BIOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL BASES OF BEHAVIOUR

Objectives
At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. explain the nature versus nurture controversy;

2. explain how heredity and environment interact to determine human
behaviour;
3. give the implication of the nature versus nurture debate on the
learning process;
4. explain how neurons convey electrochemical information throughout
the body;
5. discuss how the two major divisions of the peripheral nervous system
initiate bodily activity and regulate body functions;
6. identify the major structures of the brain and state their role in
behaviour; and
7. explain the role of hormones in human behaviour.

Introduction

In this chapter, we are going to look at the controversy that existed among psychologists
on how heredity and environment contribute to the differences in human behaviour. The
issue of how much of human behaviour is inherited and how much is acquired through
experience within the environment has been one of the greatest problems in psychology.
We shall also discuss the nervous system and see how it affects our behaviour. In our
discussion we shall examine the major divisions of the nervous system; the central
nervous system (CNS), which consists of the brain and spinal cord and the peripheral
nervous system (PNS), which consists of the nerves in the body outside the central
nervous system. We will also examine the endocrine system, which consists of glands
that help regulate our behaviour by secreting hormones, or chemicals into our blood
stream and have very high expectations of what people are capable of achieving. When
their expectations are not fulfilled they may feel discouraged and may blame children for
failing to do their best. An understanding of how heredity and environmental factors
interact to determine behaviour and how much our inherited potential can be realized can
help to solve this problem.

Behaviour is influenced by both heredity (nature) and environment (nurture). For a long
time in the history of psychology, psychologists have debated on the relative importance
of heredity and environment in determining our behaviour. The question they have tried
to answer is whether our behaviour is determined or decided upon by heredity or by
environment.

Genetic Influence

The influence of heredity on our behaviour cannot be overemphasized. At the moment

of conception, when the sperm unites with an ovum an incredible number of personal
features and developmental patterns are determined. The hereditary instructions are
transmitted through the chromosomes that contain thousands and thousands of genes,
which determine our inherited traits. Chromosomes are long chainlike structures
containing genes and are found in the nuclei of body cells.

The individual inherits 23 chromosomes from each parent. These chromosomes combine
to make a pair of 23, meaning that each single human cell will have a total of 46
chromosomes. The thousands and thousands of genes carried in each chromosome
determine the sequence of growth, timing of maturity, skin colour, hair colour, body size,
vulnerability to some diseases (e.g., sickle-cell anaemia and mental disorders), body
shape, height, intelligence, athletic potential, personality characteristics and other traits.
If you are more interested in the mechanisms of genetic inheritance you can read books
on developmental psychology. In this topic our concern is to show how hereditary and
environmental factors interact to influence our behaviour. Both heredity and environment
are important in determining behaviour and development. The two are inseparable. As
one grows, there is a constant interaction between the forces of nature and nurture.
Therefore, the total person is a product of heredity and environmental factors.

Heredity shapes behaviour and development by providing a framework of personal

potentials and limitations that are altered by environmental factors such as nutrition,
culture, disease, learning, parents, peers, home, school and so on. Environmental factors
determine how much of our inherited potentials or capacities will be realized. For
example, a child with a very high inherited academic potential will not achieve high grades
unless he or she is exposed to an ideal and conducive learning environment. The
observed academic achievement in this case may be far much below the child’s inherited
ability.

Environmental Influence

The influence of environment on behaviour and development begins immediately after

conception and continues until death. During prenatal (before birth) development a
number of factors can affect the foetus before it is born. The mother’s nutrition and
exposure to disease, drugs and radiation through x-ray can result to malformation of the
baby, low birth weight, mental retardation and other permanent effects.

After birth, the influence on behaviour and development includes a variety of

environmental factors such as the culture, peers, media, family, nutrition, parents,
disease, learning and school. In the early years of life, the most important influence
comes from an infant’s caretaker. Thus the quality of mothering is of prime importance
(Omulema & Sindabi, 1999).

Without the interaction of heredity and environment behaviour may not be manifested.
For example a child will not learn language unless he/she is exposed to a spoken
language. As one grows, there is a constant interaction or interplay between the forces
of nature and nurture. Our heredity does not change, but produces various physical
changes that occur throughout our life time.

The relative contribution of genetic and environmental factors differs from one trait to
another. A certain trait may be determined largely by heredity but not much by
environment and vice-versa. For example, genes contribute more to intelligence than
they do to other personality traits such as, attitudes, beliefs, prejudice, interest and values.
The real issue in understanding human behaviour and development is the question of
how heredity and environment interact or work together to produce our psychological
traits and developmental changes but not the percentage of contribution of each.

Today psychologists support an interactionist model or approach. From a military point

of view, the most important thing to learn is that many of our characteristics can be
influenced by the environment. Although there is little or nothing we can do about
heredity, much of the environment still remains under our control. Therefore, we should
try to improve the military environment for military personnel to realize their full potential
and perform to their best.

Studies on Heredity and Environment

(a) Studies on intelligence

Research findings on the contributions of heredity and environment have revealed the
following:
• Intelligence quotient (IQ) correlations between identical twins (who develop from
the same egg) are exceptionally high when raised together and slightly less when
raised in separate environments (Eysenck & Kamin, 1981). The slight variation
can be attributed to differences in their environment.
• IQ scores of fraternal twins (who like siblings develop from different eggs) are
correlated at about the same level as those of non-twin brothers and sisters.
• The more closely two people are genetically, the higher their IQ correlations.
• The correlation between the IQ scores of a child and its mother is the same as the
correlation between the IQ score of the child and its father.
• The IQ scores of adopted children show correlation with those of their biological
parents.
• The correlation between unrelated children reared in separate environments is
zero, whereas if the same set of children are brought up in the same environment
it rises to about 0.25.
 • The IQ scores of adopted children are more closely related to their biological
parents than their adoptive parents, who raised them (Bourchard, 1984). Table 1
shows various family relationships and correlation coefficients.

Table 1: Family relationships and correlation coefficients

Relationship Correlation Coefficient
• Identical twins reared together 0.75
• Identical twins reared apart 0.65
• Fraternal twins reared together 0.50
• Siblings reared together 0.20
• Biological parent and child, lived together 0.40
• Biological parent and child, lived apart 0.20
• Adoptive parent and child, lived together 0.15
• Adoptive siblings reared together 0.30
• Cousins reared apart 0.15

Adopted from Mwamwenda (1995)

Table 1 shows average correlations in IQ scores for people of various relationships as

obtained from studies of IQ similarity. Higher correlations indicate greater similarity.
Greater genetic similarity is associated with greater similarity in IQ, suggesting that
intelligence is partly inherited. Living together is associated with greater IQ similarity,
suggesting that intelligence is partly governed by the environment (Weiten, 1989).
Whenever there is more similarity in either or both environment and genetics, the IQ
correlation is fairly high.

As indicated earlier, it is not possible to determine how much of our intelligence is

contributed to by heredity or environment. The role of genes can only be realized in the
context of an environment and similarly, environment is irrelevant and of no consequence
without heredity.

(b) Studies in restricted environments

Institutionalized or children brought up in an orphanage tend to be retarded in skills such

as talking, speech and walking. This could be attributed to lack of maternal attention and
stimulation. If placed in a favourable environment, such children are able to overcome
the difficulties. Animals (e.g., dogs, rats etc) reared in restricted environment also fail to
manifest their heredity potential. When compared with animals raised in normal
environments, they are inferior in orientation tests, maze tests and emotional
development as well (Spitz, 1972).

The Nervous System

Why do psychologists study the nervous system? Psychologists study the nervous
system to understand how it affects behaviour. For example, the areas of your brain that
control speech are known. Physiology is an integral part of psychology. The kind of
behaviour of which a species is capable is determined partly by the kind of nervous
system it possesses. The human nervous system, especially the brain is highly
developed and more complex compared to that of other animals. Hence, human
behaviour is complex compared to that of other animals.

The nervous system is divided into two major divisions: central; constituting the brain and
spinal cord; and peripheral which includes nerves outside the central nervous system
serving muscles, glands and sensory receptors. Each of these systems is made up of
several components that contribute in one way or the other to behaviour. They initiate
bodily activity and regulate body functions.

The Neuron

This is the basic unit of the nervous system (a single nerve cell). Neurons transmit
information throughout the body as well as the brain. Each neuron receives and sends
signals to other neurons. All behaviour - everything you do, think or feel is a result of
neural activity. Your movement, thinking, heartbeat and so on depends on what happens
at the level of the neuron. A neuron has three basic features: dendrites, cell body and
an axon. Neurons in different parts of the nervous system may differ in size and shape
but they all have the three major parts.
The dendrites receive information from other neurons. Each neuron may have hundreds
or thousands of dendrites. The cell body, or soma has several functions;

• It integrates the electrical information coming from the dendrites.

• It absorbs needed nutrients.
• It produces the majority of protein molecules needed for normal functioning of the
cell.

The axon which is a tube like structure transmits neural information to axon terminals
(nerve endings). It is highly sensitive to changes in the electrical charge of its
membranes. If the electrical charge is sufficient, an action potential (an electrochemical
impulse) is initiated at the junction between the soma and the axon. This action potential
travels down and branches into the axon terminal buttons. These terminal buttons form
junctions with other neurons and with muscles, which in turn are activated by chemicals
released by the terminal buttons. While a neuron is a single cell consisting of the three
parts discussed, a nerve is a bundle of axons that have a similar function.

Neurons do not touch one another. They are separated by a gap between them known
as a synapse. When an action potential reaches the axon terminals, it causes
neurotransmitters to be released into the synaptic gap, the space between the two cells.
Neurotransmitters are chemicals (such as acetylcholine, histamine, and serotonin)
released from terminal buttons into the synaptic gap.

These chemicals cross the gap and stimulate/excite the presynaptic terminals of the next
cell which in turn releases an electrical charge or spark. The neurotransmitters may either
have excitatory or inhibitory effect on their target cells. Excitatory neurotransmitters
instruct the receiving neuron to fire or conduct an action potential. Inhibitory
neurotransmitters instruct the receiving neuron not to fire an action potential. Excitatory
neurotransmitters include acetylcholine, norepinephrine, serotonin and dopamine. An
example of an inhibitory neurotransmitter is endorphin that blocks neural signals
(Huffman, et al., 1995).

Figure 1: Structure of a Neuron

Psychoactive drugs (drugs that affect the nervous system like alcohol or caffeine) have
their effect by either increasing or decreasing the amount of neurotransmitters released
into the synapse. Drugs like alcohol and pain killers work by suppressing the release of
neurotransmitters or increasing the release of inhibitory neurotransmitters. Drugs like
caffeine and cocaine increases the amount of neurotransmitters in the synapse or directly
activates receptor sites on the dendrites – thus they have a stimulating effect on the
nervous system.

The nervous system is made up of millions of neurons, which make up the basic structural
units of the nervous system. About 80 percent of all neurons are found in the brain.

There are three types of neurons:

• Sensory neurons that carries information from the sense organs to the central
nervous system. They are also called afferent neurons.
• Connector neurons that are found within the spinal cord and the brain. They receive
information from the sensory neurons and send them to the brain for processing. They
are also referred to as interneurons.
• Motor neurons that carries information from the central nervous system to the
muscles or glands. They are also known as efferent. They receive messages from
 the brain and take them to the required sites like muscles. For any observable
response/behaviour, all the three types of neurons must be involved.

Peripheral Nervous System

The peripheral nervous system (PNS) connects the central nervous system to the rest of
the body. It includes all the nerves going to and from the brain and the spinal cord. It
serves to transmit neural impulses to and from the brain and the spinal cord. It consists
of two systems, the somatic and the autonomic nervous systems. The two divisions
work jointly with the CNS in carrying out their functions.

The somatic nervous system directs the movement of the skeletal muscles, which are
usually under our voluntary control. It regulates voluntary actions. For example, when
you move your hand when writing, the somatic nervous system sends neural impulses to
and from the brain with instructions for the skeletal muscles to contract or relax.

The autonomic nervous system controls the more automatic (self-regulating) bodily
functions such as heart rate, sweating and breathing, which are beyond our voluntary
control. It maintains homeostasis – the regulation of body balances necessary for
survival. It regulates the glands, heart muscles, muscles of the blood vessels, internal
organs and other involuntary responses.

The autonomic nervous system is made up of two systems, the parasympathetic and
the sympathetic nervous systems. These two tend to work in opposition to each other
in regulating the functioning of such organs as the heart, intestines and the lungs.

The parasympathetic nervous system is dominant when a persons is in a relaxed, non-

stressful physical and mental state. It slows the heart rate, lowers blood pressure, dilates
arteries, and increases digestive and eliminative processes. In short, it performs bodily
maintenance.

The sympathetic nervous system which is an emergency system takes over when a
person is under some type of stress, or some type of mental and physical strain. It stops
digestive and eliminative processes, increases blood pressure, respiration, heart rate and
causes several hormones to be released into the bloodstream. This happens to get more
oxygenated blood and glucose to the skeletal muscles, thus making a person able to deal
with the source of stress. In other words, it prepares the body to fight or flee from
whatever is causing the stress or anxiety. When you feel very tense and anxious when
taking a very important examination or being interviewed for a job, the sympathetic
nervous system is the one that would be responsible for such feelings. When the crisis
is settled, the parasympathetic division resumes control and the activity of the related
organs returns to their usual level.

Peripheral nervous system

(All nerves going to and from the CNS)
 Autonomic nervous system (Regulates
Somatic nervous system
(All nerves carrying sensory and bodily functions - automatic
motor information – voluntary)

Parasympathetic nervous Sympathetic nervous system

system (maintains basic bodily (Activates body to deal with
functions) stress)

Figure 2: Subdivisions of the Peripheral Nervous System

During combat, the sympathetic nervous system will be active and when the combat is
over and the threat from the enemy is no more, the parasympathetic division will take
over.

Table 2: The actions of the parasympathetic and sympathetic branches

of the Autonomic Nervous system
Parasympathetic Body system/organ Sympathetic
Pupil Dilates
Constricts
Stimulates salivation Salivary glands Decreases salivation
Constricts Blood vessels Dilates
Slows Heart Speeds
Constricts Airways in lungs Opens
Relaxes Hair Erects
Constricts Sweat glands Opens
Stomach Reduces contractions
Increase contractions
Bladder Relaxes
Contracts
Reproductive system Excites
Relaxes
In short, the function of the parasympathetic nervous system is to quiet the body and bring
it to a lower level of arousal whereas the function of the sympathetic nervous systems is
to generally activate the body.

The Central Nervous System

The central nervous system consists of the brain and the spinal cord. The brain is the
control centre for all voluntary behaviour (such as writing, computing and talking) and a
good part of involuntary behaviour (such as feeling embarrassed). The spinal cord
contains the structures responsible for reflex actions and the nerve fibres that link the
brain and other parts of the body.

(a) The Spinal Cord

It is the part of the nervous system found within the spinal column which is involved in
reflexes and the relay of neural information to and from the brain. It is involved in all the
voluntary and reflex responses of the body below the neck. A reflex is a simple, automatic
response integrated within the spinal cord such as a knee jerk.

The spinal cord has two major components, the grey matter and white matter. The grey
matter near the centre contains mainly cell bodies within which information is processed
within the spinal cord itself. The white matter is the outer layer of the spinal cord. Within
the white matter, axons transmit information to and from the brain. When damaged, all
muscles served by sections of the spinal cord below the damaged part will not function
normally and a person may be paralysed.

(b) The Brain

What are the major structures of the brain and what are their role in behaviour? As we
have seen, the brain is the control centre for the body. It controls what we do, think and
feel. The human brain is complex and highly developed as compared to that of other
animals. This accounts for the complicated nature of human behaviour. The major
divisions of the brain are the cerebrum, consisting of the cerebral cortex and sub cortical
areas, the cerebellum and the brain system.

(i) The Cerebral Cortex

The cerebral cortex makes the outside surface of the brain. It is the largest structure of
the brain and accounts for more than 70 percent of the neurons in the central nervous
system. It is composed of two hemispheres connected by a thick band of fibres called
Corpus callosum. The two sides control opposite sides of the body. The right half
mainly controls the left body areas. The left half mainly controls the right side of the body.
Each hemisphere is divided into four areas or lobes according to their general functions
and structures. The four areas are the frontal, parietal, occipital and temporal lobes (see
figure 3).
Parts of the Brain

The Frontal Lobes

The frontal lobes are located at the top front portion of the brain hemispheres. Their
functions include self-awareness, initiative and ability to plan ahead. At the back of the
frontal lobes lies the motor control area which controls all voluntary body movements.
For example, when you remove your pen from your bag, it is the motor control area of the
frontal lobes that guide your hand.

A specialized area in the left frontal lobe on the surface of the brain near the bottom of
the motor control area is the broca’s area, which controls the muscles used to produce
speech. The remaining part consists of association cortex that is believed to control
mental operations or complex psychological functions such as, thought, perception,
imagery, problem solving, emotions, memory, language and thinking (Luria, 1973, 1980).
The association areas organize and integrate sensory information received from other
brain areas to enable us to perform various functions.
The Parietal Lobes

The parietal lobes are located behind the frontal lobes. They control body sensations and
memory about the environment. Bodily sensations such as touch, pain, pressure and
temperature are channelled to the parietal lobes.

The Occipital Lobes

The occipital lobes are located at the back of the brain. They mainly control vision and
visual perceptions. When you are hit at the back of your head with your eyes closed you
will see stars or flashes of light. This is because the blow activates the nerve cells in the
occipital lobes. Damage or injury to this area can affect vision.

The Temporal Lobes

The temporal lobes are located on the sides of the brain. Their major functions are
auditory perception (hearing), language, memory and some emotional control. They are
also important in the formation of new concepts and memories. Damage to the temporal
lobes will cause impairment to the above functions.

(ii) Sub Cortical Brain Areas

The sub cortical brain areas are found in the centre of the brain and are surrounded by
the cerebral cortex. They include, the corpus callosum, thalamus, hypothalamus and a
group of structures collectively known as limbic system.

The corpus callosum connects the cerebral hemispheres and makes it possible for the
hemispheres to communicate or coordinate with each other. If this part is damaged, we
will have two brains that can function independently of each other, a conditions known as
split brain. In such a case, each hemisphere will have its own sensations, perceptions
and concepts. For example, if one sees or learns something with one eye and blindfolds
it and uses the other, the second eye will not recognize what was seen or learned.
However, in conflict one side overrides the other and therefore one will behave normally.

The thalamus is located below the corpus callosum and between the two hemispheres.
It serves as the major sensory relay centre for the brain. It receives input from nearly
all the sensory system, then projects this information to the respective or appropriate
areas of the brain. It sorts out and directs information from the sensory organs to specific
sensory and motor regions of the brain. The thalamus also plays a role in learning and
memory. If damaged, one would have problems in forming new memories.

The hypothalamus lies below the thalamus. Its major function is homeostasis, that is,
the regulation of the internal environment of the body. It controls blood temperature, the
concentration of salt and sugar in the blood, the concentration of hormones and other
chemicals in the body. It accomplishes this function through regulating the endocrine
system. For example, if it detects high levels of sugar in the blood, it will send signals to
the pancreas to produce insulin that will bring it down to the required level. It is a master
control centre for emotion and other basic motives. The hypothalamus controls
behaviours such as sexual response, rage, anger, eating and drinking, sleeping, waking
and emotion. If damaged, all these functions may be impaired. It is also a part of a group
of subcortical and cortical structures collectively known as limbic system.

The limbic system

The limbic system comprises of the hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, septum,

parts of the thalamus and parts of the frontal and temporal cortical lobes. It controls
emotional and motivated behaviour especially aggression, rage, fear, pleasure and other
intense arousals. Damage to this brain system will affect all these behaviours.

(iii) The Cerebellum

The cerebellum is located at the base of the brain. It regulates posture (maintenance of
balance when walking, riding, sitting etc.), muscular coordination and motor
activities/movements. The cerebellum makes our movements coordinated and smooth.
It also plays a role in some types of memory.

(iv) The Brain Stem

The brain stem consists of the pons, medulla and the reticular activating system. The
Pons is involved in functions such as respiration, movement, facial expression and sleep.
Figure 3: The Brain Stem

The Medulla is located at the bottom of the brain and at the top of the spinal cord. It
mainly controls automatic bodily functions such as breathing, heartbeat and swallowing.
Injury to the medulla can affect these functions and endanger life.

The Reticular activating system (RAS) which is also known as the Reticular formation
filters incoming information. It selectively attends to some information and ignores or
excludes unimportant sensory input. It is important for attention and arousal. This part
of the brain is also responsible for various degrees of alertness and wakefulness. If
damaged one can go into coma resembling sleep.

As you have seen in this topic, behaviour is a complex process that has its roots in the
interaction between heredity and environment and also the nervous and endocrine
systems. The more you learn about the influence of heredity and environment on
behaviour and the brain and nervous system the more you will understand why people
behave the way they do.

The Endocrine System

The endocrine system consists of several glands that release hormones into the blood
stream. The nervous system and the endocrine system work together to direct our
behaviour and maintain our body’s normal functioning. The nervous system activates the
endocrine system to secrete hormones which are passed into the blood stream which
circulates them throughout the body. These hormones affect behaviour and the nervous
system itself. These glands include the pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, gonads and the
pancreas.
(a) The Pituitary Gland

It is located at the base of the brain. One of the major hormones produced by the pituitary
gland is the growth hormone which controls the growth of the skeletal system. Too
much growth hormone produces gigantism and too little of it produces dwarfism. It
regulates the functioning of the other glands (especially the thyroid, adrenal glands and
the gonads). It functions mostly under the control of the hypothalamus, to which it is
attached. In women, it controls the production of milk. The pituitary gland is also called
the master gland because of its many effects on other glands.

(b) The Thyroid Gland

The thyroid gland is located in the neck region. It produces thyroxin hormone, which
controls metabolism rate of the body (i.e., the rate at which energy is produced and
expended). As a result, it has an effect on personality. A person with an overactive
thyroid (termed hyperthyroidism) tends to be thin, tense, excitable and nervous. An
under active thyroid (termed hypothyroidism) can cause inactivity, sleepiness, slowness
and overweight among adults. In infancy, hypothyroidism limits development of the
nervous system and can cause mental retardation. Deficiency of iodine which is part of
the thyroxin hormone causes goitre which is the swelling of the thyroid gland.

(c) The Adrenal Gland

The adrenal glands are located at the upper end of the kidneys. They are always two,
with an inner core/layer called adrenal medulla and an outer layer called adrenal cortex.

The adrenal medulla is the source of adrenaline, which helps the body to perform in
emergencies by increasing heart rate, permitting the flow of sugar and oxygen etc. It also
influences emotional behaviours such as crying and aggression.

The adrenal cortex produces hormones called corticoids whose function is to regulate
salt balance in the body and helps the body to adjust to stress. The adrenal cortex is also
a secondary source of sex hormones.

(d) The Gonads

The gonads are the testes and ovaries. They play a key role in sexual behaviour. They
produce gametes (sperms and ovum). Among other hormones the ovaries produce
oestrogen which influences sex drive, development of secondary sexual characteristics
(e.g., the development of breasts and pubic hair) and ovulation. One of the major male
hormones is testosterone which influences sex drive, development of secondary sexual
characteristics (e.g., the development of beards and deep voice). The hormones
produced by the gonads contribute to the physical and psychological development during
the onset of adolescence and continues to influence sexual responsiveness throughout
adulthood.

(e) The Pancreas

The pancreas secretes insulin – a hormone that controls the amount of sugar circulating
in the blood. If little insulin is produced, there will be more sugar freed from the liver and
vice versa. Diabetes results due to non-insulin production. This affects brain functioning
which utilizes about ¼ of the sugar in the body.

In conclusion, you have seen how behaviour and personality among other body functions
are tied to the flow of hormones in the blood which are produced by the endocrine system.