Family Business Heterogeneity in Latin

America: A Historical Perspective 1st

Edition Claudio G. Müller
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmass.com/product/family-business-heterogeneity-in-latin-america-a-histo
rical-perspective-1st-edition-claudio-g-muller/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Family Business in China, Volume 1: A Historical

Perspective 1st ed. Edition Ling Chen

https://ebookmass.com/product/family-business-in-china-
volume-1-a-historical-perspective-1st-ed-edition-ling-chen/

Universal Basic Income in Historical Perspective 1st

Edition Peter Sloman

https://ebookmass.com/product/universal-basic-income-in-
historical-perspective-1st-edition-peter-sloman/

Resisting Violence: Emotional Communities in Latin

America 1st Edition Morna Macleod

https://ebookmass.com/product/resisting-violence-emotional-
communities-in-latin-america-1st-edition-morna-macleod/

Gun Control Policies in Latin America 1st ed. Edition

Diego Sanjurjo

https://ebookmass.com/product/gun-control-policies-in-latin-
america-1st-ed-edition-diego-sanjurjo/
John Foxe : An Historical Perspective 1st Edition David
Loades

https://ebookmass.com/product/john-foxe-an-historical-
perspective-1st-edition-david-loades/

Lived Religion in Latin America Gustavo Morello

https://ebookmass.com/product/lived-religion-in-latin-america-
gustavo-morello/

Family Firms and Business Families in Cross-Cultural

Perspective: Bringing Anthropology Back In Tobias
Koellner

https://ebookmass.com/product/family-firms-and-business-families-
in-cross-cultural-perspective-bringing-anthropology-back-in-
tobias-koellner/

The Right Against RIghts in Latin America Leigh A.

Payne (Ed.)

https://ebookmass.com/product/the-right-against-rights-in-latin-
america-leigh-a-payne-ed/

Financial Deregulation: A Historical Perspective Alexis

Drach

https://ebookmass.com/product/financial-deregulation-a-
historical-perspective-alexis-drach/
PALGRAVE STUDIES IN
FAMILY BUSINESS HETEROGENEITY
SERIES EDITORS: ESRA MEMILI · ERICK P. C. CHANG

Family Business
Heterogeneity in
Latin America
A Historical
Perspective
Claudio G. Müller · Fernando Sandoval-Arzaga
Palgrave Studies in Family Business Heterogeneity

Series Editors
Esra Memili, University of North Carolina at Greensboro,
Greensboro, NC, USA
Erick P. C. Chang, Griffin College of Business, Arkansas
State University, Jonesboro, AR, USA
Contemporary family business research has been moving from high-
lighting the differences between family and non-family firms to the
differences among family firms owing to the financial and non-financial
dynamics that influences the strategic decisions and family firm actions.
While a prominent stream of research draws attention to financial and
non-financial goals (such as socioemotional wealth preservation) and
other factors, we still do not know enough about such idiosyncrasies.
This series will take a closer look at both financial and non-financial
family firm idiosyncrasies across the globe and consider the ecosystem
(i.e., regulatory framework, values, culture, access to finance, markets,
R&D, and technology), and other national and economic conditions
that allow the operations and presence of family firms.
Editors
Esra Memili, UNC Greensboro
Erick P. C. Chang, Arkansas State

Editorial Board
Ernesto J. Poza, Arizona State University
Carol B. Wittmeyer, St. Bonaventure University
Jim Cater, University of Texas at Tyler

More information about this series at

http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/16464
 Claudio G. Müller ·
Fernando Sandoval-Arzaga

Family Business
Heterogeneity
in Latin America
A Historical Perspective
Claudio G. Müller Fernando Sandoval-Arzaga
School of Economics and Business Tecnologico de Monterrey
University of Chile Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico
Santiago, Chile

ISSN 2662-6055 ISSN 2662-6063 (electronic)

Palgrave Studies in Family Business Heterogeneity
ISBN 978-3-030-78930-5 ISBN 978-3-030-78931-2 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78931-2

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2021
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher,
whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting,
reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical
way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software,
or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt
from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained
herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with
regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
 Series Editors’ Preface

A prominent stream of research has been drawing attention to the differ-

ences among family firms in terms of governance, financial and non-
financial dynamics, and strategies. Using the extant research to date that
includes the Palgrave Handbook of Heterogeneity among Family Firms as
a point of departure, it is our distinct pleasure and honor to present the
Palgrave Studies in Family Business Heterogeneity.
Our inaugural book focuses on the evolution of family firms
throughout the Latin American region. Indeed, family firms interact
with and are substantially influenced by their external environment (i.e.,
country and regional contexts). In turn, family firms also influence their
external environment encompassing formal (e.g. economic, legal, and
political) and informal institutions (e.g. norms, values, beliefs, and atti-
tudes). Hence, in family firms, the decision to start a business and then
venture management are led by both individual characteristics of firms
and owners as well as the external environment in which firms operate.
Claudio Muller and Fernando Sandoval-Arzaga provide a histor-
ical perspective on more than five centuries of institutional changes
and resource combinations that have paved the way for multiple

v
vi Series Editors’ Preface

entrepreneurial families to start and manage businesses with different

scopes and goals shaped by regional forces in Latin America. In different
sections of the book, the authors illustrate four distinctive waves where
traditions have been transmitted over generations to develop a unique
type of social capital that is highly idiosyncratic to the Latin American
region. From the earlier entrepreneurs who arrived from Europe to seize
the vast opportunities in the “New World” to the migration flows from
other continents, each wave nurtures and blends with the next one to
enrich it and endows family businesses the melting pot of which Latin
American society represents today.
The primary enlightening aspect of the book is the diversity and
different challenges each family business has endured over generations.
The authors proficiently guide the readers about the emergence of a
highly heterogeneous group of industry sectors through the integration of
pre-Columbian products and services with the Western European tech-
nology which are endowed with traditions and familiness to make them
competitive on a global scale.
We expect family business scholars and practitioners in general to find
this book highly useful for gaining more understanding about the unique
culturally rich region.

Esra Memili
Erick P. C. Chang
 Acknowledgments

We would like to acknowledge and thank the eight families that inspired
us in the writing of this book. Without their stories of legacy and
entrepreneurship this book would not have had the practical vision we
wanted to capture. Many of these families have origins dating back
almost to the colonial period and other success stories are a bit more
current, but no less important.
In addition, we would like to thank those with whom we have
discussed the heterogeneity of family businesses in Latin America,
some friends and colleagues who come from different sciences, such as
anthropologists, historians, communication theorists and sociologists…
without their valuable contributions we would not have been able to
finish this text.
Likewise, we would like to acknowledge Esra Memili and Erick Chang
for inviting and motivating us to be part of this Palgrave Studies in
Family Business Heterogeneity series, but above all for their wise advice
that helped us to improve the quality and rigor of this text, which we
hope will be a contribution to family business research. We would also
like to acknowledge the assistance and support of Marcus Ballenger and

vii
viii Acknowledgments

his team at Palgrave Macmillan, who allowed us to move this work

forward diligently to see the book through from idea to publication.
Finally, we would like to thank our families, because we stole their
time during this pandemic: Ivonne, Rai, and Ame as well as Guille, Fer,
and Guillo. For us this is the biggest family business.
Praise for Family Business Heterogeneity in
Latin America

“Family businesses in Latin America carry a series of stereotypes and one

of them is that they are all small. This book introduces us to Latin Amer-
ican family businesses and the social and economic impacts far beyond
the families that have owned and operated them. The heterogeneity of
family businesses in Latin America forces us to study the importance of
Latin America as a global player, but especially the fundamental role that
family businesses in this region have played in the economic development
of their countries during the last 500 years.”
—Alfredo De Massis, Professor of Entrepreneurship & Family Business,
Free University of Bolzano, Italy; Lancaster University,
United Kingdom and IMD, Switzerland

“This important work gives us an opportunity to discover the origin of

the admirably successful family legacies emerging from Latin America.
Recognizing their history and culture and how these have evolved and
shaped their present identities is key to realizing the important roles they
are to play in the future of their countries. Acknowledging heterogeneity
as alternately a source of adversity and a competitive advantage, the

ix
x Praise for Family Business Heterogeneity in Latin America

authors are taking us on a journey through time and are demonstrating

the powerful role of multigenerational family enterprises in shaping Latin
America’s economies.”
—Ramia El Agamy, Editor-in-Chief of Tharawat Magazine,
Host of The Family Business Voice

“Family Business Heterogeneity in Latin America is the book we have

been needing, but not just for Latin America! Muller and Sandoval-
Arzaga have done what we should all have been doing in studying fami-
lies in business—They have documented how the larger social, legal,
economic environments impact the formation and growth of family
enterprises. All too often we treat these cases as though only the family
and the business and perhaps the competition determine behavior. I hope
scholars learn the lessons this book has to offer.”
—Frank Hoy, Beswick Professor of Innovation and Entrepreneurship,
Foisie Business School, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, USA

“In this new book, professors Claudio Muller and Fernando Sandoval-
Arzaga provide a much-needed in-depth investigation of the different
types of family businesses that exist across Latin America. The particu-
larly unique, and extremely valuable, historical approach that Muller and
Sandoval-Arzaga offer open up many new paths through which we can
better understand the role and importance of family businesses in this
region of the world. The different chapters offer a plethora of perspec-
tives that cast new light on how and why family businesses have played,
and still play, a crucial role in the emergence and development of the
economies in most Latin American countries. The book offers an excel-
lent combination of history, theory and practical case studies that will
make it valuable for scholars, students, and practitioners alike. I highly
recommend this unique and ambitions book to anyone who has an
interest in entrepreneurship, business history and family business in a
Latin American context.”
—Professor Mattias Nordqvist, House of Innovation.
Stockholm School of Economics, Sweden
 Praise for Family Business Heterogeneity in Latin America xi

“With over 7 million families of Italian descent in Argentina and the

largest Japanese diaspora in Sao Paolo, Brazil outside of Japan, Latin
America is a mosaic of varied cultures and communities that makes
each region within the continent unique. Authors of this must-read
book are to be complemented for bringing to life migratory flows and
idiosyncratic fascinating journeys of families featured in it! A delightful
thought-provoking reading!”
—Pramodita Sharma, Schlesinger Grossman Chair of Family Business,
Grossman School of Business, University of Vermont, USA
 Contents

1 Introduction 1
References 7
2 Theoretical Perspectives on Heterogeneity in Latin
American Family Businesses 9
2.1 Theoretical Perspectives 11
2.2 Identity Theory for n-Culturals 13
2.3 Lee’s Theory 14
2.4 Internal Social Capital 15
2.5 Resource-Based View 16
2.6 Theory of Institutional Change 17
2.7 The Theory of Uncertainty and Profit 18
2.8 Schumpeter’s Theory of Economic Development 19
References 20
3 The Syncretism (The First Wave): The First Family
Business in the Region 25
3.1 The Notion of the Latin American Concept 26
3.2 The Origin of the Latin American Economy 28

xiii
xiv Contents

3.2.1 Pre-Columbian Economy 28

3.2.2 Colonial Economy 32
3.3 The Cultural Heritage of the Oldest Family
Business in Latin America 35
3.4 Case Studies 38
3.4.1 Grupo Cuervo 38
3.4.2 Hacienda Los Lingues 40
3.5 Conclusions 41
References 45
4 First Migration Flows (the Second Wave): A New
Culture of Family Businesses 49
4.1 The Migration Flows 50
4.1.1 Migration from Spain and Portugal 53
4.1.2 Other European Regions 53
4.1.3 Central Europe, Eastern Europe,
and the Middle East 54
4.1.4 Africa and Asia 55
4.2 From the Diaspora to the Enclave 57
4.3 Migrant Family Businesses and Their Social Capital 58
4.4 Next Generations: First Economic Groups
of Migrant Families 59
4.5 Case Studies 62
4.5.1 Dimare Family, Rusti Company—Argentina 62
4.5.2 Nishimura Family, Jacto—Brazil 65
4.6 Chapter Summary 68
References 69
5 The Emergence of the Family Group (the Third Wave):
From State-Owned Companies to Large Family Groups 71
5.1 Latin American Institutional Environment 72
5.2 From State-Owned Companies to Large Family
Groups 77
5.3 Family Business Group Diversity 81
5.4 Latin American Multinational Family Business 84
5.5 Case Studies 90
5.5.1 Carvajal Group—Colombia 90
 Contents xv

5.5.2 Carso Group—Mexico 92

5.6 Chapter Summary 94
References 95
6 The New Wave of Global Family Entrepreneurs
(the Fourth Wave) 99
6.1 Family Entrepreneurship: The Key to Generational
Continuity 100
6.2 The Takeoff of Family Entrepreneurship in Latin
America 103
6.2.1 Social and Technological Megatrends 103
6.2.2 The New Generation of Entrepreneurs 107
6.2.3 Learning to Be an Entrepreneur Inside
the Business Family 110
6.3 The Challenges of Latin American Entrepreneurial
Families: Balance and Dualities 115
6.4 Case Studies 117
6.4.1 Fernando Fischmann: Crystal Lagoons 117
6.4.2 Rene Freudenberg: Interlub 119
6.5 Chapter Summary 121
References 122
7 Conclusions, Lessons Learned, and New Avenues
for Further Research 125
7.1 A Summary of the Characteristics of Each Wave 126
7.1.1 First Wave—“The Syncretism” 126
7.1.2 Second Wave—First Migration Flows 127
7.1.3 The Third Wave: Mapping the Formation
of the Family Group 128
7.1.4 The Fourth Wave: The New Wave of Global
Family Entrepreneurs 130
7.2 Explanatory Tables and Quadrants 131
7.3 Lessons Learned 138
7.4 Limitations and Further Research 141
References 144

Index 145
 List of Figures

Fig. 4.1 Ethnic composition in Latin America (Source Adapted

from Peloso [2014]) 51
Fig. 5.1 Net entrepreneurship rate (Source Compiled
by authors with data from World Bank, World
Intellectual Property Organization and World
Economic Forum, and Transparency International
[2017–2019]) 76
Fig. 6.1 GUESSS 2018 Survey (Source GUESSS 2018 Survey) 108
Fig. 7.1 The four waves, sources of heterogeneity 131
Fig. 7.2 The heterogeneity of Latin American family businesses 132
Fig. 7.3 The heterogeneity of Grupo Cuervo 133

Matrix 7.1 Impact quadrant. Social capital and cultural heritage 134
Matrix 7.2 Large urban centers and developed pre-Columbian
economy 135
Matrix 7.3 Migration flows and institutional quality 136
Matrix 7.4 Number of multinational companies and family
economic groups 136
Matrix 7.5 Ambidextrous organization and innovation (Source
Adapted from Latin American STEP Report 2019) 137

xvii
 List of Tables

Table 2.1 Theoretical approaches to the study of heterogeneity

in family businesses in Latin America 12
Table 5.1 Ranking of net entrepreneurship in Latin America 75
Table 6.1 Comparison of Latin American countries 103

xix
 1
Introduction

Latin America is a region of marked contrasts with different and varied

economic, cultural, and political developments since the original peoples
of the region and up to the very moment of its discovery and subse-
quent colonization process in 1492. With a population of more than 641
million inhabitants in 20181 (World Bank, 2020), the region represents
about 13% of the world’s land area. Its people share not only the majority
Spanish language—with the exception of Brazil, where the language is
Portuguese—and the Catholic Christian religion, but also the fact that
many Migration flows have shaped different societies and countries in
the region (Meade, 2016).
The promise of economic wealth in this land, initially called West
Indies, motivated the arrival of millions of people from different regions
of the world, especially across the Atlantic Ocean, which later gave way
to the Conquest of America. This first period of extraction of gold, silver,
and other precious metals led to a more permanent settlement of the first

1 https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 1

Switzerland AG 2021
C. G. Müller and F. Sandoval-Arzaga, Family Business Heterogeneity
in Latin America, Palgrave Studies in Family Business Heterogeneity,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78931-2_1
2 C. G. Müller and F. Sandoval-Arzaga

settlers who saw this land as a new home. Huge Migration flows brought
life to this region during its first 200 years.
Referring to the different movements to gain independence from
Spain and Portugal, the colonial legacy was succeeded by the different
independence processes of the Kingdom of Portugal and the Spanish
Crown. Each of the different colonies began, in a singular way, to create
a local society. By the middle of the eighteenth century, the centralized
bureaucratic control that characterized Latin America bore its first fruits
of emancipation.
The end of colonial domination marked the beginning of large
commercial monopolies in Latin America. This coincided with a period
of acute crisis of social revolutions and massive processes of social mobi-
lization. In almost all countries, wars were prolonged, marking the life
of the new rising states in Latin America (Bértola & Ocampo, 2012).
This implied an almost natural selection of those families that were closer
to the Viceroyalty system—responsible for administering and governing,
on behalf of the Monarchies, a country or a province in America—, a
system inherited from colonialism, and that later managed to adapt to
the installation of the new independent republics that were created after
1810.
Along with the dynamics of Independence, nationalism, and the
search for one’s own identity, was nuanced by the different migration
flows that converged during more than 200 years. One of these flows was
the arrival of more than 12 million Africans across the Atlantic between
1492 and the mid-nineteenth century, which exceeded by four times the
number of migrants arriving from Europe. This represents the largest
mass movement of people in human history (Crawford & Campbell,
2012).
Another example is the arrival of migrants, who in many regions came
to represent 35% of the population, as in the case of Uruguay at the
end of the nineteenth century and 30% of the population of Argentina
in a similar period. In sum, migrants and their descendants came to
represent more than 70% of the entire population in South America.
Given their demographic weight, they also had an enormous impact
on the configuration of popular culture in the region. They diversi-
fied meat consumption and turned foods such as pasta and wine into
 1 Introduction 3

national staples. They also introduced sports and leisure activities such
as handball, polo, and soccer.
As these new societies formed, there was a convergence of both
economic and political power, which was cradled for new family busi-
nesses in the region (Gomez-Mejia et al., 2020; Rautiainen et al., 2019).
This mix resulted in a particular and unique family and organizational
culture based on the new institutional conditions, providing abundant
differences across the region.
From a macro perspective, Douglass North, with his Theory of Insti-
tutional Change (North, 1990), presents some principles that help to
understand the legal and institutional factors that have affected this
region and to understand that each society creates restrictions that
limit political, economic, and social interactions. These include informal
constraints, such as sanctions, customs, traditions, and codes of conduct,
as well as formal rules: constitutions, laws, and property rights. Over the
course of Latin American history, institutions evolved to create order and
reduce market uncertainty. The diversity from the birth and founding of
Latin American societies was also successful because of the way govern-
ments were creating and promoting their own rules of the game. The
first families assimilated these rules of the game and adapted to the new
conditions, particularly customs, traditions, and codes of conduct that
were passed on from generation to generation.
Heterogeneity implies that firms have different resources and capa-
bilities, and even that, with similar resources, they perform differently.
The idiosyncratic variety of resources found in family businesses repre-
sents a vital determinant of their heterogeneity (Chua et al., 2012).
Family business can develop unique competitive advantages due to the
distinct resources that arise from family involvement and the develop-
ment of social capital, survival capital, patient capital, and human capital
(Habbershon & Williams, 1999).
Particularly social capital (Arregle et al., 2007) is identified as a
competitive advantage for family businesses because it is the social capital
of the family that is embedded in the social capital of the firm. In this
way, the family’s social capital was formed generation after generation.
Like other forms of capital, social capital constitutes a form of accu-
mulated history that reflects investments in social relations and social
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Mouth in front of the snout. Eye lateral, of moderate size. Teeth in
villiform bands, sometimes with the addition of canines; no molars or
incisor-like teeth in the jaws; palate toothless. Præoperculum
unarmed, and without bony stay. Ventrals thoracic, with one spine
and five soft rays. Bones of the head with wide muciferous channels.
Stomach coecal. Air-bladder frequently with numerous appendages
(see pp. 144 and seq.)
The fishes of the “Meagre” family are chiefly coast-fishes of the
tropical and sub-tropical Atlantic and Indian Oceans, preferring the
neighbourhood of the mouths of large rivers, into which they freely
enter, some of the species having become so completely naturalised
in fresh water that they are never found nowadays in the sea. Some
of the larger species wander far from their original home, and are not
rarely found at distant localities as occasional visitors. In the Pacific
and on the coast of Australia, where but a few large rivers enter the
ocean, they are extremely rare and, in the Red Sea, they are absent.
Many attain a large size, and almost all are eaten.
No fossil species have been as yet discovered.
Pogonias.—Snout convex, with the upper jaw overlapping the
lower. Mandible with numerous small barbels. No canines. The first
dorsal with ten stout spines. Two anal spines, the second very strong.
Scales of moderate size.
To this fish (P. chromis) more especially is given the name of
“Drum,” from the extraordinary sounds which are produced by it and
other allied Sciænoids. These sounds are better expressed by the
word drumming than by any other, and are frequently noticed by
persons in vessels lying at anchor on the coasts of the United
States, where those fishes abound. It is still a matter of uncertainty
by what means the “Drum” produces the sounds. Some naturalists
believe that it is caused by the clapping together of the pharyngeal
teeth, which are very large molar teeth. However, if it be true that the
sounds are accompanied by a tremulous motion of the vessel, it
seems more probable that they are produced by the fishes beating
their tails against the bottom of the vessel in order to get rid of the
parasites with which that part of their body is infested. The “Drum”
attains to a length of more than four feet, and to a weight exceeding
a hundred lbs. Its air-bladder has been figured on p. 146.
Micropogon is closely allied to Pogonias, but has conical
pharyngeal teeth. Two species from the western parts of the Atlantic.

Fig. 187.—Pharyngeal bones

and teeth of Pogonias chromis.
A, Upper; B, Lower pharyngeals.
Umbrina.—Snout convex, with the upper jaw overlapping the
lower; a short barbel under the symphysis of the mandible. The first
dorsal with nine or ten flexible spines, the anal with one or two. Scales
of moderate size.
 Fig. 188.—Umbrina nasus, from Panama.
Twenty species are known from the Mediterranean, Atlantic, and
Indian Ocean. One well known to the ancients, under the name of
Umbra, is the Umbrina cirrhosa of the Mediterranean, the “Umbrine”
or “Ombre” of the French, and the “Corvo” of the Italians. It ranges to
the Cape of Good Hope, and attains a length of three feet. Also on
the coasts of the United States several species occur, as U. alburna,
U. nebulosa, etc.

Fig. 189.—Umbrina nasus, from Panama.

 Sciæna (including Corvina).—The upper jaw overlapping the
lower, or both jaws equal in front. Interorbital space moderately broad
and slightly convex. Cleft of the mouth horizontal or slightly oblique.
The outer series of teeth is generally composed of teeth larger than
the rest, but there are no canines. Eye of moderate size, barbel none.

Fig. 190.—Sciæna richardsonii.

Some fifty species are known, but their distinctive characters
have been but imperfectly pointed out. They are found in all the seas
and rivers in which Sciænoids generally occur, and many are entirely
confined to fresh water, for instance the species figured, Sciæna
richardsonii, from Lake Huron; Sc. amazonica; Sc. obliqua, ocellata,
oscula, etc., from fresh waters of the United States. Sciæna
diacanthus and Sc. coitor belong to the most common fishes of the
coasts of the East Indies, ascending the great rivers for a long
distance from the sea. One of the European species, Sciæna aquila,
has an extremely wide range; it not rarely reaches the British coasts,
where it is known as “Meagre,” and has been found at the Cape of
Good Hope and on the coast of southern Australia. Like some of the
other species it attains to a length of six feet, but the majority of the
species of this genus remain within smaller dimensions. A part of the
species have the second anal ray very strong, and have been placed
into a distinct genus, Corvina,—thus, among others, Sc. nigra from
the Mediterranean, and Sc. richardsonii.
 Pachyurus is closely allied to Sciæna, but has the vertical fins
densely covered with small scales.
Otolithus.—Snout obtuse or somewhat pointed, with the lower
jaw longer. The first dorsal with nine or ten feeble spines. Canine teeth
more or less distinct. Præoperculum denticulated. Scales of moderate
or small size.
About twenty species are known from the tropical and sub-
tropical parts of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. The air-bladder is
figured on p. 144.
Ancylodon differs from Otolithus in having very long arrow-
shaped or lanceolate canine teeth. Coasts of tropical America.
Collichthys.—Body elongate; head very broad, with the upper
surface very convex; cleft of the mouth wide and oblique; no large
canines. Eye small. No barbel. Scales small, or of moderate size. The
second dorsal very long, caudal pointed.
Three species from the East Indian and Chinese coasts. The
great development of the muciferous system on the head and the
small eye leads one to suppose that these fishes live in muddy water
near the mouths of large rivers. The air-bladder has been described
on p. 144.
Other genera belonging to this family are Larimus, Eques, Nebris,
and Lonchurus.

Fig. 191.—Histiophorus pulchellus.

 Sixth Division—Acanthopterygii Xiphiiformes.
The upper jaw is produced into a long cuneiform weapon.
These fishes form one small family only, Xiphiidæ.
The “Sword-fishes” are pelagic fishes, occurring in all tropical and
sub-tropical seas. Generally found in the open ocean, always
vigilant, and endowed with extraordinary strength and velocity, they
are but rarely captured, and still more rarely preserved. The species
found in the Indian and Pacific Oceans belong to the genus
Histiophorus, distinguished from the common Mediterranean Sword-
fish, or Xiphias, by the presence of ventral fins, which, however, are
reduced to two long styliform appendages. The distinction of the
species is beset with great difficulties, owing to the circumstance that
but few examples exist in museums, and further, because the form of
the dorsal fin, the length of the ventrals, the shape and length of the
sword, appear to change according to the age of the individuals.
Some specimens or species have only the anterior dorsal rays
elevated, the remainder of the fin being very low, whilst in others all
the rays are exceedingly elongate, so that the fin, when erected,
projects beyond the surface of the water. It is stated that Sword-
fishes, when quietly floating with the dorsal fin erect, can sail before
the wind, like a boat.
Sword-fishes are the largest of Acanthopterygians, and not
exceeded in size by any other Teleostean; they attain to a length of
from 12 to 15 feet, and swords have been obtained more than three
feet long, and with a diameter of at least three inches at the base.
The sword is formed by the prolongation and coalescence of the
maxillary and intermaxillary bones; it is rough at its lower surface,
owing to the development of rudimentary villiform teeth, very hard
and strong, and forms a most formidable weapon. Sword-fishes
never hesitate to attack whales and other large Cetaceans, and by
repeatedly stabbing these animals generally retire from the combat
victorious. The cause which excites them to those attacks is
unknown; but they follow this instinct so blindly that they not rarely
attack boats or large vessels in a similar manner, evidently mistaking
them for Cetaceans. Sometimes they actually succeed in piercing
the bottom of a ship, endangering its safety; but as they are unable
to execute powerful backward movements they cannot always
retract their sword, which is broken off by the exertions of the fish to
free itself. A piece of a two-inch plank of a whale-boat, thus pierced
by a sword-fish, in which the broken sword still remains, is preserved
in the British Museum.
The Rev. Wyatt Gill, who has worked as a missionary for many
years in the South Sea Islands, communicates that young Sword-
fishes are easily caught in strong nets, but no net is strong enough to
hold a fish of six feet in length. Specimens of that size are now and
then captured by hook and line, a small fish being used as bait.
Individuals with the sword broken off are not rarely observed. Larger
specimens cannot be captured by the natives, who are in great fear
of them. They easily pierce their canoes, and only too often
dangerously wound persons sitting in them.
The Mediterranean Sword-fish is constantly caught in the nets of
the Tunny-fishers off the coast of Sicily, and brought to market,
where its flesh sells as well as that of the Tunny.
The remarkable changes which Sword-fishes undergo at an early
stage of their growth have been noticed above, p. 173 and seq.
Sword-fishes are as old a type as the Berycoids. Their remains
have been found in the chalk of Lewes, and more frequently in the
London clay of Sheppy, where an extinct genus, Coelorhynchus, has
been recognised.

Seventh Division—Acanthopterygii Trichiuriformes.

Body elongate, compressed or band-like; cleft of the mouth wide,
with several strong teeth in the jaws or on the palate. The spinous
and soft portions of the dorsal fin and the anal are of nearly equal
extent, long, many-rayed, sometimes terminating in finlets; caudal fin
forked, if present.

Family—Trichiuridæ.
 Marine fishes inhabiting the tropical and sub-tropical seas; some
of them are surface-fishes, living in the vicinity of the coast, whilst
others descend to moderate depths, as the Berycoids. All are
powerful rapacious fishes, as is indicated by their dentition.
The oldest of the extinct genera are Enchodus and Anenchelum;
they were formerly referred to the Scombroids, but belong to this
family. The former has been found in the chalk of Lewes and
Mæstricht; the latter is abundant in the Eocene schists of Glaris.
Anenchelum is much elongate, and exhibits in the slender structure
of its bones the characteristics of a deep-sea fish; it resembles much
Lepidopus, but has some long rays in the ventrals. Other Eocene
genera are Nemopteryx and Xiphopterus. In the Miocene of Licata in
Sicily Trichiuridæ are well represented, viz. by a species of
Lepidopus, and by two genera, Hemithyrsites and Trichiurichthys,
which are allied to Thyrsites and Trichiurus, but covered with scales.
The following is a complete list of the genera referred to this
family:—
Nealotus.—Body incompletely clothed with delicate scales. Small
teeth in the jaws and on the palatine bones; none on the vomer. Two
dorsal fins, the first continuous and extending to the second; finlets
behind the second and anal fins. Each ventral fin represented by a
single small spine. A dagger-shaped spine behind the vent. Caudal fin
well developed.
One specimen only of this fish (N. tripes), 10 inches long, has
been obtained off Madeira; it evidently lives at a considerable depth,
and comes to the surface only by accident.
Nesiarchus.—Body covered with small scales. Several strong
fangs in the jaws; no teeth on the palate. First dorsal not extending to
the second. No detached finlets. Ventrals small, but perfectly
developed, thoracic. Caudal fin present. A dagger-shaped spine
behind the vent.
A rather large fish (N. nasutus), very rarely found in the sea off
Madeira. The two or three specimens found hitherto measure from
three to four feet in length. Probably living at the same depth as the
preceding genus.
 Aphanopus.—Scales none. Two very long dorsal fins; caudal well
developed; ventrals none. A strong dagger-shaped spine behind the
vent. Strong teeth in the jaws; none on the palate.
One species only is known, named A. carbo from its coal-black
colour; it is evidently a deep-sea fish, very rarely obtained in the sea
off Madeira. Upwards of four feet long.
Euoxymetopon.—Body naked, very long and thin. Profile of the
head regularly decurved from the nape to the snout, the occiput and
forehead being elevated and trenchant. Jaws with fangs; palatine
teeth present. One dorsal only, continued from the head to the caudal
fin, which is distinct. A dagger-shaped spine behind the vent. Pectoral
fins inserted almost horizontally, with the lowest rays longest, and with
the posterior border emarginate. Ventral fins rudimentary, scale-like.
This is another deep-sea form of this family, but, at present, no
observations have been made as regards the exact depth at which it
occurs. A specimen has been known since the year 1812; it was
found on the coast of Scotland, and described as Trichiurus lepturus.
The same species has been re-discovered in the West Indies,
where, however, it is also extremely scarce.
Lepidopus.—Body band-like; one single dorsal extends along the
whole length of the back; caudal well developed. Ventrals reduced to
a pair of scales. Scales none. Several fangs in the jaws; teeth on the
palatine bones.
 Fig. 192.—Lepidopus caudatus.
The Scabbard-fish (L. caudatus) is rather common in the
Mediterranean and warmer parts of the Atlantic, extending
northwards to the south coast of England, where it is an occasional
visitor, and southwards to the Cape of Good Hope. More recently it
has been observed on the coasts of Tasmania and New Zealand.
We may, therefore, justly consider it to be a deep-sea fish, which
probably descends to the same depth as the preceding allied forms.
It grows to a length of five or six feet, but its body is so much
compressed that it does not weigh more than as many pounds. It is
well known in New Zealand, where it is called “Frost-fish,” and
esteemed as the most delicious fish of the colony. A still more
attenuated species (L. tenuis) occurs in the sea off Japan, at a depth
of some 340 fathoms.
Trichiurus.—Body band-like, tapering into a fine point, without
caudal fin. One single dorsal extending the whole length of the back.
Ventrals reduced to a pair of scales, or entirely absent. Anal fin
rudimentary, with numerous extremely short spines, scarcely
projecting beyond the skin. Long fangs in the jaws; teeth on the
palatine bones, none on the vomer.
The “Hairtails” belong to the tropical marine fauna, and although
generally found in the vicinity of land, they wander frequently out to
sea, perhaps merely because they follow some ocean-currents.
Therefore they are not rarely found in the temperate zone, the
common West Indian species (T. lepturus), for instance, on the coast
of England. They attain to a length of about four feet. The number of
their vertebræ is very large, as many as 160, and more. Six species
are known.
Epinnula.—Body rather elongate, covered with minute scales,[*.
see below] The first dorsal fin continuous, with spines of moderate
strength, and extending on to the second; finlets none; ventrals well
developed. Lateral lines two. Teeth of the jaws strong; palatine teeth,
none.
The “Domine” of the Havannah, E. magistralis.
Thyrsites.—Body rather elongate, for the greater part naked. The
first dorsal continuous, with the spines of moderate strength, and
extending on to the second. From two to six finlets behind the dorsal
and anal. Several strong teeth in the jaws; teeth on the palatine
bones.
The species of this genus attain to a considerable size (from four
to five feet), and are valuable food fishes; Th. atun from the Cape of
Good Hope, South Australia, New Zealand, and Chili, is preserved,
pickled or smoked. In New Zealand it is called “Barracuda” or
“Snoek,” and exported from the colony into Mauritius and Batavia as
a regular article of commerce, being worth over £17 a ton; Th.
pretiosus, the “Escholar” of the Havannah, from the Mediterranean,
the neighbouring parts of the Atlantic, and the West Indies; Th.
prometheus from Madeira, Bermuda, St. Helena, and Polynesia; Th.
solandri from Amboyna and Tasmania is probably the same as Th.
prometheus.
Young specimens of this (or, perhaps, the following) genus have
been described as Dicrotus. In them the finlets are not yet detached
from the rest of the fin; and the ventral fins, which are entirely
obsolete in the adult fish, are represented by a long crenulated
spine.
Gempylus.—Body very elongate, scaleless. The first dorsal fin
continuous, with thirty and more spines, and extending on to the
second. Six finlets behind the dorsal and anal. Several strong teeth in
the jaws, none on the palate.
 One species (G. serpens), inhabiting considerable depths of the
Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

Family—Palæorhynchidæ.
This family has been formed for two extinct genera:
Palæorhynchus from the schists of Glaris, and Hemirhynchus from
tertiary formations near Paris. These genera resemble much the
Trichiuridæ in their long, compressed body, and long vertical fins, but
their jaws, which are produced into a long beak, are toothless, or
provided with very small teeth. The dorsal fin extends the whole
length of the back, and the anal reaches from the vent nearly to the
caudal, which is forked. The ventrals are composed of several rays
and thoracic. The vertebræ long, slender, and numerous, and, like all
the bones of the skeleton, thin, indicating that these fishes were
inhabitants of considerable depths of the ocean. Both the jaws of
Palæorhynchus are prolonged into a beak, whilst in Hemirhynchus
the upper exceeds the lower in length.

Eighth Division—Acanthopterygii Cotto-scombriformes.

Spines developed, in one of the fins at least. Dorsal fins either
continuous or close together; the spinous dorsal, if present, always
short; sometimes modified into tentacles, or into a suctorial disk; soft
dorsal always long, if the spinous is absent; anal similarly developed
as the soft dorsal, and both generally much longer than the spinous,
sometimes terminating in finlets. Ventrals, thoracic or jugular, if
present, never modified into an adhesive apparatus. No prominent
anal papilla.
Marine fishes, with few exceptions.

First Family—Acronuridæ.
Body compressed, oblong or elevated, covered with minute
scales. Tail generally armed with one or more bony plates or spines,
which are developed with age, but absent in very young individuals.
Eye lateral, of moderate size. Mouth small; a single series of more or
less compressed, sometimes denticulated, sometimes pointed
incisors in each jaw; palate toothless. One dorsal fin, the spinous
portion being less developed than the soft; anal with two or three
spines; ventral fins thoracic. Air-bladder forked posteriorly. Intestines
with more or less numerous circumvolutions. Nine abdominal, and
thirteen caudal vertebræ.
Inhabitants of the tropical seas, and most abundant on coral-
reefs. They feed either on vegetable substances or on the superficial
animal matter of corals.
Extinct species of Acanthurus and Naseus have been discovered
in the Monte Bolca formation.
Acanthurus.—Jaws with a single series of lobate incisors, which
are sometimes movable. An erectile spine hidden in a groove on each
side of the tail. Ventral fins with one spine and generally five rays.
Scales ctenoid, sometimes with minute spines. Branchiostegals five.
The fishes of this genus, which sometimes are termed
“Surgeons,” are readily recognised by the sharp lancet-shaped spine
with which each side of the tail is armed. When at rest the spine is
hidden in a sheath; but it can be erected and used by the fish as a
very dangerous weapon, by striking with the tail towards the right
and left. “Surgeons” occur in all tropical seas, with the exception of
the eastern part of the Pacific, where they disappear with the corals.
They do not attain to any size, the largest species scarcely
exceeding a length of eighteen inches. Many are agreeably or
showily coloured, the ornamental colours being distributed in very
extraordinary patterns. The larger species are eatable, and some
even esteemed as food. It is stated that the fry of some species
periodically approaches, in immense numbers, the coasts of some of
the South Sea Islands (Caroline Archipelago), and serves as an
important article of food to the natives. Nearly fifty species are
known.
 Fig. 193.—Acanthurus leucosternum, Indian Ocean.
At an early period of their growth these fishes present so different
an aspect that they were considered a distinct genus, Acronurus.
The form of the body is more circular and exceedingly compressed.
No scales are developed, but the skin forms numerous oblique
parallel folds. The gill-cover and the breast are shining silvery.
Naseus.—Tail with two (rarely one or three) bony keeled plates on
each side (in the adult). Head sometimes with a bony horn or crest-
like prominence directed forwards. Ventral fins composed of one spine
and three rays. From four to six spines in the dorsal; two anal spines.
Scales minute, rough, forming a sort of fine shagreen. Air-bladder
forked behind. Intestinal tract with many circumvolutions.
Twelve species are known from the tropical Indo-Pacific, but
none of them extend eastwards beyond the Sandwich Islands. In
their mode of life these fishes resemble the Acanthuri. Likewise, the
young have a very different appearance, and are unarmed, and were
described as a distinct genus, Keris. One of the most common
species is N. unicornis, which, when adult (22 inches long), has a
horn about 2 inches long, whilst it is merely a projection in front of
the eye in individuals of 7 inches in length.
Prionurus is an allied genus with a series of several keeled bony
laminæ on each side of the tail.

Fig. 194.—Naseus unicornis.

Second Family—Carangidæ.
Body more or less compressed, oblong or elevated, covered with
small scales or naked; eye, lateral. Teeth, if present, conical. No
bony stay for the præoperculum. The spinous dorsal is less
developed than the soft or than the anal, either continuous with, or
separated from, the soft portion; sometimes rudimentary. Ventrals
thoracic, sometimes rudimentary or entirely absent. No prominent
papilla near the vent. Gill-opening wide. Ten abdominal and fourteen
caudal vertebræ.
 Fig. 195.—Semiophoris velitans.
Inhabitants of tropical and temperate seas. Carnivorous. They
appear first in cretaceous formations, where they are represented by
Platax and some Caranx-like genera (Vomer and Aipichthys from the
chalk of Comen in Istria). They are more numerous in various
Tertiary formations, especially in the strata of Monte Bolca, where
some still existing genera occur, as Zanclus, Platax, Caranx
(Carangopsis), Argyriosus (Vomer), Lichia, Trachynotus. Of the
extinct genera the following belong to this family:—Pseudovomer
(Licata), Amphistium, Archæus, Ductor, Plionemus (?), and
Semiophorus. Equula has been recently discovered in the Miocene
marls of Licata in Sicily.
Caranx (including Trachurus).—Body more or less compressed,
sometimes sub-cylindrical. Cleft of the mouth of moderate width. The
 first dorsal fin continuous, with about eight feeble spines, sometimes
rudimentary; the soft dorsal and anal are succeeded by finlets in a few
species. Two anal spines, somewhat remote from the fin. Scales very
small. Lateral line with an anterior curved, and a posterior straight,
portion, either entirely or posteriorly only covered by large plate-like
scales, several of which are generally keeled, the keel ending in a
spine. Dentition feeble. Air-bladder forked posteriorly.

Fig. 196.—Plates of the lateral line of Caranx hippos.

The “Horse-mackerels” are found in abundance in almost all
temperate and, especially, tropical seas. Many species wander to
other parts of the coast, or to some distance from land, and have
thus gradually extended their range over two or more oceanic areas;
some are found in all tropical seas. The species described are very
numerous, about ninety having been properly characterised and
distinguished. Some attain to a length of three feet and more, and all
are eatable. They feed on other fish and various marine animals.
Of the most noteworthy species the following may be mentioned:
—C. trachurus, the common British Horse-mackerel, distinguished
by having the lateral line in its whole length armed with large vertical
plates; it is almost cosmopolitan within the temperate and tropical
zones of the northern and southern hemispheres. C.
crumenophthalmus, C. carangus, and C. hippos, three of the most
common sea-fishes, equally abundant in the Atlantic and Indo-
Pacific oceans; C. ferdau, from the Indo-Pacific, upwards of three
feet in length. C. armatus, ciliaris, gallus, etc., which have an
exceedingly short and compressed body, with rudimentary spinous
dorsal fin, and with some of the rays of the dorsal and anal
prolonged into filaments.
 Fig. 197.—Caranx ferdau.
Argyriosus is closely allied to Caranx, especially to the last-
named species, but the lateral line has no plates whatever; and the
body is scaleless, chiefly of a bright silvery colour.

Two species from the tropical Atlantic.

Micropteryx.—Body much compressed, with prominent
trenchant abdomen, covered with small scales; lateral line not
shielded; præopercular margin entire. Cleft of the mouth rather small;
præorbital of moderate width. The first dorsal continuous, with seven
feeble spines. No detached finlets. Small teeth on the vomer and
palatine bones.

Micropteryx chrysurus is a semi-pelagic fish, and very common in

the tropical Atlantic, less so in the Indian Ocean.
Seriola.—Body oblong, slightly compressed, with rounded
abdomen, covered with very small scales; lateral line not shielded;
præopercular margin entire. Cleft of the mouth of moderate width, or
rather wide. The first dorsal continuous, with feeble spines. No
detached finlets. Villiform teeth in the jaws, on the vomer and palatine
bones.

These fishes are often called “Yellow-tails,” and occur in nearly all
the temperate and tropical seas, sometimes at a great distance from
land. Twelve species are known, and the majority have a wide
geographical range. The larger grow to a length of from four to five
feet, and are esteemed as food, especially at St. Helena, the Cape
of Good Hope, in Japan, Australia, and New Zealand.
Seriolella and Seriolichthys, the latter from the Indo-Pacific, and
distinguished by a finlet behind the dorsal and anal, are allied
genera.
Naucrates.—Body oblong, sub-cylindrical, covered with small
scales; a keel on each side of the tail. The spinous dorsal consists of
a few short free spines; finlets none. Villiform teeth in the jaws, on the
vomer and palatine bones.
The “Pilot-fish” (N. ductor) is a truly pelagic fish, known in all
tropical and temperate seas. Its name is derived from its habit of
keeping company with ships and large fish, especially Sharks. It is
the Pompilus of the ancients, who describe it as pointing out the way
to dubious or embarrassed sailors, and as announcing the vicinity of
land by its sudden disappearance. It was therefore regarded as a
sacred fish. The connection between the Shark and the Pilot-fish has
received various interpretations, some observers having perhaps
added more sentiment than is warranted by the actual facts. It was
stated that the Shark never seized the Pilot-fish, that the latter was of
great use to its big companion in conducting it and showing it the
way to its food. Dr. Meyen in his “Reise um die Erde” states: “The
pilot swims constantly in front of the Shark; we ourselves have seen
three instances in which the Shark was led by the Pilot. When the
Shark neared the ship the Pilot swam close to the snout, or near one
of the pectoral fins of the animal. Sometimes he darted rapidly
forwards or sidewards as if looking for something, and constantly
went back again to the Shark. When we threw overboard a piece of
bacon fastened on a great hook, the Shark was about twenty paces
from the ship. With the quickness of lightning the Pilot came up,
smelt at the dainty, and instantly swam back again to the Shark,
swimming many times round his snout and splashing, as if to give
him exact information as to the bacon. The Shark now began to put
himself in motion, the Pilot showing him the way, and in a moment
he was fast upon the hook.[42] Upon a later occasion we observed
two Pilots in sedulous attendance on a Blue Shark, which we caught
in the Chinese Sea. It seems probable that the Pilot feeds on the
Sharks’ excrements, keeps his company for that purpose, and
directs his operations solely from this selfish view.” We believe that
Dr. Meyen’s opinion, as expressed in his last words, is perfectly
correct. The Pilot obtains a great part of his food directly from the
Shark, in feeding on the parasitic crustaceans with which Sharks and
other large fish are infested, and on the smaller pieces of flesh which
are left unnoticed by the Shark when it tears its prey. The Pilot also,
being a small fish, obtains greater security when in company of a
Shark, which would keep at a distance all other fishes of prey that
would be likely to prove dangerous to the Pilot. Therefore, in
accompanying the Shark, the Pilot is led by the same instinct which
makes it follow a ship. With regard to the statement that the Pilot
itself is never attacked by the Shark all observers agree as to its
truth; but this may be accounted for in the same way as the impunity
of the swallow from the hawk, the Pilot-fish being too nimble for the
unwieldy Shark.
The Pilot-fish does not always leave the vessels on their
approach to land. In summer, when the temperature of the sea-water
is several degrees above the average, Pilots will follow ships to the
south coast of England into the harbour, where they are generally
speedily caught. Pilot-fish attain a length of 12 inches only. When
very young their appearance differs so much from the mature fish
that they have been described as a distinct genus, Nauclerus. This
fry is exceedingly common in the open ocean, and constantly
obtained in the tow-net; therefore the Pilot-fish retains its pelagic
habits also during the spawning season, and some of the spawn
found by voyagers floating on the surface is, without doubt, derived
from this species.
Chorinemus.—Body compressed, oblong; covered with small
scales, singularly shaped, lanceolate, and hidden in the skin. The first
dorsal is formed by free spines in small numbers; the posterior rays of
the second dorsal and anal are detached finlets. Small teeth in the
jaws, on the vomer and palatine bones.
Twelve species are known from the Atlantic and Indo-Pacific;
some enter brackish water, whilst others are more numerous at