STS REVIEWER (ENDTERM)

WEEK 10: Biodiversity

Biodiversity
 refers to the variety of life on Earth at all its levels, from genes to ecosystems,
and can encompass the evolutionary, ecological, and cultural processes that
sustain life
 consider rare, threatened, or endangered but also every living thing—from
humans to organisms we know little about, such as microbes, fungi, and
invertebrates
 variability among living organisms from all sources, including terrestrial,
marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which
they are part. This includes diversity within species, between species and of
ecosystems
 source of the essential goods and ecological services that constitute the source
of life for all and it has direct consumptive value in food, agriculture, medicine
and in industry
 plays a major role in the natural dynamics of ecosystem
Changes in Biodiversity
 have erratic effects not only in wildlife or marine life but also human beings
 when the ecosystem is not well taken care of, biodiversity encounters changes
that may impact human health on different levels
Threats to Biodiversity
 The United Nations’ Environment Program identified major threats to
biodiversity:
1. Habitat loss and destruction
2. Alterations in ecosystem composition
3. Over-exploitation
4. Pollution and contamination
5. Global climate change
Biodiversity loss
 losing, before discovery, many of nature's chemicals and genes, of the kind that
have already provided humankind with enormous health benefits
Specific pressures and linkages between health and biodiversity include:
 Nutritional impact of biodiversity
1. Biodiversity plays a crucial role in human nutrition through its influence on
world food production, as it ensures the sustainable productivity of soils and
provides the genetic resources for all crops, livestock, and marine species
harvested for food.
2. Access to a sufficiency of a nutritious variety of food is a fundamental
determinant of health.
 3. Nutrition and biodiversity are linked at many levels: the ecosystem, with
food production as an ecosystem service; the species in the ecosystem and
the genetic diversity within species.
4. Nutritional composition between foods and among
varieties/cultivars/breeds of the same food can differ dramatically,
affecting micronutrient availability in the diet. Healthy local diets, with
adequate average levels of nutrients intake, necessitates maintenance of
high biodiversity levels.
 Importance of biodiversity for health research and traditional medicine
1. Traditional medicine continues to play an essential role in health care,
especially in primary health care. Traditional medicines are estimated to
be used by 60% of the world’s population and in some countries are
extensively incorporated into the public health system.
2. Medicinal plant use is the most common medication tool in traditional
medicine and complementary medicine worldwide.
3. Medicinal plants are supplied through collection from wild populations
and cultivation. Many communities rely on natural products collected from
ecosystems for medicinal and cultural purposes, in addition to food.
 Infectious diseases
1. Human activities are disturbing both the structure and functions of
ecosystems and altering native biodiversity.
2. Such disturbances reduce the abundance of some organisms, cause
population growth in others, modify the interactions among organisms, and
alter the interactions between organisms and their physical and chemical
environments.
3. Patterns of infectious diseases are sensitive to these disturbances. Major
processes affecting infectious disease reservoirs and transmission include,
deforestation; land-use change; water management e.g. through dam
construction, irrigation, uncontrolled urbanization or urban sprawl;
resistance to pesticide chemicals used to control certain disease vectors;
climate variability and change; migration and international travel and
trade; and the accidental or intentional human introduction of pathogens.
 Climate change, biodiversity and health
1. Climate is an integral part of ecosystem functioning and human health is
impacted directly and indirectly by results of climatic conditions upon
terrestrial and marine ecosystems.
2. Marine biodiversity is affected by ocean acidification related to levels of
carbon in the atmosphere.
3. Extreme weather events (ie drought, flooding) that directly influence
ecosystem health and the productivity and availability of ecosystem goods
and services for human use.
 4. Longer term changes in climate affect the viability and health of ecosystems,
influencing shifts in the distribution of plants, pathogens, animals, and even
human settlements.
WEEK 11-12: Genetically Modified Organism, Genetic Engineering, Gene
Therapy
Genetic Engineering
 is the process of using recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology to alter the genetic
makeup of an organism
 has been with the human society since selecting breeding was introduced to
humankind and when animals were domesticated
 involves the direct manipulation of one or more genes. Most often, a gene from
another species is added to an organism's genome to give it a desired phenotype
 was coined by Jack Williamson (1951) author of the science fiction novel
Dragon’s Island
 This was years before actual research findings on the DNA’s role in heredity
and its structure, the double-helix of Watson and Crick were published
Plants Genetic Modification
1. Simple Selection- easiest method of plant genetic modification
2. Crossing- occurs when a plant breeder takes pollen from one plant and brushes
it onto the pistil of a sexually compatible plant, producing a hybrid that carries
genes from both parents
3. Interspecies Crossing- can take place through various means. Closely related
species, such as cultivated oat (Avena sativa) and its weedy relative wild oat
(Avena fatua), may cross-pollinate for exchange of genetic information,
although this is not generally the case
Animals Genetic Modification
1. Domestication and Artificial Selection- sometimes human technical
intervention is required to complete an interspecies gene transfer. Some plants
will cross-pollinate and the resulting fertilized hybrid embryo develops but is
unable to mature and sprout
2. Assisted Reproductive Procedures- modern breeds of livestock differ from their
ancestors because the use of frozen semen for artificial insemination (AI), along
with sire testing and sire selection, has markedly affected the genetic quality of
livestock, especially dairy cattle
The possible benefits of genetic engineering include:
1. More nutritious food
2. Tastier food
3. Disease - and drought-resistant plants that require fewer environmental
resources (such as water and fertilizer)
4. Less use of pesticides
5. Increased supply of food with reduced cost and longer shelf life
6. Faster growing plants and animals
7. Food with more desirable traits, such as potatoes that produce less of a cancer-
causing substance when fried
8. Medicinal foods that could be used as vaccines or other medicines
There are some people have expressed concerns about GE foods, such as:
1. Creating foods that can cause an allergic reaction or that are toxic
2. Unexpected or harmful genetic changes
3. Genes moving from one GM plant or animal to another plant or animal that is
not genetically engineered
4. Foods that are less nutritious
Genetic Modified Organism (GMO)
 It is the term used for an organism created through genetic engineering
 The World Health Organization (W.H.O, 2014) defines GMO as an “organism,
either plants, animal or microorganism, in which the genetic material (DNA)
has been altered in a way that does not occur naturally by mating or natural
recombination.
Food and Agriculture Industries
 The Center for Eco-genetics and Environmental Health identified the following
roles of GMOs in the food and agricultural industries:
1. Pest resistance- genetically modified plants to resist certain pests
2. Virus resistance- genetically modified plants to resist certain viruses
3. Herbicide tolerance- genetically modified plants to tolerate herbicide
4. Fortification- genetically modified plants fortified with certain minerals
5. Cosmetic preservation- genetically modified plants resist natural
discoloration
6. Increase growth rate- genetically modified organism that has higher
yield in growth than normal species
Non Food Crops and Micro Organisms
 Genetically modified organisms in non-food crops and some microorganisms
involve the following:
1. Flower production- In flower production are seen in modified color and
extended vase life of flowers.
2. Paper production- modified characteristics of trees for higher yield of
paper production.
3. Pharmaceutical productions- modified plants to produce
pharmaceutical products.
4. Bioremediation- use of modified plants that can assist in the
bioremediation of polluted sites.
5. Enzyme and drug production- use of modified microorganisms that can
produce enzymes for food processing and medicines.
6. GMOs in the Medical Field- is playing a significant role from diagnosis
to treatment of human dreaded disease.
Benefits of GMOs
1. Higher efficiency in farming
2. Increase in harvest
3. Control in fertility
4. Increase in food processing
5. Improvement of desirable characteristics
6. Nutritional and pharmaceutical enhancement
7. Reduce the use of fertilizer and pesticides
Potential Risks of GMOs
 Since generic engineering is still a branch of science, there are inadequate
studies on the effects of GMOs to human and the environment.
 Genetic engineering promotes mutation in organisms which the long-term
effect is still unknown.
 Human Consumption of GMOs might have the following effects: (1) More
allergic reactions, (2) Gene mutation, (3) Antibiotic resistance, and (4)
Nutritional Value.
Potential Environmental Risks Caused by GMOs
 Risk in gene flow
 Emergence if new forms of resistance and secondary pests and weed problems
 Recombination of virus and bacteria to produce new Pathogens
Direct and Indirect environmental risks caused by GMOs
 Direct environmental risks- the possibility of unexpected behavior of the GMOs
in the environment if it escapes its intended use and may post threats or
become pests
 Indirect environmental risks- may have varied environmental impacts due to
GMOs interaction and release in the natural environment
Potential Human Health Risks caused by GMOs
 Consumption of GMOs may have adverse effect since it is not naturally or
organically produced
 Consumption of GMOs may alter the balance of existing microorganisms in the
human digestive system
 Production of toxin may be detrimental to human health
 Production of allergens may have adverse effect on humans
Other Potential Risks that raise major concern are:
 Human Genome Project (HGP) - Mapping of human genes to provide
framework for research and studies in the field of medicine.
 Mutation of genetically engineered micro-organisms - Modified bacteria and
virus may mutate to become more resistant or virulent that may cause more
dreadful disease for human beings.
 Cloning - The asexual reproduction of an organism using parent cell through
genetic engineering.
 Gene Therapy
 It is a potential method to either treat or cure genetic related human illnesses
 It was inspired by the success of recombinant DNA technology which occurred
over the last 20 years
Basic Process of Gene Therapy
 Replacement of mutated gene that cause disease with a healthy copy of the gene
 Inactivation of a mutated gene that is functioning improperly
 Introducing a new gene into the body to help fight a disease
Two Types of Gene Therapy
 Somatic Gene Therapy involves the manipulation of genes in the cell that will
be helpful to the patient but not inherited to the next generation.
 Germ-line Gene Therapy which involves the genetic modification of germ cells
or the origin cells that will pass the change on to the next generation
Stem Cells Gene Therapy
 Stem cells are the mother cells that have the potential to become any type of
cells in the body.
Stem Cells in Two Different Sources are:
 Embryonic cells are derived from a four or five-day old human embryo that is
in the blastocyst phase of development.
 Somatic Stem Cells are cells that exist throughout the body after embryonic
development and are found inside of different types of tissue.
WEEK 13: Nanotechnology
What is Nanotechnology?
 Heinrich Rohrer (1933 - 2013) is the Father of Nanotechnology
 It refers to the science, engineering and technology conducted at the nanoscale,
which is about 1 to 100 nanometers.
 Nanoscience and nanotechnology employs the study and application of
exceptionally small things in other areas of science including materials, science,
engineering, physics, biology and chemistry.
Characteristics of Nanoscale
 A Nanometer is a billionth of a meter, or 10-9 of a meter.
Types of Special Microscopes that can view minute Nano Materials
 Electron Microscope- This type of microscope utilizes a particle beam of
electrons to light up a specimen and develop a well magnified image. It was a
built by the German engineers namely Ernst Ruska and Max Knoll during
1930s. It was also a first electron microscope.
 Atomic Force Microscope (AFM)- It makes use of a mechanical probe that
gathers information from the surface of a material. It was also first developed
by Gerd Binnig, Calvin Quate and Christoph Gerber in 1986.
 Scanning Tunnelling Microscope- A special type of microscope enables
scientists to view and manipulate nanoscale particles, atoms and small
molecules. In 1986, Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer won the Nobel Prize in
Physics because of this invention that they invented.
Nano-manufacturing
 It refers to scaled up, reliable and cost-effective manufacturing of nanoscale
materials, structures, devices and system
Types of Nano-manufacturing
1. Bottom up Fabrication- it manufactures products by building them up from
atomic and molecular scale components
2. Top down fabrication-it trims down large pieces of materials into nanoscale
3. Dip pen lithography-it is a method in which the tip of an atomic force
microscope is “dipped” into a chemical fluid and then utilized to “write” on a
surface, like an old-fashioned ink pen onto paper
4. Self-assembly- it depicts an approach wherein a set of components join
together to mold an organized structure in the absence of an outside direction
5. Chemical vapor deposition- it is a procedure wherein chemicals act in response
to form very pure, high performance films
6. Nano imprint lithography- it is a method of generating nanoscale attributes by
“stamping” or “printing” them onto a surface
7. Molecular beam epitaxy- it is one manner for depositing extremely controlled
thin films
8. Roll to roll processing- it is a high volume practice for constructing nano scale
devices on a roll of ultrathin plastic or metal
9. Atomic layer epitaxy- it is means for laying down one atom thick layers on a
surface
Benefits and Concerns of Using Nanotechnology
 Nanotechnology seeks to develop new materials with specific properties.
 It may introduce new efficiencies and paradigms which may make some natural
resources and current practices uncompetitive or obsolete.
 It may be complicated to detect its presence unless one has the specialist tools
of nanotechnology.