SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGY

Objectives
At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. differentiate between various schools of psychology;

2. state the major emphases of various schools of psychology;
3. explain the major contributions of each school of psychology;
and
4. relate the various approaches of psychology to teaching
processes.

Introduction

What is a school of psychology? At the beginning of this topic we defined psychology

and gave a brief account of how it developed into a true science of human behaviour with
its own methods of study. In the history of psychology, different perspectives of explaining
behaviour have evolved. This came as a result of strong differences of opinion about
what psychology should study and how it should do it. Schools of psychology can be
thought of as groups of psychologists who hold common beliefs about both the subject
matter of psychology, that is, what facets of mental processes and behaviours should be
studied, and what methods of study should be used. Thus, a school of psychology
represents a view point or approach to the explanation of behaviour. Most schools of
psychology developed as a revolt against traditional methods and beliefs at the time.
Different schools provided ideas which influenced contemporary approaches to
psychology. In this chapter we are going to discuss various schools of psychology and
as we do this, keep your attention focused on how some of these schools might have
contributed to teaching practices and understanding of the behaviour of students/pupils

Major Schools of Psychology

Structuralism

Structuralism is one of the earliest schools of psychology that was founded by Wilhelm
Wundt in 1879. Remember we said that Wundt established the first psychological
laboratory in German at the University of Leipzig and therefore he is considered as the
founder of experimental psychology. The setting up of this laboratory marked the break
of psychology from philosophy to science.

The goal of structuralisms’ was to find the units, or elements, which make up the mind.
They thought that a first step in the study of the mind should be a description of those
basic or elementary units of sensation, image and emotion which compose it (Morgan et
al., 1986). They were mainly concerned with determining the components of conscious
thought.

Wundt and other structuralists used a technique called introspection to study the
structure of behaviour. Introspection is a method in which subjects are asked to describe
in detail their thoughts and feelings. The assumption was that one can understand the
structure of the mind through the objective reports and reactions of the subject. For
example, a subject might be presented with a coloured light and asked to describe it as
minutely as possible.

Structuralists inaugurated psychology as a science and established the importance of

studying mental processes. However, psychologists felt that structuralism was limited to
only one area of behaviour and had few practical applications. These psychologists who
were mainly Americans began a new school of psychology called functionalism.

Functionalism

William James was the leading force in the functionalism school of psychology.
Functionalists felt that psychology should study “what the mind and behaviour do”.
They were specifically interested in the fact that mind and behaviour are adaptive – they
enable an individual to adjust to a changing environment. Psychologists in this school of
thought were influenced by Darwin’s theory of the survival for the fittest. Instead of limiting
themselves to the description and analysis of the mind, they did experiments on the ways
in which learning, memory, problem solving and motivation help human beings and
animals to adapt to environments. In short, as the name of the school implies, these early
psychologists studied the functions of mind and behaviour.

Functionalism had an impact on the development of psychology although it is no longer

considered a formal school (Huffman et al., 1987). It expanded the scope of psychology
to include research on emotions and observable behaviours. Functionalists initiated the
psychological testing movement, changed the course of modern psychology and were
responsible for extending psychology’s influence on diverse areas in industry. Other
Psychologists’ dissatisfaction with these initial schools of psychology led to the
development of new perspectives of looking at behaviour.

The Psychoanalytic Perspective

This approach was founded by Sigmund Freud an Austrian physician whose area of
specialization was neurology (the study of disorders of the nerves and brain). It
developed because of his experience with his medical patients. In his treatment of
neurological patients, Freud noted that some of his patients presented symptoms that
had no physical basis like brain damage. These symptoms were real for the patients as
if they had neurological causes.
Freud suspected that these problems were psychological in origin and as a result
developed a complex and sophisticated model of human behaviour known as
psychoanalytic theory. From this theory he developed the treatment known as
psychoanalysis.

Freud believed that behaviour is brought about by inner unconscious forces, drives or
impulses over which the person has little control. These urges and drives are hidden
from the awareness of the individual. In other words, they are unconscious. It is the
expression of these unconscious drives which shows up in behaviour and thought. For
example, psychoanalysts believe that dreams and slips of the tongue are manifestations
of what a person is feeling within a subconscious psychic activity.

Freud also emphasized the importance of early childhood experiences on later

personality development. He coined the phrase, “the child is the father of the man”, to
emphasize his belief that our childhood experiences are stored in our unconscious state
of mind and influence our personality and behaviour when we are adults. For example,
if you were neglected and abused as a child, chances are high that you will lack affection
and trust in other people. If you are such a person, you may be cold and abusive in
adulthood experience (Sindabi & Omulema, 1999).

Freud’s perspective was criticized because of his research methodology in which he

exclusively applied the individual case study technique without comparing his data to
normal people as a control. Thus, critics contend that this theory applies to abnormal
behaviour, if it is applicable at all. Despite the criticism, his school of thought has had an
impact on psychotherapy (the application of psychological principles and techniques to
the treatment of psychological disorders) and psychiatry (the diagnosis and treatment of
mental disorders especially with drugs).

Gestalt psychology

This school of psychology was founded in Germany around 1912 by Max Wertheimer and
his colleagues Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Kohler. Gestaltists felt that structuralists were
wrong in portraying the mind as being made up of elements. They maintained that the
mind is not made up of a combination of simple elements.

The German word gestalt means “form”, or “configuration, or organized whole”. The
gestalt psychologists maintained that the mind should be thought of as resulting from the
whole sensory activity and the relationships and organization within this pattern. They
felt that no single aspect of behaviour could be understood by itself, but only as part of a
“whole” pattern of behaviour. Thus, to them the whole is greater and more meaningful
than the individual elements alone (the whole is greater than the sum of its parts). They
also emphasized the importance of the context or background in creating meaning for a
specific event. For example, if a soldier is involved in misconduct, the context and
background (e.g., home or working environment) are important in understanding the
behaviour fully. This school of psychology has made significant contributions in the
understanding of personality and perception.
Behaviourism

What was the major emphasis of the behavioural perspective? Behaviourists felt that
observable behaviour should be the focus of study rather than mental processes and
unconscious experiences. The proponents of this school of thought include, J. B. Watson,
B. F. Skinner and F. L. Thorndike. Behaviourists felt that the scientific method in
psychology should be limited to the study of behaviours that can be directly observed
and verified. Watson believed that by controlling a person’s environment any desired
behaviour could be obtained irrespective of his/her talents, abilities, heredity and other
factors.

Behaviourists believed that all behaviour can be viewed as a response to a stimulus (an
object or event that causes an organism to respond in the environment). For example, a
baby who cries upon seeing a nurse whenever he/she is taken to the dispensary is
demonstrating stimulus-response behaviour. The nurse is the stimulus and the crying is
the response. According to this school of thought, nearly all behaviour can be accounted
for by learning. Behaviour that has been rewarded in the past will likely be repeated
again whereas behaviour that is not reinforced is likely to become extinct.

Watson and Skinner used animals (such as, rats, pigeons and cats) to study how
behaviours are acquired through learning and how behaviour can be changed. This
perspective was criticized for overemphasizing visible behaviour and environmental
influences on behaviour to the extent of ignoring thought and subjective experiences.
This approach had significant influence on:
• How we learn new behaviours.
• How behaviour can be modified.
• The proper use of punishment and rewards.

Humanistic Psychology

Carl Rogers (1902 – 1987) and Abraham Maslow (1908 – 1970) are some of the most
influential psychologists associated with the humanistic approach. This school of
psychology developed as a reaction against the idea that behaviour is determined by
forces beyond our control or by environmental forces. It emphasizes on free-will, that is,
the human ability to make choices and decisions about one’s life. According to Huffman
et al., (1987:34), humanistic psychologists emphasized the importance of inner,
subjective self, consciousness and feelings. Humanists emphasize that human nature is
naturally positive, creative and growth seeking unless blocked by experience. We can
freely choose to live more creative, meaningful and satisfying lives. Thus, we are free to
make choices and to decide how to behave. Each one of us is seen as a unique individual
with both the need and ability to fulfil our unique and optimum potential according to
Abraham Maslow. This school of thought has made major contributions in counselling
which is the process of assisting another person to find a solution to his/her problems
through discussion with a counsellor.

Cognitive Psychology
The psychologist who is closely associated with this school of thought is Jean Piaget
(1896 – 1980) who was a Swiss psychologist. This view was a reaction against radical
behaviourists like Skinner, who regarded cognition (thought) as outside the realm of
psychology. The new view came to be known as cognitive psychology and focused on
reasoning and the mental processing of information. Cognitive psychology is concerned
with the acquisition, storage, retrieval and use of knowledge. Cognitive psychology
studies how we gather, encode and store information from our environment using mental
processes such as, perception, memory, imagery, concept formation, problem solving,
reasoning, decision making and language (Huffman et al., 1995)

Cognitive psychologists take an information processing approach based on the idea

that humans are like computers in that both take in information, process it and produce a
response/behaviour. Thus, we do not just respond to environmental stimuli, we mentally
process the sensory input, appraise the situation and respond accordingly. For example,
if the same ridicule is directed to three students, their reactions may be different. One
may cry, another one may take it as a warning not to continue misbehaving and the third
one may not react at all. Their reactions can be explained in terms of how they process
and interpret the information.

Piaget and other cognitive psychologists believed that behaviour has a cognitive element.
We understand and actively interpret information. Piaget believed that the ability to
process information undergoes dramatic transformation as children grow from one stage
of development to another. According to Piaget, children understand the world in an
entirely different way from adults. Thus, the difference in behaviour in children and adults
reflects the difference in their ability to know, understand and reason about things and
events around them which develops systematically. As children, we need to see and feel
things to know and understand them, but as adults, we can know and understand things
and events through abstract reasoning and conceptual analysis.

Psychobiology

This school of thought explains behaviour in terms of the biological functioning of the
body. It emphasizes that genetic, physiological and neurological factors and processes
determine behaviour. The influence of the nervous system, particularly the brain is very
crucial. A normal human being depends on a properly functioning nervous system.
Psychological development is based on changes in brain growth, which are genetically
determined, that is, maturation. Normal behaviour or psychological or mental health are
functions of a normally functioning healthy nervous system. A problem or disease
affecting the nervous system, which includes the brain, will affect human behaviour,
causing problems in learning and normal living (Sindabi & Omulema, 2000).

The Eclectic View

The various schools of psychology discussed are important in the historical development
of psychology. At any one time or another each was the dominant perspective. They
influenced thought and guided research in psychology. Most of the knowledge and
content we have in psychology today developed from these schools of thought.
Most contemporary psychologists recognize that these perspectives are not mutually
exclusive from each other and hence the eclectic view/perspective which allows
blending of ideas from different perspectives. The eclectic approach adopts principles
and practices from several orientations or schools of thought. This approach holds that
human behaviour cannot be understood fully by taking one perspective. Each
perspective focuses on a different aspect of human behaviour and as such may be seen
as complementary rather than competing. In many cases, they provide explanations of
behaviour at different levels. All the explanations may be right since they address the
task of understanding human behaviour at different levels and perspectives.

Rather than speak of schools of psychology, most modern psychologist prefer to talk
about the five basic perspectives or approaches that influence the topics studied in
psychology. These are the psychoanalytic, behaviouristic, humanistic, cognitive, and
biological approaches. These are the major perspectives that are widely evident in
modern psychology. Therefore, when faced by a particular situation, you should select
the ideas which are helpful to the particular situation.