Metabolism

Metabolism is the sum total of all the biochemical

reactions that take place in a living organism.

Even the simplest living cell is continually carrying on

energy-demanding processes such as protein
synthesis, DNA replication, RNA transcription, and
membrane transport.
Metabolism and Cell Structure

Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus and are found only

in bacteria.

A eukaryotic cell is a cell in which the DNA is found in

a membrane-enclosed nucleus.

- Cells of this type, which are found in all higher

organisms, are about 1000 times larger than
bacterial cells.
Metabolic reactions fall into one of two subtypes:
Eukaryotic Cell Organelles and Their Function
Catabolism is all metabolic reactions in which large
biochemical molecules are broken down to smaller
ones. (CL)

- Catabolic reactions release energy.

Anabolism is all metabolic reactions in which small

biochemical molecules are joined together to form
larger ones. (AS)

- Anabolic reactions require energy in order to

proceed.

The metabolic reactions that occur in a cell are

Nucleus: DNA replication and RNA synthesis
usually organized into sequences called metabolic
pathways. Plasma membrane: Cellular boundary

Metabolic Pathway: Series of consecutive Cytoplasm: The water-based material of a eukaryotic

biochemical reactions used to convert a starting cell
material into an end product.
Mitochondria: Generates most of the energy needed
There are two types of metabolic pathways for cell.

- Linear Lysosome: Contain hydrolytic enzymes needed for

- Cyclic cell rebuilding, repair and degradation

The major pathways for all forms of life are similar: Ribosome: Sites for protein synthesis

Mitochondria . An organelle that is responsible for the

generation of most of the energy for a cell: -
Outer membrane: Permeable to small molecules:
50% lipid, 50% protein
Inner membrane: Highly impermeable to most
substances: 20% lipid, 80% protein
Inner membrane folded into cristae to increase
surface area
Synthesis of ATP occurs on the inner membrane.
Important Nucleotide-Containing Compounds in
Metabolic Pathways
Adenosine Phosphates (ATP, ADP, and AMP)
The phosphate–ribose bond is a phosphoester bond,
The phosphate–phosphate bonds are
phosphoanhydride bonds.
A phosphoanhydride bond is the chemical bond
formed when two phosphate groups react with each
other and a water molecule is produced.
A typical cellular reaction in which ATP functions as
both a source of a phosphate group and a source of
energy is the conversion of glucose to glucose 6-
phosphate.
Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide (FAD, FADH2)
Ribitol is a reduced form of ribose; a CH2OH group is
present in place of the -CHO group.
Flavin adenine
dinucleotide has two forms—an oxidized form and a
reduced form.
Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (NAD+, NADH)
Emphasizes the dinucleotide nature of the coenzyme,
as well as the origin of its name, is
NAD+
- The + sign refers to the positive charge on the
nitrogen atom in the nicotinamide
component of the structure; this nitrogen
atom has four bonds instead of the usual
three.
NAD+ is reduced to NADH. The equation for this
change is
Note that there is no positively charged nitrogen
atom in NADH because of the second electron added.
Coenzyme A (CoA–SH)

coenzyme A (CoA), a derivative of the B vitamin

pantothenic acid.

The active portion of coenzyme A is the sulfhydryl

group (-SH group).

Classification of Metabolic Intermediate Compounds

The metabolic intermediate compounds considered in

this section can be classified into three groups based
on function.

High-Energy Phosphate Compounds

A high-energy compound is a compound that has a

greater free energy of hydrolysis than that of a
typical compound.

High-energy compounds differ from other compounds

in that they contain one or more very reactive bonds,
often called strained bonds.

The more negative the free energy of hydrolysis, the

greater the bond strain.

Important Carboxylate Ions in Metabolic Pathways

 An Overview of Biochemical Energy Production transport chain, and the oxidative
phosphorylation
Stage 1. Digestion

- Begins in mouth (saliva contains starch

digesting enzymes), continues in the stomach
(gastric juice), completed in small intestine:

Results in small molecules that can cross

intestinal membrane into the blood.

End Products of digestion:

- Glucose and monosaccharides from

carbohydrates
- Amino acids from proteins
- Fatty acids and glycerol from fats and oils 1041

The digestion products are absorbed into the blood

and transported to body's cells.

Stage 2. Acetyl Group Formation

- The small molecules from Stage 1 are further

oxidized.
- End product of these oxidations is acetyl CoA
- Primary products include two-carbon acetyl
units (which become attached to coenzyme A
to give acetyl CoA) and the reduced coenzyme
NADH.
- Involves numerous reactions:
Reactions occur both in cytosol (glucose
metabolism) as well as mitochondria (fatty
acid metabolism) of the cells.

Stage 3. Citric Acid Cycle

- Takes place inside the mitochondria

- In this stage acetyl group is oxidized to
produce CO2 (which we exhale during
breathing) and energy
- Most energy is trapped and carried by the
reduced coenzymes NADH and FADH₂ to the
fourth stage
- Some energy produced in this stage is lost in
the form of heat

Stage 4. Electron Transport Chain and Oxidative

Phosphorylation .

- Takes place in mitochondria

- NADH and FADH2 are oxidized to release
- H+ and electrons H+ are transported to the
inter-membrane space in mitochondria
Electrons are transferred to O₂ and O₂ is
reduced to H₂O 2 H+ ions reenter the
mitochondrial matrix and drive
- ATP-synthase reaction to produce ATP ATP is
the primary energy carrier in metabolic
pathways
- The reactions in stages 3 & 4 are common to
the processing of carbohydrates, fats, and
proteins
- Collectively known as the common metabolic
pathways, i.e., the sum of the reactions that
occur in the citric acid cycle, the electron