Running head: EFFECT OF COLOR PRIMING ON DECISION MAKING

Effect of Color Priming on Decision Making of University Students

Submitted by: Zainab Malik

Institution: Karakoram International University

Course: practicum in psychology

Registration no: 2021-kiu-Bs4078

Submitted to: Ma’am Shazia Ismail

Semester: 6th

Date of submission: 02/6th/2024

Department of Psychology and human development

EFFECT OF COLOR PRIMING ON DECISION MAKING 2

Abstract

Color priming is a psychological phenomenon in which someone is exposed to a certain color

and that influence(s) their decisions and behaviors later on, usually without the person's

conscious knowledge. In order to investigates the effect of color priming on decision making

among students. 126 participants (64 males, 62 females) aged 18-25 were selected through

convenient sampling from Karakorum International University. Participants were divided into

three groups: experimental group one (yellow prime), experimental group two (red prime), and

control group. After obtaining informed consent, participants filled out a demographic sheet and

wrote down five difficult words from a given paragraph in one of three color cards (yellow, red,

blue). Responses were collected and analyzed using chi-square test to determine if color priming

influences word association, the results for Chi-Square Test to assess the effect of color priming

findings revealed that there was a significant difference between variables, X² (4, 126) =27.7, p

= 0.00. As The findings of this study strongly supported to the research hypothesis and

contribute to our understanding of color psychology and its impact on cognitive processes.

Keywords: Color Priming, University Students, Decision Making.

EFFECT OF COLOR PRIMING ON DECISION MAKING 3

Effect of Color Priming on Decision Making of University Students

Our interpretations and memories of events can be slightly impacted by things we

aren't even aware of. Imagine focusing on nebulous spoken statements like "We stood by

the bank" while wearing earbuds. You are not aware of hearing a similar term (money or

river) that is simultaneously transmitted to your other ear. However, the silent word

"primes" your understanding of the sentence in the same way that reading this graphic

(left) from top to bottom or from left to right primes your understanding of the main

character (Baars & McGovern, 1994).

Undoubtedly, priming is the process of reawakening or activating specific

memories within our memory system, which is a network of associations. Research

demonstrates that one idea can impact another or even an action by priming it, even when

one is not conscious of it (Herring et al., 2013). Primes are similar to bells that are only

audible to mental butlers, who handle the minor unconscious details (Bargh, 2017). This

is according to John Bargh. Remarkably, priming effects happen even when the stimuli

are subtly displayed for too little time for conscious perception. Even when something is

hidden, it could still be on your mind. A shock that is too small to feel could make a

subsequent shock seem more intense. You'll recognize a related word like "butter" more

rapidly than an unrelated term like "bubble" if the word "bread" is flashed so quickly that

it's just below your conscious awareness (Epley et al., 1999; Merikle et al., 2001).
EFFECT OF COLOR PRIMING ON DECISION MAKING 4

As revealed by an experiment, it was found that when students saw posters of

beer and vodka in a room instead of apple or orange juice, they were more likely to

wobble on a balancing beam (Cox et al., 2014). Unnoticed experiences have the ability to

gently influence our thoughts and actions.

According to Sherriff et al. (2016), those who identify as religious and are subtly

exposed to language related to their faith are inclined to be more charitable. Each time, a

response to a subsequent activity is primed by an unseen image or word. According to

research by Rob Holland and colleagues (2005), Dutch students who smelled an all-

purpose cleaner were able to identify cleaning-related phrases more quickly, remembered

more cleaning-related tasks while reliving their days, and even managed to keep their

desks cleaner when indulging in a crumbly cookie. According to research by another

group of Dutch psychologists, persons who smelled cleaning products had a lower

likelihood of littering (de Lange et al., 2012). For example, in a lab experiment,

individuals who smelled fishy were more likely to be wary of one another and to

cooperate less, which helped to establish the perception that a shady deal was "fishy"

(Lee & Schwarz, 2012). The participants were not cognizant of the scent's influence or

its consequences when all of these things happened.

Furthermore, John Bargh notes that priming experiments have real-world

equivalents (2006). When we watch a terrifying movie at home by ourselves, our

emotions may be aroused to the point that we mistake noises from the furnace for

potential intruders without even recognizing it. A variant of this was experienced by me,

JT: After taking a "ghost tour," I returned to my hotel room in New Orleans and spotted a
EFFECT OF COLOR PRIMING ON DECISION MAKING 5

shadow that seemed sinister. Upon closer examination, it turned out to be an oddly

angled end table rather than a ghost.

More significantly, the Color-in-Situation hypothesis states that a color's

psychological and behavioral effects are significantly influenced by the situation in

which it is observed. Colors can elicit different responses and have different meanings

based on the situation, according to Elliot and Maier (2012). According to Elliott, Maier,

Moller, Friedman, and Meinhardt (2007), individuals may make more cautious decisions

when faced with the color red in academic contexts, for instance, as it may signal danger

or errors. Red, on the other hand, could encourage attraction and fulfilling social

interactions in romantic environments.

Notably, color can stimulate specific associations and memories that influence

cognitive processes and behaviors, according to the associative network concept. This

theory, first proposed by Collins and Loftus in 1975, holds that there is a link in an

individual's memory network between particular sensations and thoughts and colors. For

example, blue is commonly associated with trust, security, and serenity—all of which

may enhance performance on activities requiring original thought as well as encourage

greater risk-taking and candor (Mehta & Zhu, 2009). These ties, which are molded by

personal and cultural experiences, have the power to gently affect the way decisions are

made

The idea of emotional valence is concerned with the emotions that colors evoke

and how those emotions influence perception. According to this hypothesis, colors
EFFECT OF COLOR PRIMING ON DECISION MAKING 6

possess intrinsic emotional qualities that enable them to elicit specific feelings. Warm

colors like yellow and red frequently arouse feelings of excitement or exhilaration,

whereas cool colors like blue and green frequently promote serenity and relaxation

(Hemphill, 1996). People's decision-making processes and willingness to accept risks can

be influenced by these emotions. For example, red's excitement may cause people to

make more cautious decisions in an effort to avoid any negative consequences, but blue's

calming influence may encourage more adventurous and risk-taking behaviors.

Most importantly, to examine the impact of the color red on performance,

participants in a study by Elliot et al. (2007) were exposed to red, blue, or neutral hues

before starting a challenging cognitive task. The results showed that those who were

exposed to red did not do as well as those who were exposed to blue or neutral colors.

The researchers postulated that red, which is typically associated with risk and mistakes,

would encourage avoidance behavior, making people approach the task more cautiously

and less successfully.

In reference to Mehta and Zhu's (2009) research, investigations were conducted to

determine how the color blue influences artistic expression. Participants were shown

either a red or blue background while completing tasks requiring creative thinking. The

findings showed that creative performance was significantly enhanced by blue exposure

as opposed to red. The association between blue with peace, calmness, and openness—all

of which foster an atmosphere in the mind that is conducive to creativity—helped to

explain this.
EFFECT OF COLOR PRIMING ON DECISION MAKING 7

In light of the findings, Lichtenfeld, Maier, Elliot, and Pekrun looked into the

connection between risk-taking behavior and color priming in 2009. Before they were

asked to make financial decisions, participants in the study were first shown as either red

or blue. The results demonstrated that persons primed with blue were more willing to

take risks, whereas those primed with red were less likely to do so. This aligns with the

belief that red breeds caution and avoidance, while blue fosters a more open and

experimental mindset.

It goes without saying that color priming methods could assist students in

managing their tension and concerns. For instance, it can be advantageous to mental

health to create a tranquil atmosphere in counseling or leisure areas by utilizing the

colors green and blue (Kaya & Epps, 2004). These colors can help students feel less

stressed and create a more positive atmosphere when they are under pressure in both

their personal and academic lives.

Problem of Study

To see the effect of color priming on the decision making of University Students.

Research Question

Whether there is an effect of color priming on the decision of selection of same

color of university students?

Hypothesis
EFFECT OF COLOR PRIMING ON DECISION MAKING 8

The participants of the experimental groups will decide to select the same color

to whom they were primed.

Methodology

Participants

A sample of 126 (64 males and 62 females) participants were selected through

convenient sampling from different departments of Karakorum international

University. Their age ranged from 18-25 and qualification ranged was undergraduate,

graduate.

Research Design

In order to conduct this experiment, an independent measure design was used.

Materials

In this experiment, there were several instruments used that are explain below

Informed consent

The researcher got oral and verbal consent from participants. The researcher also

gave a short brief in the title of this experiment. After that participant were willing to take

part in this experiment, there were never forced to involved in this experiment

Demographic sheet

It contained the personal information of the participants including name, age,

gender, department, qualification.

EFFECT OF COLOR PRIMING ON DECISION MAKING 9

Checklist

Checklist was used to note down the decision what they made, participants.

Paragraph

Participants were facilitated by a paragraph and after a while they had to wrote

down five difficult words from a given paragraph in one of three color cards

(yellow, red, blue).

Procedure

To conduct this experiment, the researcher selected 126 participants 64 males or 62

females having age limit of 18-25 enrolled in graduate or under graduate program the

researcher selected participants through convenient sampling technique from different

departments of Karakorum International university. After selecting the participants, the

researcher took the participant into the laboratory and use independent measure design

for the conduction of this experiment. After starting the experimental works, the

participants were given inform consent and ask them if they are willing to take part in

this experiment without any force then signature in the last of inform consent. The

researcher divided participants into three groups experimental group one, experimental

group two and control. In experimental group one the researcher first primes the

participant from yellow color then give them demographic sheet to fill after that the

researcher facilitates the participants a paragraph where there are five underlined difficult

words and ask the participants to write down these difficult words in one of the color full

cards (yellow, red, blue). Similarly, in experimental group two, the researcher primes the
EFFECT OF COLOR PRIMING ON DECISION MAKING 10

participants from red color card then give them demographic sheet to fill after that the

researcher facilitate the participants a paragraph where there are five underlined difficult

words and ask the participants to write down these difficult words in one of the color full

cards (yellow, red, blue).and in control group the researcher just fill the demographic

sheet with participants then ask to write the five difficult underlined words from the

given paragraph to write them in any of the three color card. After that the collected their

responses in the checklist and analyze them using chi square test to know the findings.

Ethical Consideration

An ethical guideline of the American Psychological Association [APA] has been

considered for this study. Participants were ensured that there would not be any sort of

physical, psychological and emotional harm to participants. Along with that, they were

assured about the privacy and confidentiality of data and their information. The

researcher told them that the participants can withdraw from the experiment at any time

in study if they feel any kind of discomfort.

Data analysis

The collected data from the sample was analyzed through quantitative approach which

employs frequency and percentage tabulation for demographic and descriptive data

arithmetic mean, standard derivation while chi-square statistics for color in three

experimental conditions.
EFFECT OF COLOR PRIMING ON DECISION MAKING 11

Results

Table I

Frequencies and Percentages of the Demographic Information of the Participants

F %
N=126
Gender
Male 64 51%
Female 62 49%
Qualification level

Under graduation 126 100%

Graduation 0 0.00%
*N=number of participants

Table 1 shows the frequencies and percentages of the total number of participants, their

gender, and their qualification. There were 126 participants (64 male students and 62

female students). These participants were conveniently selected from different

departments of Karakoram International University and enrolled in an undergraduate

program (N=126) and a graduate program (N=0).

EFFECT OF COLOR PRIMING ON DECISION MAKING 12

M SD

Age

Male 22.75 1.56

Female 21.61 1.78

Table II

Descriptive Statistics of the Age of Research Participants

Table II: provides details about mean age of participants. The mean age of men is

(M=22.75, SD= 1.56) and the mean age of women (M=21.61, SD=1.78)
EFFECT OF COLOR PRIMING ON DECISION MAKING 13

Table III

Chi-Square Statistics for Color in Three Experimental Conditions

Decisions

Experimental Conditions Yellow red others

Experimental I (yellow) 20 18 5

Experimental II (red) 10 28 4

Control 9 11 30

Note: X²(4)= 27.7, p= 0.00

Table III illustrated the results for Chi-Square Test to assess the effect of color priming.

Findings revealed that there was an significant difference between variables, X²(4, 126)=27.7, p

= 0.00
EFFECT OF COLOR PRIMING ON DECISION MAKING 14

Discussion

This study explored the effect of color priming on the decision-making process of

university students, with the hypothesis that participants primed with a specific color would be

more likely to select that same color in their choices. The demographic data (Table I) revealed a

balanced gender distribution among 126 undergraduate participants, consisting of 64 males and

62 females. Table II provided the age statistics, showing a mean age of 22.75 years (SD = 1.56)

for males and 21.61 years (SD = 1.78) for females.

The core findings are presented in Table III, demonstrating the distribution of color

choices across three experimental conditions: yellow priming, red priming, and a control group.

The Chi-Square test results (X²(4, 126) = 27.7, p = 0.00) indicate a significant effect of color

priming on color selection decisions. Specifically, in the yellow priming group, 20 participants

chose yellow, 18 chose red, and 5 chose other colors. In the red priming group, 28 participants

chose red, 10 chose yellow, and 4 chose other colors. In contrast, the control group exhibited a

more even distribution of choices. These results support the hypothesis, indicating that color

priming influences decision-making among university students.

Prior studies have demonstrated the significant influence that color may have on both

cognitive and affective functions. Elliot and Maier (2014), for example, discovered that colors

have psychological effects and can have particular meanings. The notion that colors priming can

affect behaviors like decision-making, as shown in this study, is supported by their research.
EFFECT OF COLOR PRIMING ON DECISION MAKING 15

In addition, Color priming effects may be caused by psychological processes such as automatic

activation of associations and emotive reactions. Color priming can activate particular cognitive

frames, which in turn influence decisions and behaviors, as the study by Mehta and Zhu (2009)

shows. The study's noteworthy findings imply that university students' color preferences may be

influenced by comparable cognitive processes.

Furthermore, According to Herring et al. (2013) and Bargh (2017), priming is the idea

that particular associations in memory are activated, which can then affect perceptions,

decisions, and behaviors. The results of the current study support this theory by demonstrating

how color priming can gently influence participants' decision-making processes without their

conscious knowledge.

Moreover, as per the associative network hypothesis, inside an individual's memory

network, certain colors correspond to distinct feelings and thoughts (Collins & Loftus, 1975).

Given that yellow is frequently connected to brightness and happiness, for example, participants

may select yellow when primed with it. On the other hand, red is associated with caution and

awareness, which could account for the fact that most participants who were primed with red

chose it. These correlations most certainly affected the choices made by the participants under

the experimental settings, bolstering the notion that particular colors might elicit particular

emotional and cognitive reactions (Mehta & Zhu, 2009; Hemphill, 1996).

Similarly, the results can be understood using the framework offered by the Color-in-

Context theory. This idea states that a color's psychological and behavioral consequences are

greatly influenced by the situation in which it is experienced (Elliot & Maier, 2012). The priming

context (experimental settings) in this study most certainly had a significant influence on

participants' choices. The current study discovered that individuals in the red priming condition
EFFECT OF COLOR PRIMING ON DECISION MAKING 16

were more likely to select red, showing an avoidance or cautious behavior. These results are

similar to those of Elliot et al. (2007), who found that exposure to red in an academic atmosphere

led to more cautious behaviors.

As revealed by the affective valence theory, colors can elicit particular emotional

reactions, which might have an impact on judgment (Hemphill, 1996). The experimental

circumstances showed that red, which is linked to alertness and caution, also significantly

influenced selections, while yellow, which is frequently associated with good affect, led to

higher selection rates among people primed with it. This is consistent with the findings of

Lichtenfeld et al. (2009), who discovered that color priming could affect the way people behave

while taking financial risks. They found that red led to more conservative decisions whereas blue

encouraged taking risks.

Lastly, color priming's practical uses in real-world settings point to advantages like

enhancing therapeutic or learning environments using particular colors. In order to create a

supportive environment for students, it can be beneficial to incorporate calming colors such as

blue and green into counseling or relaxation rooms. (Kaya & Epps, 2004).

Limitations

The results may not be as broadly applicable as they could be because of the study's small

sample size and restriction to a particular university. Real-world decision-making

scenarios may be more complex than the contrived experimental conditions can

represent. Neither mood nor past color associations were taken into account as potential

moderating factors in this study.

Recommendations
EFFECT OF COLOR PRIMING ON DECISION MAKING 17

In order to improve the external validity of the findings, future research should include a

larger and more diverse sample. To better simulate real-world decision-making, it would

be advantageous to carry out tests in more naturalistic environments. Furthermore, a

more thorough knowledge of color priming effects might be achieved by adding

characteristics including mood, cultural background, and prior encounters with colors.

Conclusion

This study examined how university students' decisions are affected by color priming,

specifically whether they are exposed to a particular color first and then choose a different hue

later on. The theory was confirmed by the results, which demonstrated that individuals were

more likely to choose the color they had been primed with. Color priming significantly

influences decision-making processes, according to the significant Chi-Square results.

These findings are consistent with earlier studies on the psychological and behavioral

impacts of color, indicating that color can activate particular cognitive frameworks and have an

impact on decision-making. These findings have practical applications in marketing and

consumer behavior, where color priming could be strategically employed to sway decisions and

preferences.

While the study provides valuable insights, it is limited by its sample size and setting,

highlighting the need for further research with more diverse and naturalistic conditions. Overall,

this study contributes to the understanding of how color priming affects decision-making and

underscores the importance of considering psychological factors in influencing behavior.

EFFECT OF COLOR PRIMING ON DECISION MAKING 18

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EFFECT OF COLOR PRIMING ON DECISION MAKING 21

Appendix A

Instruction for experimental group

I am going to present a demographic sheet you have to fill your information in it.

Now can.you please hold this paper for a while till i will prepare the things. Now we will

start our experiment , you have 3 flash cards in front of you and you have to select 1 from

them and write difficult word which are underlined in the given text.

Instructions for control group

I am going to present a demographic sheet you have to fill your information in it.

Now i will provide you 3 flash cards and you have yo select one from them and write

underlined difficult words from the given. Text.

EFFECT OF COLOR PRIMING ON DECISION MAKING 22

Appendix B

Paragraph

During a tumultuous storm, loud thunder echoed through the thick trees, making the area feel

scary and empty. But one intrepid explorer kept going, finding their way through the tricky land

with unwavering resolve. Suddenly, they saw a quick flash of hope far away, lighting up the path

and giving them courage. Suddenly, they saw a quick flash of hope in the distance illuminating

the path and giving them courage. Even though it was dark and the storm was fierce, the explorer

persisted. They keep going, driven by their strong desire to explore and their conviction that thay

could overcome anything.

Difficult words
EFFECT OF COLOR PRIMING ON DECISION MAKING 23

1. Tumultuous

2.Intrepid
3. Unwavering

4. Persisted

5. Cinviction

Group 1st

Role and participation: under the supervision of group leader, together er made the

instructions, unfortunately because drawback of experiment, later we modify accordingly

the instruction of our course instructor, on 16th may I conducted my experiment in room 5

and compile and I myself quote my result findings on SPSS sheet and circulate it onward.