Management

Module 2:
Social Perception and Cognition Perceiving Ourselves: self-concept, self-esteem,
self-presentation, and Self-expression
Perceiving others: forming impressions; the role of nonverbal cues, group stereotypes, and
cultural traits; models of information integration; primacy and recency effects; attribution of
causality: theories and biases.

Social Perception:
Social perception refers to the process by which individuals interpret and understand the
behavior, intentions, and characteristics of other people in their social environment. It
involves making sense of the social world by observing, interpreting, and attributing meaning
to the actions, expressions, and cues of others.

Social perception is a complex and multifaceted process that shapes our interactions,
relationships, and understanding of the social world. It involves integrating various sources
of information to form impressions, make judgments, and navigate social interactions
effectively.

For example:
Let's say you meet someone new at a party. Based on their body language, tone of voice,
and the way they interact with others, you might perceive them as friendly and outgoing. This
initial impression influences how you approach and engage with them throughout the event.
This example illustrates how social perception involves interpreting cues from others to form
impressions and guide our interactions.

● Nonverbal communication
● Facial expression
● Eye contact
● Body laguage
● Touching

Social Cognition:
The process through which we interpret, remember and then use information about the world
and ourselves. How do we receive, interpret, analyse, remember and use information about
the social world.

Social cognition in management refers to how individuals in managerial roles perceive,

interpret, and understand social information in the workplace. It involves the mental
processes through which managers make sense of themselves, others, and their
organizational environment. Here's a breakdown of key aspects:

1. **Perception and Attribution**: Managers interpret and make sense of the behavior of
employees, colleagues, and superiors. They form perceptions about others' competence,
trustworthiness, and motives, which influence their interactions and decisions.
2. **Social Judgment and Decision Making**: Managers rely on social cognition when
making decisions about hiring, promotions, resource allocation, and resolving conflicts. Their
judgments are influenced by factors such as stereotypes, biases, and social norms.

3. **Emotional Intelligence**: Effective managers possess emotional intelligence, which

involves understanding and managing one's own emotions and those of others. This skill is
crucial for building rapport, motivating employees, and navigating interpersonal dynamics in
the workplace.

4. **Social Influence and Leadership**: Managers use social cognition to influence the
attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors of their team members. Leadership styles, such as
transformational or servant leadership, rely on an understanding of social dynamics to
inspire and empower others.

5. **Organizational Culture and Climate**: Managers play a key role in shaping the
organizational culture and climate. They interpret cultural norms, values, and symbols, and
their cognitive processes influence how they communicate, enact policies, and reinforce
cultural norms within the organization.

Overall, social cognition in management highlights the importance of understanding the

social dynamics and interpersonal relationships within the workplace, as well as the
cognitive processes that underlie managerial decision-making and leadership behavior.

Cognition Perceiving Ourselves:

Perceiving ourselves in cognition involves how we understand and evaluate our thoughts,
feelings, abilities, and characteristics. It encompasses aspects such as self-concept,
self-esteem, self-awareness, and self-attribution. This process is influenced by factors like
social comparison, cultural norms, and our interpretation of internal and external cues.
Overall, it's about how we construct and interpret our own identity and place in the world.

For example:
Imagine you receive feedback on a project's work. If you attribute the success to your skills
and effort (internal attribution), you might feel proud and motivated. However, if you attribute
it to luck or external factors, you might feel less confident. This example shows how
cognition influences how we perceive our abilities and achievements.

Self-Concept:
This refers to the overall perception we have of ourselves. It encompasses our beliefs,
attitudes, and values about who we are. Our self-concept is shaped by various factors such
as our experiences, interactions with others, and cultural influences.

In management, self-concept refers to how a manager perceives themselves in their role.

For example, a manager with a strong self-concept might see themselves as competent,
decisive, and capable of leading a team effectively. This self-perception influences their
behavior, decision-making, and interactions with others in the workplace. It can also affect
their confidence, motivation, and willingness to take on challenges or pursue career
advancement opportunities. Overall, a manager's self-concept shapes their leadership style
and effectiveness in managing people and tasks.

Self-Esteem:
Self-esteem is the evaluation we make of our own worthiness and value. It's closely related
to self-concept but focuses more on our feelings of self-worth and confidence. High
self-esteem generally leads to positive self-perception, while low self-esteem can result in
negative self-perception and feelings of inadequacy.

In management, self-esteem refers to a manager's overall sense of worth and value in their
role. For example, a manager with high self-esteem believes in their abilities, feels confident
in their decisions, and is resilient in the face of challenges. This confidence and
self-assurance can positively impact their leadership effectiveness, as they are more likely to
inspire trust and motivation in their team members. Conversely, a manager with low
self-esteem may doubt their capabilities, second-guess their decisions, and struggle to
assert themselves, which can hinder their ability to lead effectively. Overall, self-esteem
plays a crucial role in shaping a manager's confidence, resilience, and leadership style in the
workplace.

Self- Presentation:
Self-presentation refers to the intentional efforts individuals make to manage or control the
impressions others form of them. It involves how we choose to portray ourselves to others in
social situations, whether it's in person, online, or through other means of communication.

For example, someone might dress formally for a job interview to convey professionalism
and competence, or they might share selective aspects of their life on social media to create
a certain image. Self-presentation can vary depending on the context, cultural norms, and
individual goals, but it's ultimately about shaping how others perceive us.

Self Expression:
Self-expression involves the process of conveying one's thoughts, feelings, and identity to
others through various forms of communication, such as language, art, music, or body
language. It's about authentically expressing oneself in a way that reflects one's personality,
values, and experiences.

For example, writing poetry to convey emotions, creating artwork to express creativity, or
dressing in a unique style to showcase individuality are all forms of self-expression.
Self-expression allows individuals to communicate who they are and what they believe in,
fostering connections with others and promoting personal growth and fulfillment.

Perceiving Others:
Perceiving others involves how we interpret and understand the thoughts, feelings,
intentions, and characteristics of people around us. It's about making sense of their behavior,
expressions, and cues to form impressions and judgments.

For example, when someone smiles warmly during a conversation, we might perceive them
as friendly and approachable. Our perception of others is influenced by factors such as past
experiences, cultural norms, stereotypes, and nonverbal cues. It plays a crucial role in social
interactions, relationships, and decision-making, helping us navigate the social world
effectively.

This breaks down into 6 influences on how we perceive others:

1. Self-fulfilling prophecy
2. Implicit personality theory
3. Perceptual accentuation
4. Primacy-Recency
5. Consistency
6. Attribution of controllability

Self-fulfilling prophecy:
A self-fulfilling prophecy happens when our beliefs about someone influence how we behave
towards them, causing them to act in a way that confirms our beliefs.
For instance, if we think someone is unfriendly, we might act coldly towards them, and they
might respond by being unfriendly, confirming our belief. This cycle can shape how we
perceive others, often reinforcing our initial beliefs, whether positive or negative.

Implicit personality theory:

Implicit personality theory refers to the idea that we have a set of assumptions about how
certain traits tend to coexist in people's personalities.
For example, if we believe that someone is outgoing, we might also assume they are
friendly and sociable. These assumptions influence how we perceive others because we
tend to interpret their behaviors in line with our preconceived notions about their personality
traits. So, if we believe someone is outgoing, we may interpret their actions as friendly, even
if they could be interpreted differently by someone who doesn't share that belief.

Perceptual accentuation:
Perceptual accentuation is when our expectations or biases amplify certain traits or
characteristics in others.
For example, if we expect someone to be intelligent, we may notice and emphasize their
smart actions while overlooking any mistakes. This can shape how we perceive others by
magnifying certain qualities based on our preconceptions, leading us to see them in a way
that aligns with our expectations.

Primacy-Recency:
Primacy-recency effect influences how we perceive others by giving more weight to the first
and last impressions we form of them. The initial information we receive about someone
(primacy) and the most recent interactions or information (recency) often have a stronger
impact on our overall perception of them compared to details in between. So, if our first
impression of someone is positive, or if our most recent interaction was negative, those
impressions tend to color our overall perception of that person.

Consistency:
Consistency influences how we perceive others by making us more likely to interpret their
behavior in a way that aligns with our existing beliefs or expectations about them. If
someone consistently behaves in a certain manner, we tend to perceive them as having that
trait or characteristic, even if their behavior varies occasionally. This consistency bias can
reinforce our initial perceptions and shape how we view others over time.

Attribution of controllability:
Attribution of controllability influences how we perceive others by affecting whether we
attribute their behavior to factors within their control or external circumstances. If we believe
someone has control over their actions, we might judge them more harshly for negative
behaviors and attribute their successes solely to their efforts. Conversely, if we perceive their
actions as being influenced by external factors beyond their control, we may be more
forgiving or understanding. This attribution bias can significantly impact how we view and
interact with others.

Forming Impressions:
Forming impressions refers to the process of developing opinions or judgments about
individuals based on the information available to us. This information can include verbal
communication, nonverbal cues, past experiences, and contextual factors.

For example, if someone is punctual, polite, and well-dressed during a job interview, we
might form a positive impression of them as responsible and professional. However, if
someone is constantly late and appears disinterested, we might form a negative impression
of them as unreliable or unmotivated. Forming impressions is a natural part of social
interaction and helps us navigate our relationships and interactions with others.

Six basic principles:

● Minimal information
● Special attention to salient features than to everything
● Use the context of the person's behaviour than interpreting the behavior in isolation
● Organizing our perceptions by categorizing
● Use our cognitive structure to make sense of people’s behavior
● Perciver’s own needs and personal goals influence how she/he perceives others

Nonverbal Cues:
Nonverbal cues play a significant role in communication and social interaction by conveying
information beyond spoken words. They include facial expressions, body language,
gestures, tone of voice, eye contact, and other subtle signals.
nonverbal cues play a vital role in communication, perception, and social interaction. They
provide additional layers of meaning and context that enrich our understanding of others and
help us navigate the complexities of interpersonal relationships. In management, nonverbal
cues are subtle signals communicated through body language, facial expressions, gestures,
and tone of voice.

For example, a manager may use a firm handshake and maintain eye contact to convey
confidence and authority during a meeting. Conversely, crossing arms or avoiding eye
contact might indicate defensiveness or discomfort. These nonverbal cues can significantly
impact how managers are perceived by their team members and influence communication,
trust, and relationships in the workplace.
Group Stereotypes:
Group stereotypes are generalizations or beliefs about the characteristics, behaviors, or
attributes of a particular group of people. Generalizations about A group of people whereby
we attribute a defined set of characteristics to this group, are standardized and simplified
conceptions based on some prior assumption.

For example, a stereotype might suggest that all teenagers are lazy or that all scientists are
nerdy.In management, a group stereotype is a generalized belief or assumption about a
particular group of people based on characteristics such as their gender, age, ethnicity, or
profession.

For example, the stereotype that women are more nurturing and empathetic than men might
influence managerial decisions about assigning leadership roles or providing feedback.
Similarly, the stereotype that older employees are less adaptable to change could impact
decisions about training or promotion opportunities. These stereotypes can lead to biases in
management practices and hinder diversity, equity, and inclusion efforts in the workplace.

a few main types:

1. **Racial Stereotypes**: Simplified beliefs about people based on their race or ethnicity.
For example, assuming that all Asians are good at math.

2. **Gender Stereotypes**: Generalizations about the traits, roles, or behaviors expected of

men and women. An example is the belief that women are more nurturing and emotional,
while men are more aggressive and rational.

3. **Age Stereotypes**: Assumptions about individuals based on their age group. For
instance, the stereotype that older people are technologically inept or that younger people
are lazy.

4. **Occupational Stereotypes**: Beliefs about the characteristics or abilities associated with

certain professions. An example is the stereotype that all lawyers are greedy or all nurses
are caring.

They can also be positive, negative, friendly, unfriendly

Cultural Traits:
Cultural traits are the shared behaviors, beliefs, customs, and values that characterize a
particular group of people or society. These traits can include things like language, traditions,
rituals, cuisine, and social norms. For instance, punctuality might be a cultural trait in one
society, while leisurely meals are valued in another.
In management, cultural traits refer to the shared values, beliefs, customs, and behaviors
that define a workplace culture.

For example, a company might have a cultural trait of valuing innovation and creativity,
encouraging employees to take risks and think outside the box. This cultural trait influences
how managers approach problem-solving, decision-making, and collaboration within the
organization. Another example could be a company that prioritizes teamwork and
collaboration, fostering an environment where managers and employees work together
closely to achieve common goals. These cultural traits shape the organizational identity and
influence managerial practices, employee behavior, and overall performance.

Models of information integration:

Models of information integration are ways of understanding how people combine different
pieces of information to form judgments or make decisions. These models help explain how
we weigh and evaluate various factors when forming opinions or reaching conclusions.

One simple model is the weighted average model. Imagine you're trying to decide which
restaurant to go to based on reviews for food quality, price, and atmosphere. You might
assign weights to each factor based on their importance to you. Then, you'd combine the
scores for each restaurant on these factors, giving more weight to factors that matter more to
you.

Another model is the additive model, where you simply add up the scores for each factor
without weighting them. For example, if you're choosing a phone based on battery life,
camera quality, and price, you might add up the scores for each phone on these factors to
see which one comes out on top overall.

These models help us understand how people make complex decisions by considering
multiple factors and integrating them in different ways. In management, models of
information integration help decision-makers combine and evaluate multiple pieces of
information to make informed choices.

One example is the "Weighted Scoring Model." In this model, managers assign weights to
different factors based on their importance and then score each option based on these
factors.
For instance, when selecting a new supplier, a manager might assign weights to factors like
cost, reliability, and quality. They would then score each potential supplier on these factors
and calculate a weighted total to determine the best option. This model helps managers
systematically assess complex information and make decisions that align with their
organizational goals.

Primacy and Recency Effects:

Primacy and recency effects are two tendencies in human memory that affect how we
remember information presented in a sequence, such as a list of items or a series of events.

Primacy effect refers to the tendency for people to better remember items that are presented
at the beginning of a list or sequence. This is because items presented first have more time
to be processed and encoded into long-term memory. Imagine you're trying to memorize a
list of grocery items. You might find it easier to remember the items at the beginning of the
list than those in the middle or end.

Recency effect, on the other hand, refers to the tendency for people to better remember
items that are presented at the end of a list or sequence. This is because items presented
most recently are still fresh in short-term memory. Using the same example of memorizing a
list of grocery items, you might find it easier to remember the items you heard last compared
to those you heard earlier in the list.

In simple terms, the primacy effect is like remembering what happened first, and recency
effect is like remembering what happened last. Both effects illustrate how the order of
presentation can influence memory and perception.

PRIMACY RECENCY

About individual tendency Individual perception

To quickly form and opinion on subject the perception is dominated on the recent
matter based on first information or last information

people generally recall the first information recall the latest and recent information then
and then go to the last information go to the first information

The listner is more likely to pay attention if there is a delay in between the first and
with first information and keep going on as last information then new perception is
the information is continuous developed

Attribution of causality: theories and biases:

Attribution of causality refers to how we explain the reasons behind people's behavior or
events. It involves attributing causes to actions or outcomes, whether they're due to internal
factors (such as a person's abilities or personality) or external factors (such as luck or
circumstances).

In simple terms, it's about answering the question: “Why did this happen?”
Here are some theories and biases related to the attribution of causality:

1. Attribution Theory: This theory explores how people make sense of the world by
attributing causes to events. It suggests that we tend to attribute causes to behavior
based on three main factors: stability (whether the cause is permanent or temporary),
locus of control (whether the cause is internal or external), and controllability
(whether the cause is within the person's control or not).
2. Fundamental Attribution Error: This bias refers to the tendency to attribute other
people's behavior to internal characteristics or traits while overlooking situational
factors. For example, if someone is late for a meeting, we might assume they're
irresponsible (internal attribution) rather than considering that they might have
encountered unexpected traffic (external attribution).
3. Self-Serving Bias: This bias involves attributing our successes to internal factors
(such as skill or effort) but attributing our failures to external factors (such as bad luck
or unfair circumstances). For instance, if we perform well on a test, we might attribute
it to our intelligence, but if we fail, we might blame the difficulty of the test or the
teacher's grading.

4. Actor-Observer Bias: This bias refers to the tendency for individuals to attribute their
own behavior to external factors while attributing others' behavior to internal factors.
 For example, if we're late for a meeting, we might blame traffic (external), but if
someone else is late, we might think they're irresponsible (internal).

These theories and biases help us understand how people make sense of the causes
behind behavior and events, and how these attributions can influence our perceptions,
judgments, and interactions with others.

Attribution theory in management focuses on how individuals interpret and explain the
causes of behavior, both their own and that of others, within organizational settings. Here's
how it applies:

1. **Employee Behavior**: Managers use attribution theory to understand why employees

behave in certain ways. For example, if an employee consistently misses deadlines, a
manager might attribute this behavior to laziness, lack of skill, or external factors like a heavy
workload.

2. **Performance Evaluation**: When assessing employee performance, managers consider

attributional factors. They may attribute success to internal factors like skill and effort, or
external factors like luck or team support. Similarly, they may attribute failure to lack of ability,
task difficulty, or external obstacles.

3. **Leadership and Motivation**: Attribution theory helps managers understand how their
leadership behaviors are perceived by employees. For instance, if a manager provides
constructive feedback, employees may attribute it to the manager's genuine concern for their
development, enhancing motivation. However, if feedback is perceived as overly critical,
employees may attribute it to the manager's negative disposition, leading to demotivation.

4. **Organizational Culture**: Managers shape organizational culture by attributing meaning

to events and behaviors. By attributing success to teamwork and innovation, for example,
they reinforce a culture of collaboration and creativity. Conversely, attributing failure solely to
individual shortcomings may foster a culture of blame and low morale.

5. **Conflict Resolution**: Attribution theory informs managers' approach to resolving

conflicts. By understanding how individuals attribute causes to conflicts, managers can
address underlying perceptions and facilitate constructive dialogue to resolve disputes.

In summary, attribution theory provides managers with valuable insights into how people
interpret and explain behavior, guiding their decisions in areas such as employee
management, performance evaluation, leadership, organizational culture, and conflict
resolution.

Types of attribution theory:

1. **Internal vs. External Attribution**: When we attribute behavior internally, we believe it's
caused by something within the person, like their abilities or personality. For example, if
someone succeeds on a task, we might say it's because they're smart or hardworking
(internal). Conversely, external attribution attributes behavior to outside factors like luck or
the situation. If someone fails a test, we might say it's because the test was too difficult
(external).

2. **Stable vs. Unstable Attribution**: Stability refers to whether the cause of behavior is
expected to stay the same over time. A stable attribution might be that someone is
consistently talented in sports (stable), while an unstable attribution might be that they were
just lucky that day (unstable).

3. **Controllable vs. Uncontrollable Attribution**: This dimension considers whether the

cause of behavior is within the individual's control. If someone does well on a project
because they worked hard, it's controllable. But if they succeed because of luck, it's
uncontrollable.

4. **Global vs. Specific Attribution**: Global attributions generalize the cause of behavior
across different situations. For example, if someone fails a test and we attribute it to their
lack of intelligence, that's a global attribution. Specific attributions, on the other hand, focus
on particular circumstances. If we attribute the failure to the difficulty of the test, that's
specific.

5. **Personal vs. Situational Attribution**: Personal attribution emphasizes the individual's

characteristics or traits as the cause of behavior. For instance, if someone is consistently
late, we might attribute it to their laziness (personal). Situational attribution, however, looks at
external factors like the environment or circumstances. If someone is late because of heavy
traffic, that's situational.

Dispositional attribution is when we explain someone's behavior based on their internal

characteristics or traits. In simpler terms, it's when we think a person acts a certain way
because of who they are as a person, rather than because of external factors.

For example, if someone consistently arrives late to meetings, you might attribute this to
their personality, thinking they're just naturally disorganized or careless, rather than
considering external factors like traffic or emergencies.

Situational attribution refers to explaining someone's behavior as being influenced by

external factors or circumstances rather than internal traits or characteristics.

Example: If someone arrives late to a meeting, a situational attribution would focus on

external factors such as heavy traffic or a family emergency rather than assuming the person
is always tardy due to laziness or irresponsibility.