1

Instruction for laboratory work № 1.9

Determination of friction coefficient
1. Theoretical part
1.1. Kinematics
Kinematics describes the bodies movement, but does not reveal the causes that
determine this movement. It means that kinematics establishes relationships between
coordinates, velocity, acceleration and time without analyzing the causes of
acceleration or deceleration of bodies.
A material point is a body that has mass, but its size and shape may be
neglected under the conditions of the studied task.
The position of any material point A is described by the radius vector connecting
the origin of coordinate system (0) and this point, fig. 1 (the radius vector has three
Cartesian coordinates x, y, z). In some cases, a spherical coordinate system is used, in
which the position of the point is given by the length of the radius vector r and two
angles θ and φ, fig. 1.

Fig. 3
Fig. 2
Fig. 1

A trajectory is a continuous line along which a material point moves, fig. 2. If the
trajectory is a straight line, then the movement is called rectilinear, and if not, then
curvilinear.
The path is the length of the trajectory. Displacement is a vector connecting the
initial and final points of the trajectory. This vector is directed to the side of the
material point movement (fig. 2).
Velocity is a vector value that characterizes the speed of changes in the body's
position in space. The velocity vector is defined as the derivative of the radius vector:
 dr
V = . (1)
dt


Here dr - an infinitesimally small change in the radius-vector position, which
occurs in an infinitesimally small period of time dt , fig. 3. The velocity vector is
 2
 
directed tangentially to the trajectory to the side of the movement (i.e. V  dr ).
 m
Velocity is measured in meters per second, V  = 1 . In rectilinear motion along the
s
X axis, the speed modulus is determined by the expression^
dх
V= (2)
dt

In this one-dimensional case, the velocity is numerically equal to the distance traveled
by a material point per unit of time (i.e. per second).
Acceleration is a vector value that characterizes the rapidity of the velocity
change, both in magnitude and direction. Hence, acceleration is the first derivative of
velocity:

 dV
а= . (3)
dt


Here dV is an infinitesimally small change in velocity that occurs in an
infinitesimally small period of time dt . Acceleration is measured in meters per second
m
squared, [ а ] = 1 2 .
s
Tangential acceleration characterizes the rapidity of the change of velocity by
modulus. It is equal to:

dV
аτ = , (4)
dt
that is, the tangential acceleration is numerically equal to the change in the velocity
modulus per second. The tangential acceleration is directed parallel to the velocity
(tangential to the trajectory).
In case of curvilinear trajectory of a body's motion, this body will always move
with acceleration, even when the modulus of velocity does not change. The rapidity of
the velocity change in its direction is characterized by normal or centripetal
acceleration. Fig. 4 illustrates the circular motion of a body when
 its velocity does not
change by modulus (only its direction
 changes), the vector dV ≠ 0 is directed to the

center of the circle. Since а  dV , then the normal acceleration is directed to the center
of trajectory curvature and perpendicular (or normally) to the velocity. The normal
acceleration is calculated by the expression:
V2
аn = (5)
R
where R is the radius of the trajectory curvature (see fig. 4).
 3

In general case the bodies motion may be characterized by both normal and
tangential acceleration which are nonzero by value. Then the total acceleration of the
body will be equal to the vector sum:

  
a= аn + aτ (6)

The modulus of this acceleration may be found by the Pythagorean theorem as the
diagonal of a rectangle, fig. 5:

Fig. 4
Fig. 5

 2
V 2   d V 
2

a= аn2 + aτ2 =   +  

(7)
 R   dt 

For the case of rectilinear movement along the X-axis, a simplified formula for
acceleration may be written:
dV d 2 x
а =
= (8)
dt dt 2

d 2x
Here the expression is called the second derivative, in other words the
dt 2
acceleration is the second derivative of the coordinate with respect to time.
In conclusion – the knowledge of the law of changes in the body's coordinates
dх dV
over time allows one to find its velocity V (t ) = and acceleration а (t ) = . Since
dt dt
the operations of differentiation (finding the derivative) and integration are mutually
inverse, the integration procedure allows one to find the velocity and the law of bodies
motion, knowing its acceleration:
V=
(t ) ∫ a(t ) ⋅ dt (9)
 4

х(t )
= ∫V (t ) ⋅ dt (10)

If the body moves along a straight line and a (t ) = const , that is, the acceleration
does not change over time, then such a movement is called rectilinear uniformly
accelerated motion (note that such a case is taken place for bodies that move under the
influence of constant forces). For this type of motion, integrals (9) and (10) are very
easy to calculate:
V (t ) = ∫ a ⋅ dt = a ∫ dt =V0 + at (11)

at 2
x(t ) = ∫V (t ) ⋅ dt = ∫ (V0 + at ) ⋅ dt = x0 +V0t + (12)
2

In expressions (11) and (12), the integration constants х0 and V0 are the initial
values of the coordinate and velocity (at t = 0 ).
By combining expressions (11) and (12) and excluding time from them, we may
obtain the following expression:
V 2 −V0 2 =
2aS , (13)

where S= ( x − x0 ) is the distance traveled. Expressions (11), (12) and (13) are the main
relations of the kinematics of uniformly accelerated motion, which connect the
kinematic parameters х, V , а and t and which are widely used to solve a whole class of
kinematic problems.

1.2. Newton's laws as the basis of the translational motion dynamics

Dynamics is a branch of mechanics that studies the movement of material bodies

under the action of forces applied to them. Newton's laws are the basis of mechanics.
Newton's first law (law of inertia):
If no external forces act on the body, or their action is compensated, then the body is in
a state of rest or in a state of uniform rectilinear motion relative to inertial reference
frames.
Inertia is the property of bodies to keep a state of rest or a state of uniform rectilinear
motion. Newton's first law holds only in inertial frames of reference (which move
without acceleration). The inertiality of reference frames may be tested experimentally
by verifying the validity of Newton's first law in the selected system.
Newton's second law:
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The acceleration with which a body moves is proportional to the value of applied force
and inversely proportional to its mass:

 F
a= (14)
m

Mass is a measure of the body's inertia in translational motion. The increasing of

the body mass causes the decreasing of the acceleration value under the action of a
constant force. Mass is measured in kilograms, [ m ] = 1 kg .
Force is a measure of influence of other bodies (or fields) on a given body, as a
result of which it is deformed or moves at an accelerated rate. Deformation is a static
manifestation of force, and acceleration is a dynamic one. Force is measured in
kg ⋅ m
newtons [ F=] 1= N 1 2
, one newton is the force that gives acceleration 1m s 2 to
s
a body with mass 1kg.
Newton's
 second law may be reformulated in another way. If  we consider that
 dV  dV
а= , and substitute this expression into (14), we get F = m . Multiplying the
dt   dt
left and right parts by dt , we get F ⋅ dt = m ⋅ dV . If the body mass does not change
( m = const ), it can be added under the differential sign:
 
( )
Fdt = d mV (15)

In (15), the product of the force on time of its action is called the force impulse.
The product of the mass of the body on its velocity is called the momentum of the
body.
Thus, an alternative formulation of Newton's second law (15) reads as
follows:
the force impulse is equal to the change of the body momentum.
This formulation is more general than in the form (14). It is valid for bodies of
variable mass, and in the case of bodies moving at very high velocities (close to the
light velocity), while Newton's second law in the form (14) describes these cases
incorrectly.
Newton's third law:
two bodies interact with forces equal in magnitude and opposite in direction:
 
F12 = − F21 (16)
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Note that the forces in expression (16) are applied to different bodies, so they cannot be

added and thus cannot balance each other.

1.3. External friction

External friction is the phenomena of mechanical resistance that takes place in

the plane of contact of two bodies which are pressed to each other during their relative
movement. There exist two types of external friction according to their kinematic
feature – sliding friction and rolling friction (Fig. 6). Sometimes, rotational friction
is also distinguished (for example, for heel pads of shafts), but note that its nature does
not differ sufficiently from sliding friction.

Fig. 6

Net friction is conditioned by the interaction of absolutely clean surfaces without

any impurities including adsorbed gases or liquids. These forces can be studied only on
freshly formed juvenile surfaces in a state of a deep vacuum. The forces of net friction
are very large and by value approach to the forces which are necessary for the
destruction and rupture of a body. Under normal conditions, the effect of net friction
does not occur, but in space technology it may be significant.
Dry friction is observed under the situation of interaction of technically clean,
unlubricated surfaces. This type of friction is also characterized by a significant value
of friction force and it is applied in friction gears, brakes, etc. Dry friction leads to
significant wear of the friction pair surfaces and it is extremely dangerous for bearings,
sliders, etc.
Boundary friction is observed under the situation when the friction pair surfaces
are separated by a thin (thickness is comparable to the height of the solid surfaces
microroughness) film of liquid or consistent lubricant. Boundary friction must be
considered at the times of starting and stopping of mechanisms when the significant
 7

contact pressures takes place. It makes the main contribution to the processes of their
irreversible wear of solid surfaces (up to 80%).
Аn employee of our department Yu. M. Popovskiy (1925-2003) established that
the cigar-shaped lubricant molecules may be oriented either perpendicular
(homeotropic type of orientation) or parallel (planar type of orientation) to the wall
surface. The homeotropic orientation increases anti-wear characteristics of the
boundary wall lubricating layer, while the frictional resistance slightly increases at the
same time. The planar orientation of the molecules reduces the friction force but leads
to an increasing of weariness. The type of orientation may be controlled using special
“orientants” (additives introduced into the lubricant). Then, depending on the specific
requirements, it is possible to reduce the wear of friction pairs, which leads to an
increasing of the motor resource, or to reducing of the friction forces value, which leads
to an increasing in the mechanical efficiency of the mechanism.
Phenomena of hydrodynamic friction is observed under the situation when the
friction pairs are separated by a relatively thick lubricant layer and do not contact
directly. In fact, the resistance in this case is determined by the internal friction forces
and the wear process of surfaces practically stops.

1.3.1. Sliding friction

While considering this type of friction one has to distinct 3 different situations –
partial friction, static friction, and sliding friction.
Incomplete (partial) friction force occurs in case when the external force
(directed parallel to the plane of bodies contact) is insufficient to cause their relative
sliding (section OA in Fig. 7).
This force is caused by small (less then 1μm) partially reversible roughness’s
deformations. The values of roughness displacements are approximately proportional to
the applied force (we may consider that Hooke's law is approximately fulfilled). As the
value of displacement increases, the partial friction force increases, reaching a
maximum value at point A - this value is called the static friction force (sometimes
stiction force). After the external force exceeds the force of static friction, the
roughness shear turns into sliding. At the same time, the static friction force decreases
with a jump (point A1), turns into the force of sliding friction, which further does not
depend on displacement value.
Scientists have been studied this phenomenon for more than five hundred years.
The first research was conducted by Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519). He established
that the friction force in the contact zone of a bodies is proportional to the load value
(pressing force), directed against the direction of their relative velocity and does not
depend on the area of contact. Leonardo's model was rediscovered 180 years later by H.
Amonton (1663-1705) and received its final formulation in the works of Sh. O. Coulon
(1736-1806) and B. V. Deryagin (1902-1993).
 8

Fig. 8 Fig. 9
Fig. 7

For moderately rough surfaces, the force of dry or boundary friction is

determined by Amonton’s law:

Ffr = µ ⋅ N , (17)

where µ is a dimensionless quantity called the friction coefficient; N is the force of

normal pressure acting on the friction pair.
At the end of the 18th century Coulomb, investigating the friction of smooth,
polished surfaces, experimentally substantiated another type of dependence (Fig. 8,9):

Fтр = µ ⋅ N + F0 . (18)

Let us consider the nature of the second term in formula (18). With moderate
roughness of the bodies surface, the force of friction does not depend on the geometry
of their contact, since the interaction occurs only on a small number of protrusions of
the surfaces (fig. 8). Under these conditions, the actual contact area is much smaller
than the geometric one. As the force of normal pressure increases, the protrusions are
deformed. It leads to increasing of the actual contact area and, accordingly, to
increasing of the friction force. On very smooth surfaces, the actual contact area is
close to the geometric one, thus it is necessary to consider the forces of intermolecular
attraction, which are added up to external pressure.
Theoretically, Coulomb's formula (18) was explained in the 20th century by B.
V. Deryagin, who showed that the expression for the friction force may be written in
form:

(
Ffr = µ ⋅ N + P0S f ) (19)

where P0 is the pressure caused by intermolecular attraction, and S f is the actual

contact area.
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1.3.2. Rolling friction

Fig. 10a illustrates a perfectly round sphere which is in state of rest on an elastic
surface. Under the body weight the surface bends and elastic force balance the weight.
In the case when the sphere rolls on an elastic surface (Fig. 5b), its deformation is not
symmetrical with respect to the vertical line passing through the center of the ball – it
will be greater in its front part. That is why the resulting force is not balanced by the
body weight and will slow down its movement.

a b
Fig. 10
In this case, the expression for friction force is written as:
k
Ffr = N , (20)
r
where k is the coefficient of rolling friction and r is the sphere radius.
Note that the rolling friction force is significantly less than the of sliding friction force.

1.3.3. Friction forces in engineering

Materials for friction pairs in technology should be selected according to their
mechanical properties, nature of intermolecular interaction and ability to form a
protective film. Now metal-polymer coatings, self-lubricating sintered metal powders
are widely used. The essential condition for the effective work of the friction pair is the
proper relation between the shear resistance of the solid surface layer and the layers
lying deeper – the first one must be characterized by the less value. Only in this case,
the wear will be localized in the near-surface layer. This may be achieved in different
ways:
• by forming a protective film from the gas, liquid or solid phase of the
environment during friction;
• by preliminary applying of thin films with low shear resistance to the solid
substrate (lubricants, polymer coatings made of chalcogenides, etc.);
• by using of various additives to oils that plasticize thin surface layers.
 10

Special laboratory methods for measuring of friction forces and wear of friction
surfaces have been worked out (they are also called tribometric methods: tribos -
friction, metrio - measure). Typical characteristics of friction pair are shown in fig. 11.
Here the intensity of wear may be defined as a ratio:
wear depth
Wear intensity=
distance traveled

Fig. 11

1. 4. Body movement of on an inclined plane (calculation of the

friction coefficient)

Let us consider a body placed on the inclined plane which forms an angle θ with a
horizon (fig. 12). Three forces act on the body – the force of the normal reaction of the
plane surface, the force of friction and the force of gravity so the equivalent of these
forces may be written as:
   
F = N + Ffr + mg (21)
If the result force isn’t zero, then in accordance with Newton's second law, the body
will move with acceleration and the following equation may be written:
   
N + Ffr + mg =
ma. (22)
Further we will use the coordinate system so that the X axis is directed along the
inclined plane, and the Y axis is perpendicular to it. Let's project equation (22) onto
these axes and consider that accelerated motion occurs along the X axis. Then we
obtain:
mg ⋅ sin ( θ ) − F fr =ma
 (23)
mg ⋅ cos ( θ ) − N =0
 11

Fig. 12

Further we will use the coordinate system so that the X axis is directed along the
inclined plane, and the Y axis is perpendicular to it. Let's project equation (4) onto
these axes and consider that accelerated motion occurs along the X axis. Then we
obtain:
mg ⋅ sin ( θ ) − F fr =ma
 (24)
mg ⋅ cos ( θ ) − N =0

Considering that F fr = k ⋅ N and using the second equation in (24) we may rewrite
the first equation as:
mg ⋅ sin ( θ ) − µmg ⋅ cos ( θ ) = ma (25)
Equation (25) is valid only when the body slides on the inclined plane surface. In
this case the following inequality holds:
mg sin θ ≥ Ffr (26)
but at small angles of inclination, inequality (26) is violated and equation (25) becomes
wrong. (In this case the component mg ⋅ sin ( θ ) plays the role of an incomplete force –
the section OA in Fig. 7 and the body remains motionless). With a gradual increase in
the angle of inclination θ , the force mg ⋅ sin ( θ ) increases and F fr decreases. Thus, we
obtained the method of the friction coefficient calculating by measuring of the critical
angle. It follows from (26) that when a certain critical angle θcr is reached the body
begin to slide down the inclined plane slowly and uniformly ( a = 0 ) these two forces
become equal and (26) may be rewritten as:
mg sin θcr= µ ⋅ mg cosθcr ,
or after contractions:
= tg ( θcr ) .
µ (27)
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From (25) it is also possible to substantiate another method for friction coefficient
measurement and to obtain a calculation expression for the case when the body moves
with acceleration, and this acceleration is known (measured or calculated). After
rearrangements and reductions, (6) yields to:
a
µ tgθ −
= . (28)
g cosθ
In this work, the acceleration a is found by measuring the time t of the body sliding
at 2
along an inclined plane of length L. From the kinematics relation (12) – L = , it is
2
obtained:
2L
a= (29)
t2
Substituting this expression into (28), we get the final calculation formula:
2L
µ tgθ −
= (30)
gt 2 cosθ
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2. Experimental part

2.1. The purpose and task of the work

The purpose of the work is to determine the coefficient of dry friction when a
body slides on an inclined plane. Determination of the friction coefficient must be
carried out by two methods – the critical angle measuring and sliding time measuring.

2.2. Experimental setup

The experimental setup is an inclined plane (chute) along which a wood bar may
slide. The angle of inclination of the chute may be changed by adjusting the height h of
the upper (or lower) chute ends above the ground. The length of the chute is known,
and the time the bar slides down the chute is measured with a stopwatch.
The front panel of the computer version of work is shown in fig. 13. Here you
may also adjust the height h with the slider and measure the sliding time by pressing the
START button of the stopwatch. The RESET button returns the bar to the starting
point. The program involves choosing a work option which differ in the values of
friction coefficient.

Fig. 13
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2.3. The procedure for carrying out measurements

Experiment 1
Put a bar in the chute and gradually raise one of its ends to such a height h that
the bar placed on it begins to slide uniformly. Measure this height. In the computer
version of the work, it is necessary to fix the height h at which the bar will begin to
slide. The obtained value of this height will correspond to the critical value of the angle
θ = θcr , so in the future we will denote it as hcr , and its average value as hcr . Carry out
similar measurements 5 times, and write the results in Table 1. Note that
L = 203 cm (computer variant – L = 800 cm ).
Table 1
№ hcr , см ∆hcr ∆hcr2 hcr
sin θ=
= ...
cr
1 L
… cosθcr = 1 − sin 2 θcr =
...
5
sin θcr
hcr = ∑ cr
∆h 2
= tg
= θ cr = ...
cosθcr

Experiment 2
Raise one end of the chute to a height of more than 5-10 cm than hcr, fix and
measure it. Measure the time sliding of the bar. Carry out the experiment for 5 times.
Write the experimental results in Table 2.
Table 2
№ t ,с ∆ti ∆ti2 h = ,
1 sin
= θ h=
/L  ,
2 cosθ=
1 − sin 2 θ ,
3 sin θ
tgθ = ...
=
4 cosθ
5 2L
=c = 
t = ∑ ∆ti =
2
g cosθ

2.4. Processing of experimental results

Experiment 1
1. Mean value of friction coefficient calculate by formula:
µ = tgθ cr .
2. Experimental error calculate as:
 15

Sh
Sµ= µ ⋅ , Sh =
∑ ∆hcr2
, n=5 – number of measurements
h n(n − 1)
3. Final result write as:
µ = µ ± 2 ⋅ Sµ .
Experiment 2
1. Mean value of friction coefficient calculate by modified formula:
µ tgθ − c / t 2
=
2. Experimental error calculate as:

Sµ= µ ⋅
St
, St = ∑ ∆t 2

, n=5 – number of measurements

t n(n − 1)
3. Final result write as:
µ = µ ± 2 ⋅ Sµ .
Within the measurement errors, calculations of the sliding friction coefficient by two
methods should coincide.
An example of processing measurement results is given in Appendix A.
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3. Questions to check understanding

1. Define the main kinematic quantities (in particular, instantaneous speed and
acceleration). How are the vectors of these quantities directed?
2. What characterize normal and tangential acceleration? How are they directed?
Write down the formulas for normal, tangential, and total acceleration.
3. Write down the main relations of kinematics of rectilinear uniformly accelerated
motion.
4. Formulate Newton's laws, give two different formulations for the second law.
5. What is an external friction? Explain the phenomenon of net friction and dry
friction.
6. What is an external friction? Explain the phenomenon of boundary friction and
hydrodynamic friction.
7. What is incomplete friction force, static friction force and sliding friction force?
8. Explain the formulas of Amonton, Coulomb and Deryagin. Define the quantities
included in these laws.
9. Compare sliding friction and rolling friction and explain the reasons for their
occurrence.
10.Describe the role of friction in technology.
11.Explain what forces act on a body on an inclined plane.
12.Derive the calculation formulas of the first method of determining the friction
coefficient.
13.Derive the calculation formulas of the second method of determining the friction
coefficient.
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Appendix A

Experiment 1
№ hcr , м ∆hcr × 10−2 ∆hcr2 × 10−4 L = 1.5 m
1 0.41 0 0 hcr
sin θ=
cr = 0.273
2 0.43 2 4 L
3 0.39 2 4 cosθcr = 1 − sin 2 θcr =
0.962
4 0.43 2 4 sin θcr
5 0.40 1 1 tgθcr =
= 0.284
cosθcr
hcr = 0.41 ∑ ∆hcr =
2
13

=Sh
∑ ∆h
=
2
kp
0.008 ; Sµ =µ ⋅
Sh
µ 0.284 ± 2 ⋅ 0.006 .
=0.0056 ≈ 0.006 ;=
5⋅4 h

Experiment 2
№ t ,s ∆ti × 10−2 ∆ti2 × 10−4 L = 1.50 m , h = 0.60 m ,
1 1.43 7 49 sin
= θ h= / L 0.4 ,
2 1.57 7 49 cosθ =− 1 sin 2 θ =
0.916 ,
3 1.58 8 64 sin θ
4 1.42 8 64 tgθ = 0.437
=
cosθ
5 1.50 0 0
2L
t = 1.50 s ∑ ∆ti2 = =
226 c = 0.334
g cosθ

µ=
tgθ − c / t =
0.289
= 2
; St ∑ ∆t
=
2
i
0.034 ; Sµ =µ⋅
2St
=0.013 ;
5⋅4 t
µ 0.289 ± 2 ⋅ 0.013
=

Conclusion: within the measurement errors, the values of sliding friction coefficients
found in experiments 1 and 2 coincide.