s’3 s’1 s’
Mohr circles in terms of total & effective stresses

sv sv’ u

sh sh’ u
X
= X
+ X

effective stresses
total stresses

s h’ sv’ sh sv s or s’
u
 Failure envelopes in terms of total & effective
stresses
sv sv’ u

sh sh’ u
X
= X
+ X

 Failure envelope in terms Failure envelope in

If X is on of effective stresses terms of total stresses
failure f’
effective stresses
f
total stresses

c’ c
s h’ sv’ sh sv s or s’
u
 Mohr Coulomb failure criterion with Mohr circle
of stress
s’v = s’1  Failure envelope in terms
of effective stresses

s’h = s’3
X
effective stresses
(s’1 − s’3)/2
f’ c’
X is on failure s’3 s’1 s’
c’ Cotf’ (s’1+ s’3)/2
Therefore,

  s 1' + s 3'   s 1' − s 3' 

c' Cotf '+  Sinf ' =  
  2   2 
 Mohr Coulomb failure criterion with Mohr circle
of stress

  s 1' + s 3'   s 1' − s 3' 

c' Cotf '+  Sinf ' =  
  2   2 
(s '
1 ) ( )
− s 3' = s1' + s 3' Sinf '+2c' Cosf '
s (1 − Sinf ') = s (1 + Sinf ') + 2c' Cosf '
'
1
'
3

s =s
' ' (1 + Sinf ') + 2c' Cosf '
1 3
(1 − Sinf ') (1 − Sinf ')

 f'   f' 
s = s Tan  45 +  + 2c' Tan 45 + 
'
1
'
3
2
* V. Important
 2  2
Determination of shear strength parameters of
soils (c, f or c’, f’)

Laboratory tests on Field tests

specimens taken from
representative undisturbed
samples

Most common laboratory tests 1. Vane shear test

to determine the shear strength 2. Torvane
parameters are, 3. Pocket penetrometer
4. Fall cone
1.Direct shear test 5. Pressuremeter
2.Triaxial shear test 6. Static cone penetrometer
7. Standard penetration test
Other laboratory tests include,
Direct simple shear test, torsional
ring shear test, plane strain triaxial
test, laboratory vane shear test,
laboratory fall cone test
Laboratory tests
Field conditions

A representative
soil sample
z z
sv sv + s

sh sh sh sh

sv sv + s

Before construction After and during

construction
 sv + s
Laboratory tests
Simulating field conditions sh sh
in the laboratory
0 sv sv + s

sv
0 0 sh sh


0 sv 

Representative Step 1 sv
soil sample Step 2
taken from the Set the specimen in
site the apparatus and Apply the
apply the initial corresponding field
stress condition stress conditions
Triaxial Shear Test
Piston (to apply deviatoric stress)

Failure plane
O-ring

impervious
membrane
Soil sample Soil
at failure sample
Porous
Perspex stone
cell
Water

Cell pressure
Back pressure Pore pressure or
pedestal volume change
Triaxial Shear Test
Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)

Proving ring to
measure the
deviator load

Dial gauge to
measure vertical
displacement

In some tests
Types of Triaxial Tests deviatoric stress

Step 1
sc Step 2
(s = q)

sc sc
sc sc

sc s c+ q
Under all-around cell pressure sc Shearing (loading)

Is the drainage valve open? Is the drainage valve open?

yes no yes no

Consolidated Unconsolidated Drained Undrained

sample sample loading loading
Types of Triaxial Tests
Step 1 Step 2

Under all-around cell pressure sc Shearing (loading)

Is the drainage valve open? Is the drainage valve open?

yes no yes no

Consolidated Unconsolidated Drained Undrained

sample sample loading
loading

CD test UU test

CU test
Consolidated- drained test (CD Test)
Total, s = Pore Pressure, u + Effective, s’
Step 1: At the end of consolidation
sC s’C = sC

sC 0 s’C = sC
Drainage

Step 2: During axial stress increase

sC + s s’V = sC + s = s’1

sC 0 s’h = sC = s’3
Drainage

Step 3: At failure
sC + sf s’Vf = sC + sf = s’1f

sC 0 s’hf = sC = s’3f
Drainage
Consolidated- drained test (CD Test)

s1 = sC + s

s3 = sC

Deviator stress (q or sd) = s1 – s3

Consolidated- drained test (CD Test)
Volume change of sample during consolidation

Expansion
Volume change of the
sample

Time
Compression
Consolidated- drained test (CD Test)
Stress-strain relationship during shearing

Deviator stress, sd

Dense sand
or OC clay
(sd)f
Loose sand
(sd)f or NC Clay

Axial strain
Expansion
Volume change

Dense sand
of the sample

or OC clay
Axial strain
Compression

Loose sand
or NC clay
CD tests How to determine strength parameters c and f
(sd)fc
s1 = s3 + (sd)f
Deviator stress, sd

Confining stress = s3c

Confining stress = s3b

(sd)fb Confining stress = s3a s3

(sd)fa

Axial strain
f
Shear stress, 

Mohr – Coulomb
failure envelope

s or s’
s3a s3b s3c s1a s1b s1c
(sd)fa (sd)fb
CD tests
Strength parameters c and f obtained from CD tests

Since u = 0 in CD Therefore, c = c’
tests, s = s’ and f = f’

cd and fd are used

to denote them
CD tests Failure envelopes

For sand and NC Clay, cd = 0

fd
Shear stress, 

Mohr – Coulomb
failure envelope

s or s’
s3a s1a
(sd)fa

Therefore, one CD test would be sufficient to determine fd

of sand or NC clay
CD tests Failure envelopes

For OC Clay, cd ≠ 0

 OC NC
f

c s or s’
s3 s1 sc
(sd)f
 Consolidated- Undrained test (CU Test)
Total, s = Pore Pressure, u + Effective, s’
Step 1: At the end of consolidation
sC s’C = sC

sC 0 s’C = sC
Drainage

Step 2: During axial stress increase

sC + s s’V = sVC + s ± u = s’1

No
drainage sC ±u s’h = sC ± u = s’3

Step 3: At failure
sC + sf s’Vf = sC + sf ± uf = s’1f

No
drainage sC ±uf 
s’hf = sC ± uf = s’3f
Consolidated- Undrained test (CU Test)
Volume change of sample during consolidation

Expansion
Volume change of the

Time
sample

Compression
Consolidated- Undrained test (CU Test)
Stress-strain relationship during shearing

Deviator stress, sd

Dense sand
or OC clay
(sd)f
Loose sand
(sd)f or NC Clay

Axial strain
+

Loose sand
/NC Clay
u

Axial strain
-

Dense sand
or OC clay
 CU tests How to determine strength parameters c and f
Deviator stress, sd (sd)fb s1 = s3 + (sd)f
Confining stress = s3b
Confining stress = s3a
s3
(sd)fa
Total stresses at failure
Axial strain
Shear stress, 

Mohr – Coulomb fcu

failure envelope in
terms of total stresses

ccu
s or s’
s3a s3b s1a s1b
(sd)fa
CU tests How to determine strength parameters c and f
s’1 = s3 + (sd)f - uf

s’3 = s3 - uf
Mohr – Coulomb failure uf
envelope in terms of
effective stresses Effective stresses at failure
Shear stress, 

Mohr – Coulomb f’
failure envelope in
terms of total stresses
fcu

ufb
C’ s’3b ufa
ccu s’1b s or s’
s’3a s3a s3b s’1a s1a s1b
(sd)fa (sd)fa
CU tests
Strength parameters c and f obtained from CD tests

Shear strength
Shear strength parameters in terms
parameters in terms of effective stresses
of total stresses are are c’ and f’
ccu and fcu
c’ = cd and f’ = fd
CU tests Failure envelopes
For sand and NC Clay, ccu and c’ = 0
Mohr – Coulomb failure
envelope in terms of
effective stresses

Mohr – Coulomb f’ fcu

Shear stress, 

failure envelope in
terms of total stresses

s or s’
s3a s3a s1a s1a
(sd)fa

Therefore, one CU test would be sufficient to determine

fcu and f’(= fd) of sand or NC clay
Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)
Data analysis
Specimen condition
Initial specimen condition during shearing
sC = s3
No s3 + sd
No
drainage sC = s3 drainage s3

Initial volume of the sample = A0 × H0

Volume of the sample during shearing = A × H

Since the test is conducted under undrained condition,

A × H = A0 × H0
A0
A ×(H0 – H) = A0 × H0 A=
A ×(1 – H/H0) = A0
1−  z
Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)

Mohr circles in terms of total stresses

Failure envelope, fu = 0


cu

s3b s1b s3a s1a

s or s’
Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)

Effect of degree of saturation on failure envelope

 S < 100% S > 100%

s3c s3b s1c s3a s1b s1a s or s’

 Unconfined Compression Test
s1 Specimen tends to bulge
due to end constraint.
A0
A0
s3= 0 Af =
Af 1−  f
s = P/A Pf
a qu = s 1 f =
Af
Failure Trimmed Cylindrical s1 f
plane Specimen (clay/silt) su =
 2
Loading Frame (CRS)
su = undrained shear strength
qu = unconfined compressive strength

su

s3 = 0 qu = s1f s
Unconfined Compression Test (UC Test)
s1 = qu

Shear stress, 
qu

s3 = 0

su

Normal stress, s qu