CONSULTANCY SERVICES FOR THE STUDY OF THE

LAND-USE AND TRANSPORT DYNAMICS AND THE

PREPARATION OF A TRANSIT-ORIENTED
DEVELOPMENT ROADMAP FOR BUS RAPID TRANSIT
(BRT) CORRIDORS IN THE GREATER KUMASI
METROPOLITAN AREA (GKMA)

A REVIEW OF LAND-USE AND TRANSPORT

DYNAMICS IN GHANA AND THE GREATER
KUMASI METROPOLITAN AREA (GKMA)

Submitted To
THE WORLD BANK

Submitted By:
DEPARTMENT OF PLANNING
COLLEGE OF ART AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT
KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, KUMASI
Tel: +233 (0) 3220-60324/60230
E-mail: planning.cap@knust.edu.gh

MAY, 2024

1
 SECTION ONE
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW OF THE ASSIGNMENT
1.1 Overview of Land-Use and Transport in Ghana
1.2 Purpose and Objectives of the Assignment
1.3 Scope of the Assignment
1.3.1 Context of the Review
1.3.2 Ghana and the Greater Kumasi Metropolitan Area as the Focal Areas
1.4 Methodology
1.4.1 The PRISMA Model of Systematic Review
1.4.2 Sources of Information and Framework for Secondary Data Collection
1.4.3 Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
1.4.4 Approach and Methods of Review
1.4.5 Limitations of the Review
1.5 Structure of Review Report

SECTION TWO
LAND-USE AND TRANSPORTATION DYNAMICS IN [URBAN] GHANA
2.1 Introduction and Context of the Review
2.2 Urban Land Ownership and Management
2.3 Urban Land Use Planning in the Ghanaian Context
2.3.1 Background and Structures
2.3.2 Regulatory and Institutional Environment
2.3.3 Process of Land Use Planning
2.3.4 Framework for Implementing Land Use Plans
2.4 Nature and Dynamics of Urban Transport in Ghana
2.4.1 Types of Services and Infrastructure
2.4.2 Regulatory and Institutional Environment
2.4.3 Current Challenges and Prospects
2.4.4 Current Interventions and Future of Transport
2.5 Connecting Land Use and Transportation in Urban Ghana
2.5.1 Inter-relationships between Land Use and Transportation in Ghana
2.5.2 Transport Challenges caused by Land-Use Planning
2.5.3 Land Use Planning as an Advantage for Transport Delivery
2.6 Interventions to Harmonise Land Use and Transport in Ghana
2.7 Summary of Section

SECTION THREE
TRANSPORT AND LAND USE DYNAMICS IN THE GKMA
3.1 The Greater Kumasi Metropolitan Area (GKMA) in Context
3.1.1 Relevance and Selection of GKMA
3.1.2 Administrative, Operational and Functional Definitions of GKMA
3.1.3 The Place of GKMA in Land-Use and Transport Review
3.2 Size, Demography, Urban Growth and Transport

2
3.2.1 Location and Spatial Extent of GKMA
3.2.2 Population and Socio-Demographic Characteristics
3.2.3 Urbanisation and Land-Use Changes
3.2.4 Land-Use Changes, Transport and Mobility
3.3 Land Ownership, Management and Structure of Land-Use
3.3.1 Types of Land Ownership and Locations in GKMA
3.3.2 Land Management and Administration Structure
3.3.3 Impacts of Land Ownership on Land-Use Dynamics
3.4 Transport Dynamics in the GKMA
3.4.1 Structure of Transport and Mobility in the City of Kumasi
3.4.2 Characteristics of Existing Transport Infrastructure
3.4.3 Quality and Patronage of Transport Services Available
3.4.4 Mobility Patterns and Transport Charges
3.4.5 Challenges and Prospects of the Transport Sector in GKMA
3.5 Current and Planned Investments in Land-Use and Transport in GKMA
3.6 Summary of Section

SECTION FOUR
KEY FINDINGS FROM REVIEW, KNOWLEDGE GAP AND THEMES FOR
FUTURE INTERVENTIONS

4.1 Overview of Key Findings from Existing Documents

4.1.1 Urban Development and Land Use Dynamics in Ghana and GKMA
4.1.2 Transport Provision, Infrastructure and Services
4.1.3 Transport Investments and Land Use Changes
4.1.4 Challenges and Prospects of Transport and Land Use
4.2 Knowledge and Policy Gaps
4.2.1 Urban Land Ownership and Land-Use Structure
4.2.2 Transport Infrastructure and Service Quality
4.2.3 Transport and Land Use Investments
4.2.4 Public Policy and Research Drive
4.3 Theme/Areas for Land-Use and Transport Interventions
4.3.1 Policy Changes and Interventions
4.3.2 Transport and Traffic Management
4.3.3 Land Use Planning and Spatial Development
4.3.4 Transport and Land Use Management
4.4 Recommendations and Conclusion

LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF PLATES
LIST OF REFERENCES

3
APPENDICES

4
 SECTION ONE

INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW OF THE ASSIGNMENT

1.1 Overview of Land-Use and Transport in Ghana

Land use and transportation in Ghana, particularly in cities like Kumasi, have a significant
impact on urban travel patterns. Studies show that land use changes have led to increased
congestion and difficulties in commuting due to poor locational accessibility (Poku-Boansi et
al. 2018). Transportation development in Ghana has not followed the ideal linear phases
proposed by Gould, indicating hindrances in achieving optimal infrastructure. Inadequate
enforcement and compliance with land use planning guidelines have resulted in haphazard
physical development, emphasizing the need for effective education and resource allocation
for sustainable urban land management.
The interaction between socio-demographics, urban form, public transport perception, and
satisfaction influences automobile trip frequency, with public transport satisfaction negatively
affecting car trips (Oppong-Yeboah & Gim , 2020). Weaknesses in land use planning
practices, such as non-conforming land uses and erratic structures, exacerbate urban physical
development problems and hinder optimal planning benefits. Transport infrastructure
decisions directly shape the physical, social, and economic landscape of cities, leading to
changes in city form, growth, and accessibility, ultimately affecting urban development and
sustainability in Ghana.

In Ghana's secondary cities, the applicability of Western urban land use models has been
questioned, as they may not be directly applicable to African cities with unique
characteristics and challenges. The study of land use patterns in Ghana's secondary cities
emphasizes the importance of understanding local factors, such as social ties and cultural
practices, that influence housing patterns and land use in urban areas (Mensah et al. 2020).

Developing public transportation systems, such as the Accra Pilot Bus-Rapid Transit Project,
is recognized as a key strategy for improving transportation and land use planning in Ghana,
aiming to reduce congestion and enhance mobility in urban areas, contributing to more
sustainable and liveable cities (Okoye et al. 2010).

1.6 Purpose and Objectives of the Assignment

This assignment aims to conduct a systematic literature review on land use and transportation
in Ghana, focusing on the GKMA, identify research gaps, and propose future studies, with
the outcome serving as input for a situational analysis in Kumasi.

1.7 Scope of the Assignment

1.7.1 Context of the Review
The present review comprises a systematic literature review on land use and transportation in
Ghana, with a particular focus on the GKMA. The review adheres to the Preferred Reporting

5
Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines and identifies
research gaps and areas of interest from the literature. Additionally, it suggests future
directions for empirical studies on land use and transportation in the GKMA.
1.7.2 Ghana and the Greater Kumasi Metropolitan Area as the Focal Areas
1.8 Methodology
1.8.1 The PRISMA Model of Systematic Review
The PRISMA model was used for this systematic review. It provides a standardized set of
guidelines for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses, aiming to improve
transparency and scientific rigor in research synthesis (Swartz, 2011; Sarkis-Onofre et al.
2021). It consists of a checklist and a flow diagram that help researchers clearly formulate
questions, identify, select, critically appraise relevant research, and collect and analyse data
from included studies. It also serves as a roadmap for authors to transparently report what
was done and found in a systematic review. It is essential for improving the quality of
research reporting, enhancing the scientific merit of systematic reviews, and ensuring the
reproducibility and trustworthiness of research findings (Swartz, 2011; Sarkis-Onofre et. al
2021).
1.8.2 Sources of Information and Framework for Secondary Data Collection
The sources of secondary data were grouped into for categories, which include: documents
from academia, documents from international bodies and organizations, documents from
government sources within the country, and write ups and articles from the media.
1.8.3 Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
There were several criteria that were used to download documents from the four sources
listed above (section 1.4.2). Below are the inclusion and exclusion criteria used.
Table 1.1 Inclusion and exclusion criteria
Government sources
Inclusion criteria Exclusion criteria
Documents produced from 2005 till date Documents older than 20 years
Documents produced by these ministries Duplicated documents
and government agencies (Ministry of
Transport, Ministry of Roads & Highways,
Ghana Highway Authority, Urban Roads
Department, Lands Commission, Land Use
and Spatial Planning Authority)
Documents having these keywords Documents that do not have these keywords
(transportation, land use, BRT, ) (transportation, land use, BRT,)
International sources
Inclusion criteria Exclusion criteria
Documents which have been published Documents from any other sources (Media,
specifically by international bodies or Academics) other than international sources
Agencies.
Documents from International sources Documents whose topic or title and content

6
whose Topic or Title relate to the key divert from Land use, Transportation and
words stated above. i.e. Land use, Bus Rapid Transit
Transportation, Bus Rapid Transit.
Documents which have their content Documents that have not been accredited for
addressing Land use, Transportation and online publication
Bus Rapid Transit.
Documents from International bodies which Documents that have been published
have been accredited for online publication. beyond 20 years
International documents which have been Documents that are ambiguous and not
published within 20 years timeframe (2004- centred on the keywords at hand.
2024).
International Publications which employed
the qualitative, quantitative or the mixed
methodological approaches
Academic sources
Inclusion criteria Exclusion criteria
Studies focusing on land use and transportation Studies not specifically addressing land use and
dynamics in GKMA or Kumasi. transportation in GKMA.
Peer-reviewed articles, conference papers, Publications lacking relevance to land use and
reports, thesis and book sections on land use and transportation in Ghana and GKMA.
transportation.
Publications in English or with available Editorials, letters, and opinion pieces without
translations. empirical data.
Studies conducted within 2010 and 2024 that Studies with insufficient methodological rigor
capture recent developments on land use and
transportation.
Papers employing quantitative, qualitative, or Research articles that cannot be accessed in full
mixed-methods approaches
Media sources
Inclusion criteria Exclusion criteria
Media articles, websites and links on land Duplicate content on land use, transport and
use, transport, and BRT (Bus Rapid Transit) BRT
Media articles that include newsletters, Content not relating to the topic
media reports (TV, radio) and websites with
journalistic content addressing land use,
Transport and BRT
Articles should be within 5-10 years of Outdated Content
release
Newsletters should relate to Ghana, GKMA Newsletters and reports not available in
and International land use and transport English
related issues
Findings of news reports on Bus- rapid , Blogs, Social media posts, tabloids
Land use and transport in Ghana (Unreliable)

7
1.8.4 Approach and Methods of Review
1.8.5 Limitations of the Review
There are several limitations that were encountered during the review. They include:
1. Time constraint
2.
1.9 Structure of Review Report
The first section of the review report looks at the introduction and overview of the
assignment which includes the scope, methodology and objectives of the assignment. The
second section comprises the land-use and transportation dynamics in [urban] Ghana, the
third section entails transport and land use dynamics in the GKMA, and lastly, the key
findings from review, knowledge gap and themes for future interventions conclude the report.

SECTION TWO

LAND-USE AND TRANSPORTATION DYNAMICS IN [URBAN] GHANA

2.1 Introduction and Context of the Review

2.2 Urban Land Ownership and Management

Urban land ownership and management in Ghana's major cities, have undergone significant
changes due to urbanization and the need to document property rights. The system of land
ownership and access has been explored in recent papers that highlight the challenges and
solutions related to land delivery for urban development(Cobbinah et al., 2020).
In Ghana, 80% of the total land area is customarily owned by clans, stools, skins, and
families, while the state owns 18% and the remaining 2% is held in dual tenure. Customary
land ownership and gender disparity have been investigated, revealing significant differences
in the extent of men's and women's access to land(Cobbinah et al., 2020; Sagre & Abdulai,
2014).

Biitir et al., (2017), reported that, the Land Administration Project (LAP) was implemented to
address issues confronting customary institutions and government land agencies, improve
land tenure security, and simplify the process of accessing land in Ghana. It further aimed to
protect and ensure the acknowledgement of customary authority in land transactions by
mandating customary owners to establish their own local administrative bodies. However,
there is a lack of clarity on the relationship between customary land ownership and land
administration in the context of land use planning.
Land ownership in Kumasi, Ghana's second-largest city, is held either by the state or the
stool. The city is the seat of the Asantehene, the custodian of land and culture of people in the
Ashanti Region(Adjei-Poku et al., 2023; Poku-Boansi et al., 2024). Land in Kumasi is
categorized into part one and part two lands, with part one lands being those within one mile
of the Kumasi Fort in the central business district, vested in the state to be held in trust for the
Golden Stool and natives of Kumasi. The customary owners have also established their own

8
administrative bodies, such as Asantehene's Land Secretariat and the Customary Land
Secretariat, which can create conflicting roles with government land management agencies,
particularly the Regional Lands Commission (Cobbinah et al., 2020).

2.3 Urban Land Use Planning in the Ghanaian Context

2.7.1 Background and Structures
Urban land use planning in Ghana has a rich history and is influenced by British town
planning legislation. The planning system in Ghana was restructured between 1992 and 1994
to adopt a decentralized form, where more political, planning, and administrative power was
transferred to the district level to facilitate increased exchange between governmental and
public concerns (Kleemann et al., 2017). This shift was aimed at addressing the challenges
faced during the centralized planning era, such as limited public consultation and insufficient
consideration of local needs (Kleemann et al., 2017).
The structure of urban land use planning in Ghana is based on a three-tier system, which
includes national, regional, and local levels of planning. At the national level, the Land Use
and Spatial Planning Act, 2016, provides the legal framework for land use planning,
including the preparation of a National Spatial Development Framework(Ghana
Governement, 2016). The Act also covers various aspects of land use planning, such as the
development of land, spatial planning matters, and the processing of land use permits (Ghana
Governement, 2016).
At the regional and district levels, the planning system involves the creation of Joint District
Spatial Planning Committees or Multi-District Spatial Planning Committees, which are
responsible for coordinating the spatial aspects of district development plans (Poku-Boansi et
al., 2018). The Regional Coordinating Councils play a crucial role in establishing these
committees and creating Joint Technical Sub-Committees or Multi-District Technical Sub-
Committees to support the planning process (Ghana Governement, 2016).
2.7.2 Regulatory and Institutional Environment
Urban land use planning in Ghana is governed by a regulatory and institutional framework
that seeks to promote sustainable urban development. The Land Use and Spatial Planning
Act, 2016, provides the legal basis for land use planning in Ghana, including the preparation
of a National Spatial Development Framework, regional spatial development plans, district
spatial development plans, and joint spatial development plans (Rebublic of Ghana,
2016). The Act also establishes the Land Use and Spatial Planning Authority, which is
responsible for implementing the land use planning functions of the national development
planning system(Rebublic of Ghana, 2016)
.The institutional framework for urban land use planning in Ghana is resilient, with
customary land tenure institutions maintaining their traditional power to allocate
land(Cobbinah et al., 2020). However, there are challenges in the relationship between
customary land tenure practices and land-use planning delivery, as customary land tenure is
criticized for being dynamic and unable to provide enough tenure security at all
times(Cobbinah et al., 2020).

9
2.2.3 Process of Land Use Planning
The process of land use planning in Ghana is influenced by various factors, including the
availability of financial resources, the presence of qualified urban and spatial planners, and
the effectiveness of development control mechanisms (Kanton Osumanu,
2023). Additionally, the process is shaped by the complex coalescence of land ownership and
administration in Ghana, which can involve customary land tenure practices and the
interaction between statutory and customary land laws (Cobbinah et al., 2020).
Land use planning process in Ghana involves a systematic approach to guide and manage
urban growth in a deliberate and orderly manner. It is designed to facilitate the effective
delivery of infrastructure, prevent non-conformed uses of land, put land into maximum use,
and improve the quality of the environment (Kanton Osumanu, 2023). The process can be
broken down into several stages:
Plan preparation: This stage involves the collection of data, analysis of the data, and the
development of a land use plan that outlines the desired future development of the area. The
plan is typically prepared by urban planners, architects, and other professionals with expertise
in urban development (Kanton Osumanu, 2023).
Implementation: The implementation stage involves the execution of the plan, which may
include the construction of infrastructure, the zoning of land for specific uses, and the
enforcement of building regulations (Kanton Osumanu, 2023).
Monitoring and evaluation: This stage involves the ongoing assessment of the plan's
implementation to ensure that it is achieving the desired outcomes. This may include the use
of geographic information systems (GIS) to track changes in land use over time and the
evaluation of the impact of the plan on the quality of the environment (Kanton Osumanu,
2023).
2.7.3 Framework for Implementing Land Use Plans
The framework for implementing land use plans is guided by the Land Use and Spatial
Planning Act, 2016, which provides the legal basis for land use planning in the
country(Kleemann et al., 2017). The Act outlines the process for preparing and implementing
land use plans, including the preparation of a National Spatial Development Framework,
regional spatial development plans, district spatial development plans, and joint spatial
development plans(Kleemann et al., 2017).
The implementation of land use plans in Ghana is facilitated by various tools and techniques,
such as development control, legal protection of plans, zoning regulations, land subdivision
regulations, building regulations, and urban renewal programs(Kanton Osumanu,
2023) . These tools are used to ensure that provisions made in land use plans are physically
implemented and enforced. Effective development control mechanisms are crucial for the
successful implementation of land use plans in Ghana. These mechanisms involve planning
authorities, politicians, and communities of beneficiaries of plans, who expect that the
intended outcomes expressed in a proposed plan will be achieved (Kanton Osumanu, 2023).
2.8 Nature and Dynamics of Urban Transport in Ghana

10
Urban transport in Ghana is characterized by a variety of modalities, including road, air, rail
and sea. According to the Ghana Statistical Service (2020), the country’s transport network is
essential to its economic growth and connectivity both within and outside of its boarders.
The predominant mode of urban transport is the road transport which covers approximately
96% of passenger and freight movement (Oduro-Marfo et al, 2019). However, the road
network is confronted with issues like poor maintenance, traffic congestion and safety issues
(Tuffour & Owusu, 2018). Rail transport has historically experienced revitalization initiatives
such as the of new lines and the renovation of existing ones by the Ghana Railway
Development Authority (Ghana Railway Development Authority, 2022).
Water transport is also an essential means of transportation of people and products, especially
around Volta Lake and in coastal areas. However, it is underutilized due to challenges like
inadequate infrastructure and safety issues (Oduro-Marfo et al, 2019).

2.8.1 Types of Services and Infrastructure

Urban transport is essential to the functioning and dynamics of contemporary cities. It
includes a variety of services and infrastructure intended to facilitate the movement of people
and products across urban areas. Comprehending the various elements of urban transport is
essential for efficient and effective urban design. The various types of infrastructure and
services of urban transport in Ghana have been illustrated in the table 2.1.
Table 2.1: Infrastructure and Services of Urban Transport

Infrastructure Service Provided

Roads -Roads are known as the backbone of urban
transport as it provides connectivity for
vehicles.
-Transportation modalities are
accommodated via road infrastructure
(Litman, 2017).
Public Transportation Systems Large-scale efficient population
transportation depends on public
transportation systems like bus and trotro.
For smooth transitions, specialised
infrastructure like bus lanes and stations are
needed.
Cycling Infrastructure Solve
Pedestrian Walkways -The safety and convenience of pedestrians
are greatly dependent on sidewalks,
pedestrian bridges and other walkable
infrastructure.
- Vibrant urban environments are also
enhanced by well-designed pedestrian areas
(Gehl, 2010)

11
Source:

2.8.2 Regulatory and Institutional Environment

Ghana’s Institutional and regulatory framework for urban transport seeks to promote safe,
effective and sustainable transport networks that boost connectively both nationally and
internationally and promote economic development. Laws and regulations governing urban
transport in Ghana are formulated in large by the Ministry of transport (Government of
Ghana, 2008).

Ghana has a complex institutional and regulatory structure for urban transport that is made up
of numerous laws, policies, and regulatory agencies. The Ministry of Transport's supervision
and control over the transport industry is a crucial component. The Ministry creates rules and
guidelines to direct the functioning of several transport modalities, especially urban transport.
According to a study by Ahmed and Musah (2017), the aim of the regulatory framework in
Ghana is to enhance the efficacy and efficiency of urban transport

2.8.2.1 Regulatory Frameworks for Urban Transport

Many laws and regulations oversee the urban transport framework in Ghana. These are
essential to maintaining the effectiveness, security and the sustainability of the Ghana’s
transport networks. Figure 2.1 presents some regulatory frameworks governing the urban
transport in Ghana.

12
 Regulatory Frameworks for Urban Transport

Road Traffic Act 2004 National Road Safety Ghana Highway

Transport Act, 2008 (Act 689) Commission Act 1999, Authority Act, 1997 (Act
(Act 683)
(Act 567) 540)

Provides the National This act sets the

Road Safety duties, authority and
Regulations for driving, vehicle Rules governing
Commissions’ powers of the Ghana
registration, driver licensing, and several forms of
establishment and Highway Authority
road safety are outlined in this act. transportation such
delineates its roles, (GHA), which is in
as road, air and sea
authority and charge of creating
are provided in
obligations in and maintaining
this act.
advancing road safety. Ghana’s highway
system.

Figure 2.1
Source: Ministry of Transport ,2021

13
2.4.2.2 Institutional Actors in Ghana’s Urban Transport
Urban transport in Ghana is governed by a number of institutional actors, including
governmental organisations, private businesses and regulatory authorities. According to its
policies and mandates, the Ministry of Transport in Ghana has various important
responsibilities in administering urban transport. One key responsibility of the Ministry of
Transport is the formulation and regulation of transport policies. The transport ministry
creates and enforce regulations and policies related to urban transportation safety, vehicle
standards, licensing and registration (Ministry of transport, 2016).
It also manages public transportation services like buses, trotro, taxis and other modes of
transport operating within urban areas (Ghana Business News, 2020). Some of the institutions
under the ministry of transport have been outlined below.
a. Ministry of Roads and Highways (MRH)
Ghana’s Ministry of Roads and Highways is essential to the construction and upkeep of the
nation’s road network in a number of ways. The MRH is in charge of developing urban road
network and strategic planning to guarantee effective transport connections across the
country. The ministry also establishes and upholds rules and guidelines to guarantee the
security and sustainability of transport services and infrastructure (Government of Ghana,
2021).

a. Ghana Highway Authority (GHA)

The Ghana Highway Authority (GHA) is essential to the development and management of
urban transport in a number of ways. These consist of organising, coordinating and
governing. According to Amoako (2018), The Ghana Highway Authority is in charge of
directing the design and implementation of highway projects in Ghana. It also controls
highway-related operations such as establishing guidelines for traffic control, road design and
vehicle specifications (Amoako, 2018).

b. National Road Safety Commission (NRSC)

In order to ensure urban road safety, the National Road Safety Commission fulfils a number
of vital duties. These responsibilities include creating and implementing policies, conducting
research and data collection, organising education and creating public awareness, enforcing
regulations and supporting cooperation and partnerships (National Road Safety Commission
Act, 1999).

c. Ghana Road Traffic Coordinating Council (GRTCC)

In order to control urban traffic and maintain road safety, the Ghana Road Traffic
Coordination Council (GRTCC) performs a number of vital functions. The GRTCC creates
and executes regulations with the goal of minimising road accidents.

d. Driver and Vehicle Licensing Authority (DVLA)

14
In Ghana, the DVLA is a key regulatory body that governs urban transport and maintains
public safety. It supports efforts for road safety by supervising and issuing license, driver
testing, inspecting vehicles, car registration and enforcing laws

2.8.3 Current Challenges and Prospects

2.8.3.1 Current Challenges of Urban Transport
Ghana’s urban transport system is faced with a number of challenges, including growing
urbanisation, poor infrastructure and scarce resources. Some of the challenges of urban
transport are as follows;
a. One key challenge confronted by urban transport is inadequate and poor maintenance
which le ads to traffic congestion. According to Oduro et al (2017), insufficient road
capacity and the lack of proper traffic management result in urban traffic congestion.

b. Another challenge is the prevalence of unofficial transportation providers, such as

trotros and motorbikes which frequently operate without following safety or regulatory
requirements (Ghana Business News, 2020). These unofficial vendors exacerbate the
issue of urban transit by causing traffic jams, accidents and congestion.

c. According to Acheampong and Owusu (2018), Ghana’s cities suffer from inconsistent
and ineffective bus services which results in packed and clogged roadways. Also, there
is insufficient investment in bike lanes, pedestrian walkways and green transit as well as
few sustainable transportation options.

2.4.3.2 Prospects of Urban Transport

There are opportunities to enhance urban transport in Ghana in spite of these challenges.
Some of these opportunities have been outlined below.

 The National Urban Policy is one government project that aims to solve these
concerns by promoting sustainable modes of mobility, increasing public transport and
enhancing road infrastructure (Ministry of transport, 2016).


2.8.4 Current Interventions and Future of Transport

Urban transport interventions currently underway aim to solve pressing issues including
traffic, inefficiency, and environmental concerns while laying the groundwork for future
developments that will be more sustainable and effective.

Urban transport management is progressively incorporating technology through programs

like mobile applications and intelligent transportation systems (Appiah et al, 2019).

2.9 Connecting Land Use and Transportation in Urban Ghana

2.9.1 Inter-relationships between Land Use and Transportation in Ghana

15
The inter-relationships between land use and transportation in Ghana are crucial for the
efficient and sustainable development of urban areas. The way in which land is used can
significantly impact the transportation system, and vice versa. This inter-relationship is
particularly important in the context of urbanization, where the growth of cities and towns
requires careful planning and management to ensure that transportation infrastructure is
adequate and accessible to all residents.
One of the key aspects of the inter-relationship between land use and transportation in Ghana
is the impact of urban sprawl on transportation systems. Urban sprawl, which refers to the
expansion of urban areas into previously rural or undeveloped land, contribute to increased
travel distances and reduced accessibility to public transportation. This results in increased
car dependency, leading to traffic congestion, air pollution, and other negative environmental
impacts
Another important aspect of the inter-relationship between land use and transportation in
Ghana is the role of transportation infrastructure in shaping land use patterns. For example,
the location of major transportation corridors, such as highways and railways, influence the
development of new residential and commercial areas. In some cases, transportation
infrastructure acts as a catalyst for urban growth, while in other cases serves as hindrance to
development
NOT DONE
2.9.2 Transport Challenges caused by Land-Use Planning
The development of transport networks is greatly influenced by land use planning.
Inadequate land use planning can result in a number of problems with infrastructure and
mobility. Jia et al (2017) assert that, land use planning and transportation are correlated, as
ineffective land-use planning may result in ineffective transportation networks.
Transportation issues resulting from inadequate and ineffective land-use planning have been
clearly observed in Ghana. Urban sprawl and longer travel times for citizens are the outcomes
of the lack of coordination between the development of transport infrastructure and land-use
planning (Yeboah et al, 2013).
Additionally, the underdevelopment of public transportation systems has resulted from a lack
of integration between land use and transportation, compelling many residents to rely on
unofficial modes of transportation (Ghana Statical Service, 2019).

2.9.3 Land Use Planning as an Advantage for Transport Delivery

In Ghana, land use planning has benefits for the delivery of urban transport. Coordinated land
use planning results in more effective transportation networks and enhanced accessibility to
facilities and services.
The strategic placement of residential, commercial and industrial zones reduces traffic and
encourage the use of environmentally friendly transportation options like cycling and walking
(Zhang et al, 2020)

16
Connectivity between various portions of regions in the country is improved by integrating
land use planning with transportation planning which facilitates the movement of people and
freight (Jia et al, 2017)
These advantages emphasise how crucial it is to include land use planning concepts in
transportation planning procedures in order to support the sustainable urban growth and
improve transport delivery.

2.10 Interventions to Harmonize Land Use and Transport in Ghana

In Ghana, the harmonization of land use and transport is crucial for sustainable urban
development and the improvement of urban living conditions. The interplay between land use
and transport has a significant impact on the environment, economic growth, and social well-
being. To address this issue, several interventions are recommended to ensure that land use
and transport are aligned in a way that benefits all stakeholders. These interventions aim to
create a more integrated and efficient urban environment that promotes sustainable growth
and development. Some of these interventions have been outlined below;
a. Enforcing regulations that synchronise the development of transportation
infrastructure with land use planning in order to guarantee effective land use and
transportation networks (Addo-Kuffour et al, 2018).
b. Promoting patterns of development around transit hubs that support mixed land-use,
higher density, and pedestrian-friendly settings in order to lessen dependency private
automobiles (Asiedu et al, 2017).
c. Constructing infrastructure, including pavements to promote cycling and walking as
practical modes of transportation, thereby lowering emissions and traffic (Owusu et
al, 2020)
d. Improving public transport options such as buses and minibuses, to increase their
quality, dependability, and reach in order to offer practical substitutes for driving a
private vehicle (Baidoo, 2019).
2.11 Summary of Section

17
18
 SECTION THREE
TRANSPORT AND LAND USE DYNAMICS IN THE GKMA
3.1 The Greater Kumasi Metropolitan Area (GKMA) in Context
3.1.1 Relevance and Selection of GKMA
Greater Kumasi Metropolitan Area (GKMA) was selected as the region for the study of land-
use and transport dynamics and the preparation of a transit-oriented development roadmap for
bus rapid transit (BRT) corridors in Ghana. This is due to its significance as the second-
largest city in the country and it serves as an economic and transportation hub of the Ashanti
Region. According to Amoako & Adom-Asamoah, (2019), Kumasi is supported by its
receipt and accommodation of several migrants from parts of Ghana, and even from other
countries within the West African sub-region (Amoako & Adom-Asamoah, 2019). On
another hand, GKMA serves as the main connector between Southern Ghana and Northern
Ghana, facilitating trade, commerce, and social interactions. Additionally, Kumasi is
attributed to be the largest Central Business District (CBD) in West Africa, signifying its
significance in the regional and national context of economic activities. Undoubtedly,
Kumasi's existing transport infrastructure, particularly its road network, is well-laid and
extensively utilized. Roads like the Ejisu to Kumasi Road and the Abuakwa-Kumasi Road,
which have been selected for BRT corridors, are already in practical use. This ensures that
the selected corridors for the BRT system are compatible with existing transportation patterns
and can seamlessly integrate into the city's transport network.
The metropolitan area relevance for transport development therefore presents a second
opportunity to piloting BRT system in Ghana after the failure of the BRT established system
in Accra, the capital city of Ghana. The failure of the system in Accra was attributed to
unclear local and traditional governance structures. However, Kumasi's governance, led by
the Asantehene, offers a clearer administrative framework conducive to overcoming such
challenges, thus making it a suitable candidate for BRT implementation for TOD.
GKMA again possesses a robust institutional framework characterized by unity and
administrative stability, which is conducive to implementing the BRT system effectively. The
cohesive governance structure and administrative powers exhibited in Kumasi provide a
conducive environment for policy implementation and project execution. Additionally, the
stability in land administration, management, and planning in Kumasi is another crucial
factor driving its selection as the project area. Unlike other regions plagued by land guardism
and irregularities in land management, Kumasi benefits from the effective administration of
land affairs, largely attributed to the role of the Otumfour in land administration.

3.1.2 Administrative, Operational and Functional Definitions of GKMA

From an administrative standpoint, the Greater Kumasi Metropolitan Area refers to the
geographical jurisdiction under the authority of the Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly (KMA).
This includes Kumasi City itself, along with its surrounding suburbs, satellite towns, and
rural hinterlands that fall within the administrative boundaries set by the KMA.
Administrative definitions are primarily concerned with governance structures, jurisdictional
boundaries, and the allocation of resources and services within the defined area.

19
Operationally, the Greater Kumasi Metropolitan Area comprises the interconnected network
of infrastructure, services, and institutions that facilitate the functioning of urban life within
and around Kumasi City. This definition emphasizes the practical aspects of managing and
operating within the metropolitan area, including transportation systems like the N6 road,
utilities, healthcare facilities such as KATH, educational institutions including KNUST,
markets (Adum Central), and other essential services. The operational definition focuses on
the day-to-day functioning and management of the urban environment, highlighting the
interdependence of various systems, sub-systems and stakeholders.
Functionally, the Greater Kumasi Metropolitan Area refers to the economic, social, and
cultural activities and interactions that occur within the urban agglomeration centered around
Kumasi City. This definition emphasizes the various strategic roles and functions performed
by the different municipalities, districts, sectors and actors within the metropolitan area,
including businesses, industries, educational institutions, healthcare providers, governmental
agencies, and community organizations. This aspect of GKMA highlights the varying range
of activities and services that contribute to the area's vitality, productivity, and quality of life.

3.1.3 The Place of GKMA in Land-Use and Transport Review

Greater Kumasi Metropolitan Area (GKMA) is a significant area in Ghana's land-use and
transport review. It is the second largest city in Ghana and has undergone multiple
extensions, including the addition of twelve municipalities and districts. GKMA faces various
challenges related to urban mobility, including poor integrated land use planning, inadequate
traffic management, and a low traffic capacity (Factsheet 2022). The city's transport system is
dominated by informal public transport services, such as trotros and shared taxis, which
contribute to traffic congestion and road safety issues (Factsheet 2022). The Greater Kumasi
Urban Development Plan was aimed to address these challenges by promoting sustainable
urban mobility and improving the overall transport system in the region (JICA, 2013). Thus,
the plan for the urban development of Kumasi had included the development of a light rail
and bus rapid transit system to help ease congestion and improve public transportation. In
terms of land use, the Greater Kumasi Metropolitan Area is a newly designated functional
region under Ghana's new spatial planning system, which aims to inform the formulation of
the first Comprehensive Urban Development Plan for the region.

3.2 Size, Demography, Urban Growth and Transport

3.2.1 Location and Spatial Extent of GKMA
Greater Kumasi Metropolitan Area location is strategic within Ghana as reveled by several
studies (Abass et al., 2018; Acheampong & Asabere, 2022; Bosompem et al., 2016; P.
Cobbinah & Amoako, 2012; Darko et al., 2017; Mensah et al., 2020; Oduro et al., 2014b;
Poku-Boansi et al., 2020; Tontoh, 2011) reviewed. The Greater Kumasi Metropolitan Area
formerly known as the Kumasi Metropolitan Area is located in the central part Ashanti region
of Ghana and is about 270 km north-west of Accra, the national capital of Ghana
(Abass et al., 2018), 397km south of Tamale, and 120km southeast of Sunyani. It shares
boundaries with Offinso South and Sekyere South Districts to the north, Atwima Mponua and
Atwima Kwanwoma Districts to the west, Konongo Municipality and Asante Akim to the
east, and Bekwai District on its southern border (Ghana Statistical Service, 2010).

20
Specifically, the metropolitan area lies between longitude 1°15'W and 2°00'W, and latitude
6°15''N and 7°10'N. The ground height is situated at an elevation that varies between 250
and 300 meters above sea level. The GKMA covers an area of approximately 2746 square
kilometres (Amponsah et al., 2022). The climatic region of the metropolitan area is
equatorial, and it is found in the transitional forest zone of Ghana, approximately 300km
inland from the coast. Lying within the rain forest belt, the vegetation can best be described
as moist semi-deciduous (Mensah et al., 2020). The greater part of the metropolitan area falls
within a dissected plateau terrain region with heights reaching 800m to 1200m above sea
level and it forms part of the Mampong-Gambaga scarp. The main municipalities that
spatially expand to form the GKMA comprises of the old city (Kumasi) and six adjoining
districts—Ejisu, Bosomtwe, Kwabre East, Afigya Kwabre, Atwima Nwabiagya and Atwima
Kwanwoma (JICA, 2013).

3.2.2 Population and Socio-Demographic Characteristics

Ghana’s urbanization has resulted in the rapid growth of its major cities, particularly Accra,
the national capital, and Kumasi, the capital of the Ashanti Region. Literature Studies
(Plange-Rhule et al., 2022; Amponsah et al., 2022; Tagnan et al., 2022; World Bank, 2015;
Oduro et al., 2014; Cobbinah & Amoako, 2012; Amoako & Cobbinah, 2011; Adarkwa, 2011;
Owusu-Ansah & O’Con nor, 2010), have shown that the metropolis is currently experiencing
unprecedented growth in its population and a corresponding expansion beyond its
administrative boundary. According to Oduro et al., (2014), from 1984 to 2000, an extremely
rapid increase in population took place in both Kumasi City (5.63% per annum) and its
surrounding districts (4.24% per annum). On the other hand, from 2000 to 2010, while the
rate of population increase continued to be very high within Kumasi City (as high as 5.69%
per annum), that of the surrounding districts slowed down to an annual average rate of 2.16%
per annum. The Ghana Statistical Service census report showed that Kumasi’s population,
which stood at 2,035,064 as of 2010, maintained a remarkable growth rate of over 5% per
annum, making it the fastest growing major city in Ghana (GSS, 2012, 2014). Presently,
Greater Kumasi Metropolitan Area has a total population of about 2,808, 483 from the 2021
population and housing census data (GSS, 2021). From 2010 to 2021, Kumasi recorded a
growth rate of 38% considering all the municipalities and districts forming it. Out of the total
population of GKMA, males constitute 49% (1,367,112) while females account for 51%
(1,441,371) with a gender ratio of 91.4.

As supported by Cobbinah & Amoako, (2012), the city currently accommodates nearly two-
thirds of the Ashanti region’s population leading to its unprecedented growth (P. B.
Cobbinah & Amoako, 2012). Hence, the household population for the GKMA stands at
2,688,956 with a non-household of about 1,195,527. However, the total household in the
metropolitan area has 15.2% (795,139) of the entire region’s household population. The
population density in this metropolitan area is about to 279 people per hectare (in 2021) as
against 159 people per hectare (in 2010). Whilst the average household per house is 3.4, the
room occupancy rate is 2.7, which is above the United Nations standard of 2.5 but below the
national average of 3.0. More than a quarter of households in the metropolis are headed by
females (Asamoah 2010 citing Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly, 2006).

21
The major ethnic groups in Greater Kumasi Metropolitan Area are the Akan (80.7%), a sub-
group of the larger Akan ethnic group, and the Mole-Dagbon (9.0%) which comprised of
Dagomba, Mamprusi, Moshie, and Gonja. With a total fertility rate of 2.6 and a general
fertility rate of 76.5 births per 1000 women aged 15-49 years (Ghana Statistical Service,
2014), the Greater Kumasi Metropolitan Area exhibits moderate fertility levels. Marital status
data indicates that approximately 36.8% of the population aged 12 years and older are
married.
There is a high migration rate in the metropolitan area ( Asamoah, 2010) and that gives an
average daily population of about 2 million people who move in and out of the city. The
metropolitan area is said by Tontoh, (2011), to have one-third (34.3%) of its population as
immigrants. The area attracts a number of migrants from several parts of Ghana and
neighbouring African countries such as Togo, Burkina Faso, Mali, Nigeria, Ivory Coast and
abroad especially, Europe (Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly, 2006). Consequently, the rapid
growth of population has implications for housing delivery and in effect, the housing growth
rate per annum was 8.6% from 1984 to 2000 (Afrane and Amoako, 2011).

3.2.3 Urbanisation and Land-Use Changes

As with many Ghanaian cities, GKMA and the Kumasi city is rapidly urbanizing and
experiencing an intensive phase of urbanization. Its urban population is constantly growing,
and economic growth is creating a transition from a predominantly rural to a predominantly
urban society. However, one of the most extensive ways that the urban environment's
landscape and habitat have been altered is through urbanization (Korányi et al., 2021).
Majority of the studies included ( Tagnan et al., 2022 etc Amoateng et al., 2013; Cobbinah et
al., 2020; Cobbinah & Amoako, 2012; Cobbinah & Niminga-Beka, 2017; C. Mensah et al.,
2020; Abass et al., 2020;) highlighted the ever-increasing urbanization trend in Kumasi and
its corresponding effects for land uses.
The Greater Kumasi Metropolitan Area (GKMA) has expanded and sprawled rapidly
between the year 2000 and 2020 and this is in line with findings from previous studies (see
Cobbinah & Amoako, 2012; Mensah, 2014; Tagnan et al., 2022 etc.). The built-up area has
over the years increased as compared to the non-built-up area (see Table 4.2 ).
Table 4.2 Built Up and Non-Built Areas of Greater Kumasi
Extent of Years
Sprawl or
2000 2010 2020
Urban
Expansion Coverage Percentage Coverage Percentage Coverage Percentage
in km2 (%) in km2 (%) in km2 (%)
Non-Built- 128 54% 171 72% 179 75%
Up Area
Built Up 111 46% 67 28% 60 25%
Area

The rapid pace of growth within the Greater Kumasi Metropolitan Area (GKMA) has
outstripped its capacity and resources for effective and sustainable management.

22
Consequently, the city's urban footprint has rapidly expanded, encroaching into rural areas.
For instance, comparing the overall land area of the past 20 years, the built-up area has risen
from 54% in the year 2000 to 75% in the year 2020, leaving a percentage change of 21%.
Greenfield areas, which are primarily made up of wetlands, farmland, forests, and other
vegetative cover, have however decreased from 46% in 2000 to 25% in 2020 (Donkor, 2023).
In a different view, in 2012, the built-up area of the GKMA was approximately 401.2 square
kilometers, more than quadrupling its size from 1972, which was only 98 square kilometers
(Afrane and Amoako, 2011). Additionally, the contiguously built-up area extending beyond
the city's boundaries increased significantly, from 3.6% in 1972 to 46.6% in 2012 (Afrane
and Amoako, 2011).

3.2.4 Land-Use Changes, Transport and Mobility

3.3 Land Ownership, Management and Structure of Land-Use

3.3.1 Types of Land Ownership and Locations in GKMA
Until independence, land in Kumasi was solely owned and managed by the Ashanti
Kingdom, otherwise referred to as ‘stool’. Described in the statute, ‘Stool Lands’ are
autonomously owned and managed by the stool through caretaker chiefs. There are also
vested lands that are managed by the state institution (Lands Commission), while the
landowner retains the customary ownership (Farvacque-Vitkovi, 2008). The third category
are few public lands acquired by the government after independence (Adarkwa, 2011). The
management of urban lands in Kumasi by regulation is the mandate of state and city
institutions. However, the management, interests, and rights to lands in the city are shaped by
the country’s pluralistic legal system – a combination of state law and customary law (Lands
Commission, 2008). Consequently, there exist two forces in the urban land delivery system in
Kumasi. On one hand is the vested lands, but very limited in supply and largely accessible to
the privileged. On the other, is the abundant stool lands owned by the customary institutions
who possess enormous power “derived from their historical role and dominance in the
establishment of Kumasi as the traditional capital of the Ashanti Kingdom” (Amoako and
Adom-Asamoah, 2018). They, therefore, remain strong, relevant and highly responsible for
land administration in Ghana (Kasanga, 2000). Stool lands are however available at prices
fixed by the caretaker chiefs which reflect open market values. In this light, the poor struggle
for access to land, with some losing their lands altogether, as they are effectively priced out
of the market (Adarkwa, 2011).

3.3.2 Land Management and Administration Structure

The land management and administration structure in Kumasi has evolved over time, with
various institutions and legal frameworks shaping the way land is administered and managed.
Prior to 1902, the administration of lands in Kumasi and Ashanti was under the traditional
authority of the Asantehene and the Kumasi and Asanteman Traditional Councils1. However,
after the Yaa Asantewaa war, the Ashanti Administration Ordinance of 1902 (CAP 110) was
passed, vesting all lands within the limit of the Kumasi township in the British Colonial
Administration1.In 1943, the Kumasi Town Ordinance 1943 (CAP 143) was passed, which
saw the revocation of the Ashanti Administration Ordinance of 1902 (CAP 110) and the

23
establishment of the Asantehene's Lands Secretariat (ALS)1. The Lands Commission was
responsible for the administration of all Part I Lands, which are lands within the central
business district and those falling within a mile radius of the same1.Since the passage of the
Ghana National Land Policy in 1999, land administration and management institutions have
struggled to improve land recording and management2. The Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly
(KMA) and surrounding district administrations have been responsible for subdividing and
distributing urban land, despite the official role of the Town and Country Planning
Department in these tasks4.The land tenure system in Kumasi comprises customary and state
ownership, with customary ownership holding up to 80% of the land while the rest is vested
with the state3. The Asantehene's Lands Secretariat and the Lands Commission have played
significant roles in managing and administering land in Kumasi, with various challenges and
reforms ongoing to improve the system1.

3.3.3 Impacts of Land Ownership on Land-Use Dynamics

The included studies provided discuss the impacts of land ownership on land-use dynamics in
Kumasi, Ghana. The study by Kabila Abass et al. (2019) found that urbanization and the
influx of population from the Kumasi metropolis and peripheral areas have caused rapid
changes to land use and land cover (LULC) in the Atwima Nwabiagya district. Customary
land ownership plays a significant role in land-use change in Kumasi. The study by Kabila
Abass et al. (2019) noted that chieftaincy sustenance is a crucial factor for land-use change in
the city, as it helps shape development patterns and form. The research by Adarkwah (2022)
also highlighted the importance of chieftaincy sustenance in shaping land-use dynamics. The
sources suggest that land ownership disputes and the government's mal-handling of acquired
lands are other factors that contribute to land-use change in Kumasi.

3.4 Transport Dynamics in the GKMA

3.4.1 Structure of Transport and Mobility in the City of Kumasi
Transportation in Kumasi has evolved significantly over time, driven by the city's strategic
location, economic importance, and historical development patterns. As Ghana's second-
largest city, Kumasi has experienced rapid urbanization and population growth, leading to
increased demand for efficient transportation systems (GSS, 2012, 2014). Initially, Kumasi's
transportation system relied heavily on walking, as observed in the late 17th century when the
city covered an area of 2 km2 with approximately 10,000 inhabitants (Baeyens et al., 2012).
Streets were designed to enhance mobility, and vehicular congestion was minimal due to low
vehicle ownership and population density (Tipple, 1997).
But with time, the city's strategic location as a transit hub and commercial center facilitated
the development of transportation infrastructure, particularly rail transport, in the early 20th
century (Dickson, 1961; Jedwab and Moradi, 2012). Two railway lines were constructed
between 1908 and 1923 to enhance trade between Kumasi and Southern Ghana, stimulating
economic activities and creating employment opportunities (Dickson, 1961; Jedwab and
Moradi, 2012). The introduction of rail transport had significant impacts on Kumasi's
transportation landscape. It led to an influx of labor from the periphery and northern parts of
the country, contributing to urbanization and Ghana's status as the largest cocoa producer in

24
Africa (Jedwab, 2011). Additionally, rail transport facilitated trade, resulting in the
agglomeration of cocoa-producing villages around Kumasi (Adarkwa, 2011).
In the 1930s, Kumasi's Central Business District (CBD) emerged as a vibrant market center
and major transport hub, accommodating intense social and economic interactions (Amoako
et al., 2014). The CBD witnessed enhancements in road networks, with a radial ring road
pattern facilitating accessibility to various parts of the city (Oduro et al., 2014). Colonial
planning efforts in Kumasi resulted in the development of "dual cities," characterized by
distinct architectural and social differences (Abu-Lughod, 1965). The core area was
modernized and less dense, with improved mobility and access to basic services, while the
outer areas remained densely settled and traditional (Abu-Lughod, 1965).

3.4.2 Characteristics of Existing Transport Infrastructure

Rapid urbanization in Ghana has implications for urban mobility. Severe traffic congestion
and road safety issues are the consequence of over-reliance on low-capacity passenger
vehicles, inadequate traffic management, heavy dependence on informal public transport
services, inadequate facilities for walking and cycling, occupation of roads by hawkers, and
so on. The predominant mode of transport in Kumasi are trotros, minibuses carrying between
14 and 23 passengers, and shared taxis which take four passengers. These vehicles do not
provide scheduled services and they operate with the ‘fill and go’ principle, preventing
passengers from planning their trips effectively. The limited capacity of these vehicles is
compensated by their large number. Distribution of the vehicles on routes depends on the
preferences of the operators, usually linked with the conditions of the roads, leading to an
uneven distribution of transport services. A study carried out in 2011 found that 68% of users
travel by trotro/buses, 12% by taxis. By contrast, trotros occupy less than 30% of road space
usage, whiles private vehicles carrying only 14% of passengers account for 33%. The
congestion level also affects the route choice for drivers. The city has received 60 buses from
the Ministry of Transport for the introduction of a mass transit service (pilot BRT), but only
20/25 are operated as the rest of the fleet waits for full study and implementation.

The road network system in the Kumasi Metropolis has been categorized into twenty-one
(21) key road links by the Department of Urban Roads. The categorization was done in the
order of congestion level. The travel speeds and congestion index of the entire road link have
been quantified.
The CBD is characterised by too many taxis and too few large buses. For example, cars and
taxis together form about 80% of the traffic mix, yet they account for about 30% of all person
trips. More than 60% of all trips undertaken in Kumasi end at Kejetia (Ghana Statistical
Service, 2009; KMA).

3.4.3 Quality and Patronage of Transport Services Available

The modal split in Kumasi reflects a diverse range of transportation modes, with a substantial
portion of trips being made by walking, particularly in high-density residential areas like
Aboabo and Ayigya. However, the most prominent mode of travel overall is by trotros, which

25
are patronized by 42.9% of commuters. This indicates a reliance on public transport vehicles,
highlighting the importance of convenience and cost in mode choice (Aboabo and Ayigya)

3.4.4 Mobility Patterns and Transport Charges

3.4.5 Challenges and Prospects of the Transport Sector in GKMA

According to the Transport survey 2012, 26 percent of respondents from urban areas
indicated that they do not have reliable transport to health facilities and 78 percent indicated
that transport was not available or easily available in the morning times to access health
facilities. Spatial isolation, or last-mile connectivity is an issue. Unpaved roads in
neighborhoods do not allow access to minibuses. Regular use of public transport services is
unaffordable for the bottom 20 percent of the population. The significant level of
unaffordability for a large section of households in Accra, Kumasi and Tamale, shapes
people’s mode choices—and limits mobility options to walking.
Urban transport in Accra, Kumasi and other cities is characterized by the fundamental
paradox of a market with proven excess demand and shortage of supply; and it is not
attracting sufficient new investment to redress this imbalance. The excess demand is reflected
in overcrowded buses and long waiting times, without even accounting for the latent demand
resulting from lack of affordability and access. The supply shortage, in spite of a proliferation
of taxis and tro-tros, implies constraints in the provision of large, good-quality buses. Such
buses are unavailable because of the low productivity of the capital assets in highly congested
traffic, and from the inability of informal operators to attract the necessary funding to operate
large, good-quality buses.

3.5 Current and Planned Investments in Land-Use and Transport in GKMA

Planned investments in land-use and transport in Kumasi have been influenced by historical
challenges, including the failure to fully implement the City Masterplan and the subsequent
decentralization program initiated in 1988 (Poku-Boansi, 2008). The lack of technical
expertise, control, and funding hindered the execution of the Masterplan, leading to
unplanned physical developments, particularly outside the city center (Adarkwa, 2011).
Between 1977 and 1986, Kumasi's transport infrastructure faced significant challenges,
highlighting the inadequacy of traditional master planning approaches in developing
countries (Balbo, 1993).
In response to these challenges, a decentralization program was initiated in 1988, aiming to
enhance local level participation in development processes (Farvacque-Vitkovic et al., 2008).
The Local Government Act of 1993 delegated power to local planning authorities to manage
development and infrastructure (Farvacque-Vitkovic et al., 2008). However, local authorities
faced difficulties in delivering basic services due to coordination issues, limited resources,
and management inefficiencies (UN-HABITAT, 2008).
The rail transport system, which played a significant role in Kumasi's development, ceased
long-distance operations in the late 1990s due to management inefficiencies and poor
maintenance (MESTI and TCPD, 2013). This resulted in a heavy reliance on road transport,
predominantly operated by the private sector (MESTI and TCPD, 2013). To address these
challenges, the government introduced the Metro Mass Transit (MMT) bus services in 2002

26
to enhance intra and inter-city mobility (Vuchic, 2005). However, intra-urban services
realized low patronage relative to inter-urban services (KMA, 2014), indicating continued
challenges in urban mobility. The proliferation of private vehicle ownership further
exacerbated transportation issues in Kumasi, leading to increased pollution, accidents, and
pedestrian safety concerns (Poku-Boansi, 2008). Despite efforts to improve public
transportation, such as the MMT bus services, more pragmatic interventions are required to
meet the demands of urban dwellers (Vuchic, 2005).
As a result, the adoption of "community vehicles" and the promotion of non-motorized means
of transport proposed by Poku-Boansi, (2008), was to offer more sustainable alternatives for
urban residents (Poku-Boansi, 2008). However, challenges remain in addressing the growing
urbanization, vehicle ownership, and the slow progress in enhancing road infrastructure and
services (Adarkwa, 2011).
Addressing the road infrastructural deficiencies in the GKMA, Diko, (2017) revealed that the
transport proposals for Kumasi have predominantly prioritized economic development, as
evidenced by initiatives like the completion of the ring road in 2016 to link the city with other
urban centers (Diko, 2017). However, issues like pedestrian safety, disability-friendly
infrastructure, and non-motorized transport within slums have received less attention (Diko,
2017).
3.6 Summary of Section

27
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(2018). Land use and urban travel in Kumasi, Ghana. GeoJournal, doi: 10.1007/S10708-017-
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