Plant Physiology

Kurfi_Prints
What is Plant Physiology????
 Plant/Crop physiology is the science that
deals with the study of how the body of
plants works or functions

 It began from the time of Stephen Hales

(1677-1761)

 He was the first to devise experimental

methods with his knowledge of physics and
statistics to find out the movement of sap
through the plant body.
Module 8: Transport System in Plants
Net flow in
whole plants
Some Key Concepts
 Diffusion: movement of molecules from
high to low concentration.
 Osmosis: diffusion across a semi-
permeable membrane.
 Mass or bulk flow: movement of fluid
due to pressure or gravity differences.
Long-distance movement of water
 Plants mostly obtain water & minerals from
soil.
 Water moves up the xylem by bulk flow.
 Movement of water depends on
transpiration pull, cohesion & adhesion of
water molecules, capillary forces, and strong
cell walls.
Ascent of xylem sap

• transpirational pull
• flow from greater to lower
water concentration
• relies on cohesion &
adhesion of water
– cavitation breaks chain of
water molecules
Figure 35.11 Water-conducting cells of xylem
Other mechanisms of water
transport not important.
 Diffusion (note mosses, etc.)
 Capillary forces
 Osmotic pressure (guttation)
The availability of soil water and minerals
Mineral Uptake Key Points
 Mineral movement to root by diffusion or bulk
flow or root growth.
 Uptake controlled at root endodermis.
 Uptake by either simple diffusion (no protein),
facilitated diffusion (protein channel), or active
uptake (requires energy and a protein carrier).
 Organisms concentrate minerals and most
other substances.
 Usually biggest energy expenditure of roots,
cause nutrients are being concentrated.
 Mineral uptake:
 two mechanisms of mineral or ion uptake:
◦ Passive absorption: it is a physical non
metabolic process, energy is not required e.g.
Diffusion, Mass flow and ion exchange

◦ Active absorption: is a process whereby ion is

moved against electrochemical potential
gradient
Movement of sugars
 Sugars (etc.) move from the source
◦ Photosynthetic leaves
◦ Storage organ
 To the sink
◦ Growing organs
◦ Developing storage tissue
 Through mass flow in phloem
 Pressure Flow Hypothesis
 Phloem transport
 pressure flow
1 high sugar concentration at
“source”
2 sugar diluted with water
from xylem creating
pressure for flow
3 sugar unloaded at “sink”
where it is metabolized or
converted to starch
4 excess water flows to xylem
back to “source”
 translocation: movement of
food from “source” to
“sink(s)”

Pressure flow in a sieve tube

Module 9: Mineral Nutrition in Plants
NITROGEN
 structure of protein molecule (amino acid)
 found in molecules such as purines, pyrimmidines,
porphyrins (found in RNA and DNA)
 found in chlorophyll and cytochrome enzymes
 Essential in photosynthesis and respiration
 symptom of deficiency is yellowing of leaves
(chlorosis)
 symptom is noticed in older leaves first then later in
younger leaves
 excess application causes excessive growth and
delayed maturity.
PHOSPHORUS
 constituent of nucleic acid, phospholipids, the
co-enzymes NAD and NADP
 as a constituent of ATP
 found in the meristematic region of actively
growing plants
 important constituent of cell membrane
 involved in photosynthesis, glycolysis,
respiration and fatty acid synthesis
 deficiency may cause premature leaf fall, dead
necrotic areas on leaves, petioles or fruits,
and accumulation of carbohydrates
POTASSIUM
 found in meristematic region
 essential as an activator of enzymes
 involved in development of certain peptide
bonds
 Involved in respiration, photosynthesis, and
chlorophyll development
 Deficiency of potassium causes mottled
chlorosis, follwed by necrosis at tip and
margin of leaves
 Deficiency symptoms first appear in older
leaves
CALCIUM
 constituents of cell wall in the form of
calcium pectate
 important in the formation of cell membrane
and lipid structures
 needed for normal mitosis
 deficiency caused decreased carbohydrate
translocation
 Death of meristematic regions of shoot and
roots
 Distortion of young leaves and curling of leaf
tips
MAGNESIUM
 found in the important processes of
photosynthesis and carbohydrate metabolism
 constituent of chlorophyll
 an activator in the enzymes involved in the
synthesis of nucleic acid
 symptom of magnesium deficiency is
extensive inter-veinal chlorosis of leaves
 chlorosis may be followed with pigmentation
and necrotic spotting.
SULPHUR
 found in sulphur bearing amino acids cystine
and methionine
 constituent of enzymes
 cross links in protein molecule supplement
 deficiency symptom includes chlorosis
followed by production of antocynin
pigments in some species
 sulphur deficient plants show chlorosis of
younger leaves first
Reading Assignment
Read up Iron, Manganese, Copper,
Zinc, Boron, Molybdenum, and
Chlorine
Module 10: Enzymes
 What are Enzymes???
 Enzymes
 An enzyme is a protein molecule that can
increase the efficiency of biochemical reaction
and is generally specific for that reaction. It is
a biological catalyst.
 Enzymes control the rate of metabolic
reactions. They are also catalysts, which
speed up reactions and are not used up by
the reaction they catalyse.
 As with organic catalysts the final products
are not affected by the enzyme.
Characteristics of Enzymes
• Enzymes are active in extremely small quantities
i.e. in biochemical reactions only small amount of
enzyme is needed.

• True enzymes remain unaffected by the reaction

they catalyze

• Enzymes do not affect the equilibrium of a

reaction even though it hastens the reaction in
either direction

• Catalytic action of enzymes is specific for the

reactions they catalyze.
Nomenclature and Specificity
• Named according to the substrate they attack
or the reaction they catalyze

• The usual practice is to add the suffix – ase

to the name of the substrate attacked e,g
arginase

• Enzymes could also be grouped according to

certain group of substrates they attack e.g.
lipases, proteinases, carbohydrases

• They could be named according to the

reaction they catalyze e.g. hydrolases,
oxidases, carboxylases and phosphorylases.
Classification of Enzymes

• Hydrolytic enzymes: They catalyze the addition of water to

a specific bond of the substrate. They could also be called
condensation or synthetic enzymes

RCO-OR’---------------- RCOOH + R’OH

• Oxidation – reduction enzymes: They catalyze the removal

or addition of H2, O2 or electrons from or to the substrate
which is oxidized or reduced in the process. These enzymes
occupy a major place in cellular metabolism.
RH2 + A ----------------- R +AH2

RO + ½ O2 ----------------- RO2

R +2 ------------------------ R+3
Classification of Enzymes
• Phosphorylases: They catalyze the reversible phosphorolytic
cleavage of a specific bond on a substrate.
Starch + Phosphate ---------------- Glucose – 1- phosphate
• Transferases: They catalyze the transfer of a group from a donor
molecule to an acceptor molecule. This is a very large group and
include such enzymes as transaminases, transpeptidases and
transamylases.

• Carboxylase: They catalyze the removal or addition of CO2 e.g.

Glutamic decarboxylase removes CO2 while carboxy dismutase
catalyze the addition of CO2
Glutamic acid ----------- Amino butyric acid + CO2
• Isomerases: They catalyze the inter conversion of aldose and
ketose sugars
e.g.the inter conversion of glucose – 6 – phosphate with fructose – 6
– phosphate is catalyzed by phosphoglucoisomerase.
Mechanism of Enzyme Action
Enzyme – substrate complex
Studies of the enzymes kinetics are consistent with the concepts
that enzymes combines with the substrate to form enzymes
substrate complex before yielding their products of reaction

E + S ----------------- ES ----------------- E + P

• Enzymes are thought to have active sites with which a

substrate molecule could form an intimate association.

• The active sites explains the specificity of enzymes

Prosthetic groups, Activators, Cofactors and
Coenzymes
• Many enzymes in addition to their protein structure have an
attached non protein group (conjugated proteins)

• Proteins or enzymes of this nature may be thought of as

consisting two parts, an apo-enzyme composed only of amino
acids and a non amino acid prosthetic group

• Some enzymes require a certain metal for activity, the metal

is generally called activator, it assists in binding enzyme to its
substrate

• Some enzymes require organic substances for activity, these

organic prosthetic groups are called cofactors or coenzymes
e.g NADP, AcetylCoA
 ENZYME INHIBITION
• Substances with structural similarity with substrates
molecules compete for the active sites of enzymes to cause
problems in the metabolic process.

• Compounds called competitive inhibitors and the process

competitive inhibition

• Reduced by increasing concentration of substrates

• Non competitive inhibition inhibitor reacts and changes

the structure of the enzyme or enzyme – substrate complex
Factors affecting enzyme
action
• Temperature: ToC rates of reaction until
optimum, beyond which enzymes are damaged

• pH: Any change in pH would also denature the enzyme

because they can only work in conditions they have
evolved in.

• Substrate concentration: < concentration Faster

reaction until all active sites are exhausted