Waste Management and Resource

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Pardeep Singh
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Pollutants and Water Management : Resources, Strategies

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Pesticides in the Natural Environment : Sources, Health

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Current Developments in Biotechnology and

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Biosorption for Wastewater Contaminants Pardeep Singh

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Abatement of Environmental Pollutants: Trends and
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Inequality in the Developing World Carlos Gradín

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Electronic Waste: Recycling and Reprocessing for a

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Environmental Applications of Microbial Nanotechnology:

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Contemporary Perspectives in Human Resource Management

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Waste Management and
Resource Recycling in the
Developing World
This page intentionally left blank
Waste Management and
Resource Recycling in the
Developing World
Edited by
PARDEEP SINGH
Department of Environmental Studies, PGDAV College, University of Delhi,
New Delhi, India

PRAMIT VERMA
Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development, Banaras Hindu
University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India; University Centre of Excellence
“Interacting Minds, Societies, Environment”, Nicolaus Copernicus
University, Uniwersytet Mikołaja Kopernika (UMK) Torun, Poland

RISHIKESH SINGH
Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development, Banaras
Hindu University, Varanasi, India; Department of Botany, Panjab
University, Chandigarh, India

ARIF AHAMAD
Department of Environmental Science, Faculty of Engineering and
Technology, Jamia Millia Islamia (A Central University), New Delhi, India

ANDRÉ C. S. BATALHÃO
Center for Environmental and Sustainability Research (CENSE), NOVA
University Lisbon, Caparica, Portugal; Minas Gerais State University,
Passos, Brazil
Elsevier
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ISBN: 978-0-323-90463-6

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Cover Designer: Vicky Pearson Esser
Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India
Contents

List of contributors xxv

Section 1 Generation of waste: problem to possible

solution in developing and under developing nations
1. Waste generation in Brazil: municipal, agricultural, and industrial wastes 3
Ingrid R.F.S. Alves, Luíza Santana Franca, Neanderson Galvão, Isabelli D. Bassin and
João Paulo Bassin
Abbreviations 3
1.1 Introduction 4
1.2 Municipal solid waste 5
1.3 Agricultural waste 11
1.4 Industrial waste 16
1.5 Perspectives 18
References 19

2. Generation of waste: problem to possible solution in developing and

underdeveloped nations 21
Mahadi Hasan Masud, Monjur Mourshed, Md. Sanowar Hossain,
Nufile Uddin Ahmed and Peter Dabnichki
2.1 Introduction 22
2.2 Overview of waste generation scenario 24
2.3 Effect of waste 26
2.3.1 Effect of waste of electrical and electronic equipment 26
2.3.2 Effect of medical waste 28
2.3.3 Effect of industrial waste 29
2.3.4 Effect of municipal solid waste 29
2.4 Current status of waste management 31
2.4.1 Review of some high-income countries 31
2.4.2 Upper-middle-income countries 34
2.4.3 Lower-middle-income countries 34
2.4.4 Low-income countries 36
2.5 Possible solution 37
2.5.1 Overview 37
2.5.2 Structuring waste management activities 40

v
vi Contents

2.5.3 Waste to energy and waste to products conversion 41

2.5.4 Landfilling 42
2.5.5 Circular material economy 42
2.5.6 Infrastructure development 43
2.5.7 Managing infectious waste 44
2.5.8 Composting 45
2.5.9 Sustainable recycling 46
2.5.10 Environmental sustainability 47
2.5.11 Public stewardship 48
2.5.12 Novel materials 48
2.5.13 Extended producer responsibility 49
2.6 Conclusion 50
2.7 Future recommendations 50
References 51

3. Use of participatory methodologies to improve the management of

urban solid waste in Sal Island—Cape Verde 61
Carlos Xavier, Ana Paula Martinho and Elisa Silvana Xavier

3.1 Introduction—issues faced by small island developing states 61

3.2 State of research of municipal solid waste management in small island developing states 63
3.2.1 Waste generation 63
3.2.2 Waste composition 64
3.2.3 Waste selection, transfer and transport 64
3.2.4 Waste management technologies 64
3.2.5 New trend in integrated municipal solid waste and future development 66
3.3 Methodology 67
3.4 Case study—municipal solid waste management in Sal Island 68
3.4.1 Characterization of Sal Island 68
3.4.2 Legal instruments for municipal solid waste management in Cape Verde 72
3.4.3 Benchmark status of municipal solid waste management in Sal Island
(interviews with technical staff) 73
3.4.4 Validation of current situation by the focus group 74
3.4.5 Hierarchy of priority measures to be implemented in municipal solid
waste management 79
3.5 Conclusions 81
References 82

4. Waste characterization in Brazil 85

Ingrid R.F.S. Alves, Neanderson Galvão, Isabelli D. Bassin and João Paulo Bassin

Abbreviations 85
4.1 Introduction 86
 Contents vii

4.2 Municipal solid waste 86

4.2.1 Selective waste collection 88
4.2.2 Reverse logistics 90
4.3 Health service waste 91
4.4 Construction and demolition waste 91
4.5 Agricultural waste 92
4.6 Industrial waste 94
4.7 Treatment and final destination 95
4.8 Final considerations and perspectives 96
References 97

Section 2 E-waste
5. E-waste: sources, management strategies, impacts, and consequences 101
Sujit Das, Tanushri Das, Tania Ghatak (Chakraborty), Himadrija Majumder,
Sahana Sultana and Abhijit Sarkar

5.1 Introduction 102

5.2 E-Waste—a global issue 103
5.3 Sources of e-waste 103
5.3.1 Toxic substances and their genesis 104
5.4 Generation of e-waste 104
5.5 E-waste recycling 105
5.5.1 Step-by-step process of e-waste recycling 105
5.5.2 Importance of recycling 108
5.5.3 Convenience of recycling 108
5.5.4 Inconvenience of recycling 109
5.6 E-Waste component’s reuse 110
5.6.1 Plastic 110
5.6.2 Metal 110
5.6.3 Glass 110
5.6.4 Hg-containing equipment 110
5.6.5 Hard drives 110
5.6.6 Batteries 110
5.7 Effects of e-waste in the environment 111
5.7.1 Air 111
5.7.2 Soil 112
5.7.3 Water 114
5.8 Effects of E-waste on human health 114
viii Contents

5.9 Impacts on agriculture 115

5.10 Management techniques of e-waste 115
5.11 Conclusion 118
Acknowledgement 118
References 118

6. Translational transport of e-waste and implications on human well

beings and the environment 125
Sangeeta, Shilpi Khurana and Amit Kumar
6.1 Introduction 125
6.2 Global e-waste generation 127
6.3 Transboundary movement of e-waste 128
6.4 International regulations for the hazardous material transboundary movement 130
6.4.1 Basel convention 131
6.4.2 The rotterdam convention 132
6.4.3 The Stockholm convention 132
6.5 Human health 133
6.6 Environmental effect 136
6.7 Discussion 138
6.8 Conclusion and future perspective 139
References 140

7. Electronic (E-waste) conduct: chemical assessment and treatment methods 143

Shelly Bhardwaj, Shilpi Khurana and Amit Kumar
7.1 Introduction 143
7.1.1 Classification of hazardous components of e-waste 146
7.2 Human and environmental effects 148
7.2.1 Impact on environment 148
7.2.2 Impact on human health 149
7.3 Current scenario of processing 150
7.3.1 Informal recycling techniques 150
7.3.2 Formal recycling techniques 151
7.4 Electronic waste legislations 153
7.4.1 Transboundary flow 154
7.4.2 Extended producer responsibility 154
7.5 Policy development in Asia for electronic waste 155
7.6 Analysis of e-waste management policies 157
7.7 Discussion 157
7.8 Conclusion 158
Acknowledgments 158
References 158
 Contents ix

8. Biological methods for the treatment of e-waste 163

Abhay Punia, Nalini Singh Chauhan and Ravindra Pratap Singh

8.1 Introduction 163

8.2 Classification of e-waste 164
8.3 Global scenario of e-waste 165
8.4 Disposal methods of e-waste 167
8.4.1 Bioremediation of e-waste 168
8.4.2 Phytoremediation of e-waste 171
8.4.3 Vermiremediation 174
8.5 Conclusion 175
References 175
Further reading 179

9. Chemical methods for the treatment of e-waste 181

Priti Malhotra and Arti Jain
9.1 Introduction 182
9.2 Identification of e-waste 182
9.3 Effects on air 186
9.3.1 Effects on soil 187
9.3.2 Effects on water 187
9.3.3 Effects on human health 188
9.4 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 189
9.5 Dioxin and furan-related health risks 189
9.6 Lead as a health deterrent on exposure 189
9.7 Beryllium exposure and its health damages 189
9.8 Cadmium as potent health deterrent 190
9.9 Exposure to mercury and its health damages 190
9.10 Flame retardants’ health damages 190
9.11 Land filling and its hazards 191
9.12 Hazards caused by landfilling 191
9.13 Incineration and its hazards 191
9.14 Damages and hazards of incineration process involve the following 192
9.15 Recycling of e-waste 192
9.16 Structure of printed circuit board 192
9.17 Techniques of chemical recycling 193
9.18 Chemical treatment by metallurgical processes 194
9.19 Chemical recycling techniques 196
9.20 Electrochemical process 196
9.21 Recycling by thermal methods 198
9.22 Pyrolysis process 199
x Contents

9.23 Thermal treatment 199

9.24 Recycling of LCD panels to procure indium 199
9.25 Production of clean fuel from recycling e-waste 200
9.26 Conclusion 200
References 201

10. E-waste management using different cost-effective, eco-friendly

biological techniques: an overview 205
Sangita Agarwal, Soumendra Darbar, Srimoyee Saha, Moharana Choudhury and
Ravindra Pratap Singh
10.1 Introduction 206
10.1.1 Overview of e-waste 206
10.1.2 E-waste trade and mechanism 208
10.1.3 E-waste flow model 208
10.1.4 Stakeholders 209
10.2 Statistics and e-waste management system in Asian countries 211
10.3 E-waste management system in India 211
10.4 Health hazards associated with e-waste 213
10.5 Consumer’s awareness 214
10.6 Economic benefit 214
10.7 E-waste management 215
10.8 Micro-remediation of e-waste 215
10.8.1 Bioleaching 216
10.8.2 Biosorption 216
10.8.3 Bioaccumulation 217
10.8.4 Microbial involvement in bioaccumulation process 217
10.8.5 Chemisorption of heavy metals by microorganism: a method for
the bioremediation of solutions 218
10.8.6 Biotransformation 218
10.8.7 Biomineralization 219
10.8.8 Microbially-enhanced chemisorption of metals 219
10.9 Recent trends in metal recovery methods from e-waste 219
10.10 Suggestion to control and manage e-waste in India 221
10.11 Ecological and environmental effects of e-wastes 222
10.11.1 Deleterious effects e-wastes on air 222
10.11.2 Deleterious effects of e-wastes on soil 223
10.11.3 Deleterious effects of e-wastes on water 223
10.12 Environmental and health issues 223
10.13 Recent research 225
10.14 Conclusion 226
Annexure I 226
 Contents xi

Annexure II (https://cpcb.nic.in/e-waste-recyclers-dismantler) 228

Annexure III Description of UNU categories (Baldé, C. P., Wang, F., Kuehr, R., Huisman,
J. 2015, The global e-waste monitor—2014, United Nations University, IAS—SCYCLE,
Bonn, Germany) 229
References 230

11. Life cycle assessment of e-waste management: current practices and

future research agenda towards sustainability 237
Haikal Ismail and Marlia M. Hanafiah
11.1 Introduction 237
11.2 Aim and motivation of the study 239
11.3 Overview on life cycle assessment and its development 239
11.3.1 Life cycle assessment as environmental assessment tool 239
11.3.2 Role of life cycle impact assessment methodologies and its recent
development 240
11.3.3 Transition of life cycle assessment towards sustainability assessment tool 241
11.4 Overview on application of life cycle assessment in e-waste management 242
11.5 Lessons learned and discussion 244
11.5.1 Life cycle assessment: current transition towards sustainability assessment
tool and its application in e-waste management 244
11.5.2 Future multidisciplinary research and agenda 245
11.6 Conclusions and outlooks 246
Acknowledgements 246
References 246

12. E-waste: policies and legislations for a sustainable green growth 253
Juhi Gupta
12.1 E-waste: current scenario 253
12.2 E-waste: generation and distribution 254
12.3 WEEE laws and enforcements: status 255
12.3.1 Indian legislations for e-waste 257
12.3.2 Market-based initiatives 257
12.4 Policy challenges 261
12.4.1 Consumer attitude towards recycling 263
12.5 Policy implications 263
12.6 Forward logistics versus reverse logistics life-cycle assessment of electronic products 264
12.7 SWOT analysis of e-waste policy trends 265
12.8 Discussion and conclusion 266
References 267
xii Contents

13. E-waste policies and implementation: a global perspective 271

Francine Duarte Castro, Amilton Barbosa Botelho Júnior, João Paulo Bassin,
Jorge Tenório (Alberto Soares), Laura Cutaia, Mentore Vaccari and
Denise Espinosa (Crocce Romano)
13.1 Introduction 271
13.2 The global e-waste generation 272
13.2.1 Quantifying e-waste generation 272
13.3 E-waste laws and regulations 276
13.3.1 North America 276
13.3.2 Latin America 279
13.3.3 Europe 283
13.3.4 Asia and Oceania 292
13.3.5 Africa 300
13.4 Conclusions and future perspectives 301
Acknowledgments 302
References 303

14. The future of e-waste in the circular economy of Ghana; implications

for urban planning, environmental and human health risks 309
Michael Osei Asibey, Abdul-Salam Jahanfo Abdulai, Benjamin Dosu Jnr and
Prosper Tornyeviadzi

14.1 Introduction 309

14.2 Environmental and health risks associated with informal e-waste recycling 311
14.3 Towards understanding the circular economy philosophy 312
14.3.1 Circular economy-environmental and waste management nexus and criticisms 313
14.4 The future of e-waste and the circular economy of Ghana: urban planning,
environmental, and health risk implications 315
14.4.1 Ghana’s e-waste recycling enterprise 315
14.4.2 Urban planning, circular economy, and opportunities for efficient
e-waste recycling in Africa: a focus on Ghana 317
14.5 Way forward and conclusion 322
References 323

15. The role of the informal sector on e-waste management:

a case study from Brazil 327
Francine Duarte Castro, Bárbara Gomes Xavier, Laura Cutaia,
Mentore Vaccari and João Paulo Bassin
List of symbols and acronyms 327
15.1 Introduction 328
15.2 Contextualization 330
 Contents xiii

15.2.1 EEE and WEEE in numbers 330

15.2.2 Brazilian WEEE legislation 331
15.2.3 The role of waste pickers on waste management in Brazil 336
15.2.4 The involvement of WPO on WEEE management in Brazil 339
15.3 Methodology 341
15.3.1 The region under study 342
15.3.2 Study design 343
15.4 Results 347
15.4.1 The profile of the waste picker organizations 347
15.4.2 The perspective of waste pickers: WEEE management 350
15.4.3 The perspective of waste pickers: WPO, the environment and the society 352
15.5 Discussion 352
15.5.1 SWOT analysis 352
15.5.2 Waste picker organizations and the sustainable development goals 355
15.6 Conclusions and perspectives 357
References 357

Section 3 Industrial waste

16. Recent perspectives of nanoparticles in industrial waste
management—an overview 365
Nilakshi Dhara Sharma, Shailja Dhiman, Ajit Varma and Arti Goel
16.1 Introduction 365
16.1.1 Current situation and problems 365
16.1.2 Why nanotechnology 366
16.2 Types of synthesis 367
16.2.1 Conventional methods 368
16.2.2 Green synthesis 368
16.3 Nanoparticles in waste management 371
16.3.1 nZVI (nanoscale zero-valent iron) 371
16.3.2 Carbon nanotubes 373
16.3.3 Titanium dioxide nanoparticles 373
16.3.4 Zinc oxide nanoparticles 374
16.4 Nanoparticles in ex-situ and in-situ waste management 375
16.5 Mechanistic approach towards the waste management through nanoparticles 376
16.6 Conclusion 378
References 379
xiv Contents

17. Advances in industrial waste management 385

Darshan Singh

17.1 Introduction 385

17.2 Types of wastes 387
17.3 Techniques for removal of organic/inorganic waste and heavy metals 387
17.3.1 Chemical precipitation 387
17.3.2 Chemical coagulation/flocculation 388
17.3.3 Chemical stabilization or lime stabilization 388
17.3.4 Ion exchange 389
17.3.5 Membrane filtration 390
17.3.6 Brine technologies 393
17.3.7 Phytoremediation 395
17.3.8 Advanced oxidation processes 398
17.3.9 Adsorption 403
17.4 Management of industrial solid wastes 407
17.4.1 Landfill or dump 407
17.4.2 Incineration 408
17.4.3 Composting 409
17.5 Waste to energy technologies 411
17.5.1 Combustion 411
17.5.2 Anaerobic digestion 412
17.5.3 Fermentation 412
17.5.4 Gasification 412
17.5.5 Pyrolysis 413
17.6 Conclusion 413
17.7 Future perspective 414
References 414

18. Nano- and microplastics in the environment: a potential threat

to in-situ bioremediation of wastewaters 417
Imania Ghaffar, Arshad Javid, Syed Mohsin Bukhari, Waqas Ali,
Syed Ghulam Mohayud Din Hashmi and Ali Hussain

18.1 Introduction 417

18.2 Implication of different microbes in bioremediation of wastewaters 422
18.2.1 Implication of bacteria in bioremediation 422
18.2.2 Use of fungi in bioremediation 423
18.2.3 Utility of microalgae in phytoremediation 424
18.3 Effect of microplastics on bioremedial potential of microbes 424
18.3.1 Microplastics 424
18.3.2 Intrusion of microplastics in the environment 425
 Contents xv

18.3.3 Impact of microplastics on microbial communities 426

18.3.4 Effect of microplastics on microbes carrying out in-situ bioremediation
of industrial wastewaters 426
18.4 Conclusions and recommendations 429
References 429

19. Biological methods for the treatment of industrial waste 437

Ananya Dutta, Roopa Kumari, Trishna Rajbongshi, Jyotirmoy Sarma and
Sanchayita Rajkhowa
19.1 Introduction 437
19.1.1 Aerobic and anaerobic treatment of wastewater 440
19.2 Waste water treatment from food industry 440
19.2.1 Characteristics of dairy wastewater and its harmful effects on environment 441
19.3 Treatment of effluents of dye industry 443
19.3.1 Aerobic treatment of dyes 443
19.3.2 Anaerobic treatment of dyes 445
19.3.3 Treatment in combined aerobic-anaerobic system 446
19.4 Waste water treatment from pharmaceutical industry 447
19.4.1 Aerobic technique 448
19.4.2 Aerobic technique 448
19.4.3 Anaerobic technique 449
19.5 Conclusion 450
References 451

20. Adsorptive removal of hazardous dyes from industrial waste

using activated carbon: an appraisal 455
Charu Arora, Dipti Bharti, Sanju Soni, Asha Patel and Rahul Singh

20.1 Introduction 455

20.2 Methodological design and methods of dye removal 458
20.2.1 Biological dye removal methods 459
20.2.2 Chemical dye removal methods 459
20.2.3 Physical dye removal methods 459
20.2.4 Factors affecting adsorption 461
20.3 Adsorption on activated carbon 461
20.3.1 Definition of activated carbon 461
20.3.2 Porous structure and surface area 461
20.3.3 Chemical structure 463
20.3.4 Activated carbon preparation from various sources 463
20.3.5 Classification 464
20.3.6 Properties of activated carbon 465
xvi Contents

20.3.7 Applications of activated carbon 465

20.4 Dye removal by activated carbon 466
20.4.1 Combination of techniques for dye removal 467
20.5 Conclusions 476
References 476

Section 4 Biomedical/hazardous waste

21. Hazardous waste management: lessons from developed countries 487
Taniya Banerjee, Ammu P. Nair and Smitha M.S.
21.1 Introduction 487
21.2 Challenges faced by developing countries 489
21.3 Open dumping 489
21.4 Open burning 489
21.5 Examples of waste management in various developed countries 490
21.5.1 United States 490
21.5.2 Japan 492
21.5.3 Singapore 493
21.5.4 Germany 494
21.5.5 The Netherlands 495
21.5.6 Hong Kong 497
21.5.7 Norway 499
21.6 Brief comparison between waste management practices in developing and
developed countries 500
21.7 Conclusion 502
References 503

22. Hazardous biomedical waste management scenario in developing countries 505

Deeksha Krishna and H.K. Sachan

22.1 Introduction 505

22.2 Sources of biomedical wastes in developing countries 507
22.2.1 Biomedical waste classification in developing countries 509
22.3 Management of biomedical waste in developing nations 509
22.4 Treatment of infectious medical waste 511
22.4.1 Treatment technologies used in developing countries 512
22.5 Conclusion 515
References 515
 Contents xvii

23. Chemical methods for the treatment of biomedical hazardous waste 521
Manita Thakur, Manisha Chandel, Anita Rani, Ajay Sharma and Deepak Pathania

23.1 Introduction 521

23.2 Biomedical hazardous waste 522
23.2.1 Type of biomedical waste 526
23.2.2 Sources of biomedical hazardous waste 527
23.3 Chemical routes for the management of biomedical waste 530
23.3.1 Supercritical water oxidation technique 530
23.3.2 Ion exchange process 531
23.3.3 Incineration 532
23.3.4 Autoclaving 532
23.3.5 Microwaving 532
23.3.6 Shredding 532
23.4 Importance of biomedical waste management 532
23.5 Conclusion 538
References 538

24. Advances in biomedical waste management technologies 543

Jaskiran Kaur

24.1 Introduction 543

24.2 Categories, sources and fate of biomedical waste 545
24.3 Need for biomedical waste management 546
24.4 Conventional ways for managing biomedical waste 548
24.4.1 Thermochemical methods 548
24.4.2 Chemical treatment 550
24.5 State of the art treatment of biomedical wastes 551
24.5.1 Bioremediation of biomedical waste 551
24.5.2 Plant bioremediation 563
24.5.3 Membrane technology 564
24.6 Conclusion and future prospects 565
References 566

Section 5 Sustainable waste management

25. Biological treatment of pharmaceutical wastes 577
Tahir Mehmood, Fareeha Nadeem, Muhammad Bilal, Bisma Meer,
Kushif Meer and Sarmad Ahmad Qamar
25.1 Introduction 577
xviii Contents

25.2 Types of pharmaceutical waste 578

25.2.1 Hazardous waste 579
25.2.2 Non-hazardous pharmaceutical waste 581
25.2.3 Chemo waste 582
25.2.4 Controlled substances 582
25.2.5 Chemical wastes 583
25.2.6 Potentially infectious wastes 583
25.2.7 Liquid waste 583
25.2.8 Ampoules 583
25.2.9 Solid waste 584
25.3 Sources of pharmaceuticals in the environment 584
25.3.1 Sources of pharmaceutical in marine water 584
25.3.2 Environmental fate of pharmaceuticals in marine water 586
25.3.3 Sources of industrial pharmaceutical waste 586
25.3.4 General sources of pharmaceutical wastes 588
25.4 Biological pretreatment methods for the valorization of pharmaceutical wastes 590
25.4.1 Anaerobic methodologies 590
25.4.2 Aerobic methodologies 592
25.5 Practices of effective management of pharmaceutical/healthcare wastes 594
References 595

26. A review on municipal solid wastes and their associated problems

and solutions (waste-to-energy recovery and nano-treatment) with
special reference to India 601
Piu Saha and Sumi Handique

Acronyms 601
26.1 Introduction 602
26.2 Waste generation in India 606
26.3 Waste management practices in India to address the problem of municipal
solid waste 606
26.4 Challenges faced while addressing the municipal solid waste management 608
26.4.1 Segregation at source 608
26.4.2 Lack of funding to address the municipal solid waste problem 608
26.4.3 Failure of waste-to-energy recovery 608
26.4.4 Communication gap between center and State government 609
26.4.5 Implementation of rules and regulations 609
26.4.6 Research and development for new technological practices 609
26.5 Energy recovery from municipal solid waste 610
26.6 Direct waste-to-energy processes 610
 Contents xix

26.6.1 Indirect waste-to-energy processes 610

26.7 Nanotechnology and waste management 614
26.7.1 Nanoparticles and their use in treating leachate of municipal solid
waste landfills 614
26.7.2 The impact of nanoparticles on the composting of municipal solid waste 618

26.8 Conclusion 619

References 620
Further reading 623

27. Applications of waste-to-economy practices in the urban wastewater

sector: implications for ecosystem, human health and environment 625
Siril Singh, Rajni Yadav and Anand Narain Singh
27.1 Introduction 625
27.2 Role and need of the waste-to-economy approach in the urban wastewater sector 626
27.3 Applications of waste-to-economy practices in the urban wastewater sector 628
27.3.1 Recovery of value-added products 628
27.3.2 Biofuels production 629
27.3.3 Biopolymers production 630
27.3.4 Biopesticides production 630
27.3.5 Biosurfactants and bioflocculant production 631
27.4 Environmental implications 632
27.4.1 Impact of wastewater reuse on soil parameters 633
27.4.2 Impact of wastewater reuse on micro-and macro-fauna 633
27.4.3 Impact of wastewater reuse on climate change and greenhouse gases 634
27.5 Human health implications 635
27.5.1 Pathogens 635
27.5.2 Heavy metals 636
27.5.3 Antibiotic resistance 637
27.5.4 Emerging contaminants 637
27.6 Challenges to waste-to-economy concept in the urban wastewater sector 638
27.7 Conclusion and future recommendations 638
Acknowledgements 641
References 642

28. Cost-benefit analysis act as a tool for evaluation of agricultural

waste to the economy: a synthesis 647
Rajni Yadav, Siril Singh and Anand Narain Singh
28.1 Introduction 647
28.2 Agricultural waste to the economy/energy 649
Another random document with
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other jays to his help. If one of them is killed by the hawk, they all
give loud, wild cries. Then they fly off and, hidden in the wood,
complain of their disaster.
 LESSON XXXVIII.
THE BIRDS IN THE HOUSE.
As so many of you have cage birds, I think you will like to hear a little
about the kinds of birds that most often live in cages. I will tell you of
only the two most common kinds of pet birds,—the canary and the
parrot.
As the parrot is the larger bird and of more ancient fame, we will
speak of him first. Parrots have been favorite cage birds for many
hundred years. They are notable for size, splendor of plumage,
docility, long life, and power of learning to speak.
Like the woodpecker, the parrot belongs to the division of climbing
birds. The feet of climbing birds have two toes turned forward, and
two turned backward.
The parrot family is a group of large and splendid birds. You will
know even the smaller members of it by their bills. The bills are high
and thick, and have the upper part much curved and longer than the
under part. This bill is useful in aiding the birds in climbing, and in
holding fast to the branches of trees. It is just the right kind of bill for
eating fruit, which forms the chief food of the parrot in its wild state.
The tongue of the parrot is short, thick, and fleshy. The wings and tail
are long. The plumage is gay.
To the parrot family belong the parrakeets, cockatoos, macaws, and
lories. These are all birds of hot countries.
Nothing can exceed the splendor of the plumage of these birds. Red,
lemon, green, scarlet, blue, white, and a mixture of these colors, will
be found upon them. Many of them have brilliant crests, and many of
them long gay tail feathers.
The head and bill of the parrot are large. While their bill tells us what
kind of food they live on, and their feet show that they can climb,
their long strong wings show that they are birds of flight.
Parrots are social birds. They live in large flocks. They make their
nests in hollow trees, as woodpeckers do. In their native homes they
are much like woodpeckers in some of their ways. But they eat fruit,
not insects.
The natural voice of the parrot is a loud, harsh call. Parrots can learn
to speak only when they are carefully taught. Not every kind of parrot
can learn even when taught. The common short-tailed, red and
green parrot makes the best talker. Some of them are very amusing.
Parrots are usually of a kind, gentle disposition, easily tamed, and
learn to live very happily in a cage. When captive they eat sugar,
crackers, and almost any little dainty that is offered to them. They
are fond of water, and bathe often.
The very long-tailed parrots called macaws, and parrakeets, are
birds of Central and Southern America. In India there are also very
long-tailed parrots. In old times they were sent as presents to kings
and queens. The parrakeets of Asia and Africa are called ring
parrakeets, because each one has a collar of bright feathers about
the neck. The two parrots called “the gray,” and “the festive,” or “jolly”
parrot, are the most common as pets, are most amusing, and learn
many words and tricks.
What are called “love birds” are very small and beautiful parrots,
from North Africa. They are as small as bluebirds. They are the
smallest of their race, and rather rare.
The cockatoos are kept in cages, not for their speech, as they do not
learn to talk, but for their great beauty. You will know them by their
high crests. They have their name from their note, or call. They are
natives of tropic islands. Most of them have light-colored feathers,
pink, lemon or white, with markings of brighter tints.
If you live where you can visit a large bird-store, you will do well to
go to see some of these birds.
Let us now turn to that other house bird, and common pet, the
canary.
This little bird has its name from some islands on the coast of Africa,
which are its native home. It is about three hundred years since
these birds began to be reared and sold for cage birds.
Canaries are very small birds, of a delicate yellow color, graceful
shape, bright and lively ways, and sweet song.
In their native woods they have not the clear yellow color which they
now wear. They are of an olive green with spots of black and yellow.
The yellow color has become common to the cage birds.
Canaries are intelligent, affectionate little birds. They can be taught
to whistle tunes, if you train them with care and patience. If given
plenty of water, clean cages, plenty of light, and good fresh seed,
they will be healthy and live a long time.
You should give them a lump of sugar for a treat, some chick-weed
for fresh food, a bit of cuttle-fish bone to sharpen their beak upon.
You must also be careful to keep them out of a draught.
These birds of hot lands, reared in cages, would die if we let them fly
out of the cage. So, if we treat them well, it does not seem cruel to
keep them in their little wire palaces.
For my part, I prefer to see birds flying, feeding, and singing in the
woods and fields, which are their natural home.
 LESSON XXXIX.
THE LOST BIRDS.
Hidden in the earth, in peat swamps, or in rocks, we find the bones
of birds of various kinds that lived long ago, and are now lost. Some
of these lost birds were on the earth before men and beasts were.
Others have been well known until a recent time. I shall tell you of a
few that have lived until lately.
First I shall mention the great auk. This was a large handsome bird,
which lived along the shores and islands of northern seas. As auks
were good to eat, large numbers of them were killed.
There should have been a law to protect them while they were
raising their young. As there was no such law, the birds were killed at
any time, and their eggs and young were taken. Thus year by year
they perished, until none are left.
The auk was a very large bird, with black and white feathers. It had
very short legs, broad, webbed feet, and very small wings. When
sitting at rest on a rock, it held itself straight up and was nearly a
yard high.
It was a wonderful swimmer and diver, but could not walk much, and
did not fly except from rock to rock. Its bill was very large and strong.
The auk was a fish-catcher and eater.
As to these very big bills, such as you see on the toucan and hornbill
in museums, where the bill is nearly as large as all the rest of the
bird, let me tell you a secret. Do not they look very heavy? Do you
not wonder how the bird can carry them, or fly with them?
Here is the truth. The horny hard part is very thin, not thicker than a
sheet of paper. Then all the inside of the bill is built up in cells,
something like a fine honey-comb, and these cells are full of air! So
instead of being heavy, these huge bills are very light.
The bill of the auk was large, but not nearly so large as that of the
hornbill or toucan.
A neighbor of the auk was the Labrador duck. This bird often built its
nest close by where the auk laid its great, bright-colored eggs, near
the water’s edge. The Labrador duck and the auk swam in the same
waters, and were both very gentle birds.
This duck, like the auk, is now lost. The last one seems to have been
killed a few years ago. The Labrador duck was a very beautiful bird.
People wanted its eggs, flesh and feathers, and did not spare the old
birds to raise their broods.
This makes me think of the fable of the greedy man, who killed the
goose that laid golden eggs. Then he had neither goose nor eggs. I
think it served him right.
Chief among lost birds is the famous dodo. This dodo was an
immense pigeon. It was a helpless, quiet, kind, clumsy bird. It was
too heavy and too short of wing to fly. It had no weapon of defence;
no sharp, strong bill; no tearing claws.
Such a bird was easily caught and torn to pieces by dogs or cats.
When these animals were taken to the island of Mauritius, where the
dodo lived, they were allowed to run wild in the woods. They soon
became more like wolves and panthers than decent dogs and cats.
The dodo had never before seen any wild animals larger than rats or
squirrels. The dodos lived in peace and friendship with other birds
and small wild beasts. When ships began to visit the islands where
the poor dodos lived, men, dogs, and cats soon put an end to the
gentle birds.
Lost, with the auk and dodo, we may count two kinds of beautiful
parrots, and a starling with a splendid crest, like an unfurled fan; also
a tall, handsome bird, called a rail, has been hunted out of existence.
But some other rails are still plentiful.
The last bird to disappear has been the great vulture of the Alps.
This was a big bird indeed. It was two yards wide across the
outspread wings. It lived on the high peaks of the Alps.
This bird had a large hooked beak and large strong claws. You know
that eagles and vultures are flesh eaters. This big vulture did not
confine its diet to dead flesh. It would pick up and carry off a little
lamb. It has been known, also, to carry off a baby child.
So, as this was a cruel and dangerous bird, I am glad it has gone
from the earth.
The garefowl, often called a penguin, is another lost bird. It was a
great bird, living on the coast. It had such small wings that it could
not fly. Thus you see it could not get away from dogs and wild
animals, except when it could take to the water.
When men joined in the hunt, the garefowl soon perished. Is it not
right, then, to kill birds for food? Yes. But they should never be killed
until the season is over when they are laying eggs and raising the
young brood. If old birds are killed before the young ones are reared,
you can see that the birds must soon die out.
Then, too, while birds may be killed for food, it is not right to kill them
for the mere pleasure of killing. It is wrong to find a pleasure in taking
away life. You should never waste the life of beast, bird, insect, or
plant.
I have seen people nearly destroy a variety of rare wild flower, by
tearing up masses of the plant before seeds had time to form. The
people took much that they did not need and soon threw away. Then
only few and small plants were left for seed.
We should remember that as we are not the first people on the earth,
so we shall not be the last, and we should not rob the future of things
that are pleasing to us. We should all try to make the earth richer
and better, not poorer, for our having been in it.
 LESSON XL.
THE FIN FAMILY.
I remember when I thought that no living thing was of so little interest
as a fish. I used to wonder how it was that the great Agassiz began
his studies in Nature with fish. I did not think that fish were even
pretty.
I suppose that was because I knew nothing about them. When we
are quite ignorant of a subject, we are apt to think it has no interest.
One reason why, in these Nature Readers, I am telling you
something of many things is, that by knowing a little of these
subjects, your interest in them may be aroused. Then you will try to
learn more; and the more you know, the more you will enjoy.

IN THE COOL DEPTHS.

Once, if you had asked me, “What is a fish?” I should have said, “Oh,
a fish is a long thing, with scales and fins; and it lives in the water!”
How many of you can tell me anything more than that? Perhaps you
will add that a fish is good to eat.
Well, one day I went into a house where there was a great glass
tank. It was like a glass room full of water. As I stood looking in
through the glass side of this tank, I saw, gliding through the water, a
large, lovely creature, in silver and rose color. It had big black eyes,
set in a golden ring.
This creature seemed to move without the least effort. It made no
sound. It slid by me like the figures in a beautiful dream. It rose. It
turned. It sank,—and all without seeming to exert itself in the least. I
saw no effort at motion; but now and then a tremor of a forked tail,
and now and then the gentle wave to and fro of a pair of gleaming,
thin, silken things, like fans, half unfurled.
This, then, was a fish at home! Here was a fish living in the water,
and doing as it pleased. The clear water added to its beauty. It shone
like a gem. Other creatures, as beautiful, but different, lived with it.
They crossed and recrossed each other’s course. They left no track.
They had no path. They moved on, far more easily than a bird
moves in the air, or a man on the land.
From that day I loved the fin family. Let us look at this family.
I told you that a bird is built on the plan of a boat to sail in the air. The
fish, also, is built on the boat plan. He is a boat to move not on, but
in, the water.
Perhaps this is not a fair way of speaking; for birds and fish were
made long before men. And no doubt men built their boats on the
plan of the water-birds and the fish.
The fishes vary much in shape and size. We will speak now of the
ordinary fish type. We will take a model or pattern fish, such as the
perch or the mackerel.
The head is sharp and wedge-shaped. It serves as the prow of the
boat, to divide the water. The body is long, narrow, smooth. It has
scales lapping over each other, and are all turned from the head
toward the tail.
The tail is like the rudder of a boat, to direct its course. It serves also
as the paddle, or propeller, to drive it through the water. There is a
long slim fin on each side, just below and behind the head. These
serve as balances, and, also, sometimes as oars.
There is a long fin, sometimes there are two fins, on the ridge of the
back. There are also two fins on the lower line of the body. These
steady the fish in the water. They help to keep it, as you would say,
“right side up.” There are two more fins under the body, near the tail.
What you call the tail is really a fin. The true tail is the narrow end of
the body, just above this final fin.
Let us look at the head. Just on the front is the mouth. It has plenty
of teeth. I shall tell you of these teeth in another lesson, when I tell
you about the scales. Just above and behind the mouth are the
eyes, one on each side of the head. They never have any eyelids.
Below and back of the eyes are the gills and gill-covers. Gills are
wonderful things, which serve the fish for lungs. These gills can take,
or sift, out of the water, the oxygen of the air that is mixed with the
water.
The fish takes the water in at his mouth. Then, by a motion like
swallowing, he drives it out through the gills; and the gills sift out the
oxygen, as the water passes through them. Fish need that part of air
called oxygen to purify their blood, just as you need it.
If fish are kept in a vase where the water is not renewed, they soon
die for lack of oxygen. If they are put into water which has been
boiled, they die, because boiling has driven out the oxygen.
Perhaps you have been told that fish breathe water, as you breathe
air. That is not true. Fish breathe air, but the air must be sifted
through their fine gills. When you pull a fish out of water, he pants
and struggles and cannot get his breath. His fine gills stick together,
and cannot do their work. So the fish chokes to death. His panting
action is an effort to get air.
Fish with the thinnest and finest gills, as herring, choke very soon. A
carp, perch, or other fish that have gill-covers that will hold moisture,
and gills that will keep wet a long time, will live one, two, or more
hours in the air.
Fish have inside the body an air-bladder, or bag of air. This may help
them in breathing, but its chief use is to keep them up in the water.
The bladder lies under the backbone. This backbone runs from the
head to the tail of the fish. It is made of little pieces like cups. Each
piece has two or more long spines, like ribs, on each side of it.
The bony frame of a fish is very curious. You should try to have a fish
skeleton to look at. There are little bones that extend from each
division of the fins. You will see that the skeleton looks somewhat
like the ribs or frame of a boat before the planks are put on.
The bright color and gleam of the fish is in the scales. I will tell you of
these later. The scales are like a rich, flexible suit of armor.
Fish have cold blood, not warm like yours. They have very keen
sight and smell. Probably they have good hearing, and but little
sense of touch or taste. They have small brains, and not very much
intelligence.
 LESSON XLI.
OUTSIDE AND INSIDE.
If I ask you what is the largest of all fish, you will say “a whale.” But
let me tell you that a whale is not a fish. A whale is an animal that
spends all its time in the water, but cannot live constantly under
water. If cast ashore it will die, because it has no means of getting
back into the water, and no food on the land.

QUEER NOSES.
But whales have no gills, and they breathe air as you do. They are
so made that they can, with safety, remain under water for a much
longer time than you can. If a whale is kept under water too long, he
drowns. So we must leave whales, nar-whales, and porpoises out of
our account of fishes.
Among real fish you will find some of great size. Sturgeon have been
caught which weighed five hundred pounds. They were twelve or
fourteen feet long. Yet this size seems small when we compare it
with that of the great shark which has been found thirty feet long.
A queer contrast with such a vast creature is the little minnow, which
you catch in ponds and brooks. It is not much over an inch long.
Little English boys in their first fishing trips go for sticklebacks, a fish
from one to two inches long. I shall tell you in another lesson of this
amusing little fish.
The fish usually chosen as a type, or model, of the fish race, is a
perch. We find fishes[29] differing from the general perch pattern as
much as flower differs from flower.
The perch is a wedge-shaped fish, and is a beautiful creature. Let us
see how others of the fin family differ from the pattern I described to
you in the last lesson.
Instead of having a clear, round, full, bright eye like that of a perch,
some fishes, which live in mud, or in very deep water, have tiny
eyes, like dots. Some fishes which live in streams in dark caves have
really no eyes.
The perch is covered with scales of a rich green-brown and a golden
white. Some fish, as the eel and sword-fish, have no scales. A shark
has no true scales, but his skin has hardened into little bony points.
Some other fish, instead of scales, have large bony plates. The
heads and the fins seldom have any scales upon them.
If you could see a large collection of fish, you would wonder at the
variety of shape. You would see the “perch pattern” changed in
almost every possible way. Perhaps the first odd-shaped family to
notice would be the rays.
The fish of this family are flat. Their bodies are shaped much like a
flat triangle, finished with a long slim tail. The ray’s mouth is on the
under side of his body. The most common members of the ray family
are the skates. They are of a dark color above, and light below. I
shall soon tell you a queer thing about skates’ eggs.
One of the rays is called the sting ray, because its tail extends in a
huge lash, like an immense whip. Another ray is called the eagle,
because his body and fins widen out on each side, like the wings of
a big bird.
Another odd-shaped fin family is that of the flat fish. These, like the
rays, are dark above and light below. These fish are very flat or thin
in the body, and usually have both eyes and mouth on the upper or
dark side. There is one kind where the eyes and mouth are so raised
as to look much like the head of a bird. They swim with a queer
wave-like motion of the whole body. To this family belong the turbot,
flounder, plaice, and sole.
Then, too, there is a family of fish that are nearly as round as balls.
They have wide stripes of light and dark color, and look more like
nice play bells, furnished with tails and fins, than like fish.
A queer contrast to them is the pipe-fish. Pipe-fish have no scales.
Their bodies are long and slender, like very slim canes. They get
their name from the queer shape of their noses. The pipe-fish’s nose
is very slim and hard, and half as long as the fish. People think it
looks like a pipe, or cigar.
Many fish have very odd noses. Instead of the wedge-shaped head,
with the nose and mouth set exactly on the front, the nose may be of
a queer shape, and the mouth above or below.
The bellows-fish gets its name from a nose shaped almost exactly
like a bellows. One kind of sturgeon is called the shovel-fish,
because its head is shaped much like a wide shovel. Another
sturgeon is called the spoon-bill, because its nose runs out in a long,
horny plate, like a spoon, or a paddle. The hammer-headed shark,
has its head broadened on each side like a great hammer, with the
neck for a handle. One eye is set at the end of each projection.
I cannot tell you of all the queer shapes that fish take. If you examine
those which you catch in the ponds and rivers, or see brought to
market, you will observe that no two kinds are alike. What a narrow,
graceful, active fish a trout is! What a queer little fellow is the fish
that from his shape you call “a pumpkin seed.”
I told you just now, that one ray fish has a very long tail. With it he
strikes, and stuns or kills, his prey, or his enemy. Most fish live on
animal food. Some fish eat sea-weeds, but most of them prefer other
fish, crabs, insects, shell-fish, or other live creatures. Very many fish
have some weapon for securing prey, or fighting their enemies.
Some fish, depend on their quickness of motion to secure their food
or escape enemies. But I will now tell you of some of their weapons.
The lower lip of a salmon turns up into a sharp, cutting hook. The
sword-fish has a long, hard, sharp, strong horn, which it can drive
into the side of a ship. With this weapon it will also kill a man. The
sword is formed by some bones of the side of the head, growing out
very long and strong. The sword-fish belongs to the ray order.
Another ray is the saw-fish. This fish carries on its head a long, flat
bone set with great points like the teeth of a coarse saw. With this
weapon the saw-fish charges into a shoal of fishes. He maims and
wounds a number so that they die or cannot swim away. Then he
feasts on them at his leisure.
A very queer fish is the torpedo.[30] He is a very big fellow. He can
give a shock like electricity, that stuns or kills his prey. There is a
large eel which has the same power. They are both much feared by
other fishes.
But no fish is more feared by other fish, or by men, than the shark.
No doubt you have heard of him, with his huge mouth set with great
hooked teeth. He can kill almost any creature which is in the sea.
While much more could be said about weapons, we must now leave
them to take a look at the first pair of fins, or the breast fins.
In the rays the breast fins are broad and long. They are the chief
means of swimming. The flat fish have these breast fins extended all
along the side of the body. By the wave-like motion of these fins and
of the body they swim.
In some fish these breast fins are turned to feet, for walking at the
bottom of the water. There are one or two kinds of fish that can climb
trees. These have the under fins turned to sucker-like plates to help
them climb.
Did you ever hear of the flying fish? That fish has the breast fins long
and wide like wings. The fish can rise from five to twenty feet above
the water, and these fin wings support it, so that it can fly about two
hundred yards. Thus it escapes from its enemies.
You will see some fish with fleshy, finger-like organs near the mouth.
These are called barbels. Fish with barbels are bottom feeders. With
these barbels they hunt for food in the mud.

FOOTNOTES:
[29] Both fish and fishes are correct plural forms, and both are
used to accustom the child to both words.
[30] Also of the ray order.
 LESSON XLII.
WHERE THEY LIVE.
Where does the fin family live? “In the water,” you say. Yes. There is
perhaps no natural body of water in the world without its fish. There
are forty families of fresh-water fish. There are fish that live in water
that is partly salt and partly fresh, as where the sea-tides run back
into rivers. There are fish that live in the salt water of the ocean.

IN FRESH WATER.
The ocean fish are divided into three classes. First there are the
coast fish, that seldom go far from shore. They need a certain kind of
food and a certain warmth of water that they find near land. Then
there are surface, or upper-sea fish, that live far from land, but never
very deep in the water. And there are the fish of the very deep sea.
The surface, or upper-sea fish, are most of them very strong
swimmers. The deep-sea fish live far down where there is little air
and almost no light. It is only about twenty years since people began
to study deep-sea fish, and as yet little is known about them.
Many of the shore, or coast fish, that live in sea-water, enter the
rivers to lay their eggs. They arrive in the rivers in the spring, and
sometimes go up even hundreds of miles from the mouth to find safe
places for their young. Thus these fish are born in fresh water, and
grow up in salt water.
Among fish of this habit, we find the shad and the salmon. So you
see a fish may live part of its time in salt water, part of the time in
fresh, and part of the time in the brackish water at the river’s mouth.
Some fish, that are accustomed to spend all their lives in sea-water,
can be made to live in fresh water, if this is changed gradually.
When fish live in a tank, air must be driven into the water to supply
what the fish use out of it. If air is not driven in, the fish will die. As
the oxygen in the water becomes scarce, the fish seem uneasy.
They come up to the top of the water, and put their mouths out for
air. They give a gasp as if choking.
In such tanks, where fish live, a jet of water is driven with some force
into the water of the tank from above. As it goes down, you see a
stream of shining bubbles. These bubbles are air. They break in the
water, and the air mingles with the water in the tank.
You may see gold-fish in globes coming to the top of the water, and
seeming uneasy and unhappy. Then if you dash in a little fresh
water, or take some of the water from the globe and pour it back
from a little height, the fish seem content.
You know that the driving winds and the tumbling waves that break
in foam will keep plenty of fresh air in ocean water, for all the finny
tribes that live there.
So rivers, as they rush and ripple, toss their waves, and are driven
with winds, get air bubbles mixed in their waters.
Some fish need more air than others, and often come to the surface
to breathe. Some, as the sturgeon, leap above the surface into the
air. Perhaps you have seen cat-fish jumping in this way. Did you ever
see dolphins and porpoises[31] roll themselves quite above the
surface of the water in their play? I have told you of the fish that
make short flights. In all these ways these creatures help themselves
to air in their water home. But what do they do for food?
As I told you, fish eat fish and insects and crabs and such living
things. Some few are feeders on vegetables. Fish will also devour
almost anything that is thrown into the water for them. Did you ever
feed fish in a pond with bread and worms?
Carp will hurry to the top of the water to get food that they have
learned to look for when people come near. Fish of a kind often keep
together and feed together. You know in a stream there may be
some places where you will catch only trout, or only bullheads. And
in some other place you will find pickerel.
In the sea you will find millions of herring together at certain
seasons. This is called a shoal of herring. Fish move from place to
place along many miles of sea-coast or river, as they seek their
especial food, or a certain warmth.
Sometimes a particular fish, or pair of fishes, will live for years in
some certain place. They may find a nice spot under a bank, where
they feel safe, and where plenty of food drifts near them.
I knew of a fish that went into a hole made by the roots of a great
willow-tree. The roots formed a close cage about him. He liked it
well. His enemies could not get at him. Water rippled in and out
about him. Grubs and worms were close to his mouth. He grew fat
and big. He grew so big he could not get out. He began to grow to fit
the shape of his cage. As he had no room to grow long, he grew
broad.
After some years he was a very queer-looking fish. Finally, some
men were making an embankment, and they came upon this fish-
home in the roots of the tree. They took the fish out with care, and
sent him to a pond. I fancy it seemed odd to him to swim at first, after
being so long a prisoner.
There are some kinds of fish that live and thrive in the icy-cold
waters of polar seas. There are other fish that live in hot springs or
ponds, where the water is so hot that you can hardly bear your hand
in it.
Some fish can live only in very clean water. Others live in black and
muddy streams, and their flesh takes the dark hue of their home. In
fact, there seem to be some kinds of fish made to suit every kind of
water. This is very fortunate, as so many birds and beasts and so
many people eat fish.

FOOTNOTES:
[31] The dolphin of the Mediterranean is of the whale family, and
is not a true fish. The dolphin of the Atlantic is a true fish. The
porpoise is of the whale family, not a true fish, but a mammal.