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PALGRAVE STUDIES IN
EUROPEAN POLITICAL SOCIOLOGY

Framing TTIP in
the European
Public Spheres
Towards an Empowering Dissensus
for EU Integration
Alvaro Oleart
Palgrave Studies in European Political Sociology

Series Editors
Carlo Ruzza
School of International Studies
University of Trento
Trento, Italy

Hans-Jörg Trenz
Department of Media, Cognition & Communication
University of Copenhagen
Copenhagen, Denmark
Palgrave Studies in European Political Sociology addresses contemporary
themes in the field of Political Sociology. Over recent years, attention has
turned increasingly to processes of Europeanization and globalization and
the social and political spaces that are opened by them. These processes
comprise both institutional-constitutional change and new dynamics of
social transnationalism. Europeanization and globalization are also about
changing power relations as they affect people’s lives, social networks and
forms of mobility.
The Palgrave Studies in European Political Sociology series addresses
linkages between regulation, institution building and the full range of
societal repercussions at local, regional, national, European and global
level, and will sharpen understanding of changing patterns of attitudes
and behaviours of individuals and groups, the political use of new rights
and opportunities by citizens, new conflict lines and coalitions, societal
interactions and networking, and shifting loyalties and solidarity within
and across the European space.
We welcome proposals from across the spectrum of Political Soci-
ology and Political Science, on dimensions of citizenship; political atti-
tudes and values; political communication and public spheres; states,
communities, governance structure and political institutions; forms of
political participation; populism and the radical right; and democracy and
democratization.

More information about this series at

http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/14630
 Alvaro Oleart

Framing TTIP
in the European
Public Spheres
Towards an Empowering Dissensus for EU
Integration
Alvaro Oleart
Department of Political Science
and Public Administration
Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam
Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Palgrave Studies in European Political Sociology

ISBN 978-3-030-53636-7 ISBN 978-3-030-53637-4 (eBook)
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To those who are bold enough to imagine democracy beyond the
nation-state, and fight for it
 Acknowledgements

European politics has been my passion and focus of research for the last
decade, as I have observed a growing mismatch between the increas-
ingly transnational flow of ideas, and decision-making processes still
anchored in national governments. The book is obviously European in
its substance, but also in its process. I moved to Brussels shortly after
the 2014 European elections, in the midst of the increasing politicisa-
tion of EU affairs. While it was a fruitful moment for the rise of nation-
alist parties, such as the UKIP in the United Kingdom or the Front
National in France, and (back then) political outsiders such as Podemos
in Spain and Movimento 5 Stelle in Italy, the politicisation of the EU
also renewed my interest in European politics and inspired my further
research. I witnessed with concern the mainstream response to the politi-
cisation of European politics, as if most criticisms to the EU’s status
quo were inherently ‘Eurosceptic’. As an aspiring social scientist, I felt it
was important and timely to emphasise an academic agenda that does not
assume that the politicisation of European politics is necessarily a threat
to the European project, but instead is constitutive of it.
One of the aspects I value about academic research is that it is always
an intellectual team effort. As such, this book could not have been done
without many friends and colleagues, whose contributions to my intel-
lectual growth have been immense, and who have also enriched me
as a person. Words cannot do justice to express my profound grati-
tude to numerous people, but nonetheless I wish to highlight a few

vii
viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

names. The ideas expressed throughout this book are to a large extent
influenced by Luis Bouza García, with whom we have developed fasci-
nating research avenues. Our friendship and (very) extensive joint work,
including the collaboration within the Jean Monnet network OpenEUDe-
bate, continues to be a source of inspiration. I would also like to thank
my Master studies’ professors Caroline Pauwels, Luciano Morganti and
Jan Loisen from the Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB). Without them I
would not have started my Ph.D. dissertation at the Université Libre de
Bruxelles (ULB), which represents the basis for this book. At the ULB, I
am grateful to the members of my Ph.D. committee, Ramona Coman
and François Foret, my Ph.D. supervisor François Heinderyckx, and my
teammate Jan Beyer, whose contributions have been of great (European)
value(s) to my work in general, and this book in particular.
I continued pursuing my European calling when I embarked on my
next endeavour as a postdoctoral researcher at the Vrije Universiteit (VU)
Amsterdam, in the context of the Horizon 2020 RECONNECT project
‘Reconciling Europe with its Citizens through Democracy and the Rule of
Law’.1 My deep gratitude to Ben Crum, who has been a wonderful pillar
of support to my academic career since my arrival at the VU, whose polit-
ical theory insights have been truly valuable, and with whom I continue
to learn and enjoy working together. My sincere thanks to all the friends
and colleagues that participated in the tailored VU Amsterdam workshop
held in February 2020, whose input and feedback elevated the quality
of the different chapters that compose this book. Thanks to Jan Pieter
Beetz, Thijs Bogers, Sinan Çankaya, Rein Koetsier, Stephen Haigh, Noah
Schmitt, Özlem Terzi and Wolfgang Wagner.
This adventure could also not have been concluded without the crit-
ical advice and enthusiastic backing of Hans-Jörg Trenz, co-editor of the
Palgrave series on European Political Sociology and external jury member
of my Ph.D. defence, whose insightful academic work has informed my
thinking for this book. Thanks as well to Maximilian Conrad, Catherine
De Vries, Niels Gheyle, Louisa Parks and Gabriel Siles-Brügge for their
constructive feedback on the book and general encouragement, which
has meant a lot to me. I would also like to thank everyone who accepted

1 This book project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020
Research & Innovation programme under Grant Agreement no. 770142. The information
in this book reflects only the author’s views and the European Union is not liable for any
use that may be made of the information contained therein.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ix

to be interviewed, including civil society and trade union members and

activists, elected representatives, EU officials and journalists, whose input
has been precious.
Thanks to my friends Daniel Cruz, Fran Cabrera, Hasan Aloul and
Juan Domingo Sánchez Estop who have contributed ideas and shared
their thoughts in our lengthy discussions, to my mum for her support
and regular nutritional advice which contributed to my fruitful writing,
to my dad for our regular stimulating discussions, to my brothers, and
to my whole extended family, all of whom have stood by me, and whose
encouragement I cherish.
Last, and most importantly, heartfelt thanks to my beloved wife, and
best friend, Nad’ka, for putting up with me during all these years. Our
love and intellectual exchanges have brought light to this challenging but
rewarding journey, and have been an essential component to completing
this book.
 Praise for Framing TTIP in the
European Public Spheres

“Alvaro Oleart offers a ground-breaking understanding of the European

public sphere and new insights in the way in which it operates.”
—Ben Crum, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlands

xi
 Contents

1 Introduction to the Analysis of the Pan-European

Debate Surrounding the TTIP Negotiations 1
1 Introduction 1
2 Research Design, Scope of the Research and Structure
of the Book 8
Bibliography 9

2 An Agonistic Approach to the Europeanisation

of Public Spheres: Matching ‘Policy with Politics’ 13
1 The Europeanisation of Public Spheres
and the Democratisation of the EU 13
1.1 The European Public Sphere: A Democratic
Aspiration for the EU From a Deliberative and
Agonistic Perspective 13
1.2 The Europeanisation of Public Spheres Through
the National Media: The EU as an Audience
Democracy 20
1.3 The EU’s Democratic (and Opposition) Deficit:
The Depoliticised Europeanisation of Public Spheres
and the ‘Permissive Consensus’ 25
1.4 ‘Policy Without Politics’ in the EU and the Agency
in Politicisation: Transnational Advocacy Networks
(TANs) 28

xiii
xiv CONTENTS

2 Different Types of Politicisation and Their Implications

for European Integration 31
2.1 The Third Face of Power: The Battle of Ideas
to Define Political Conflict 31
2.2 Agonistic vs Antagonistic Politicisation of the EU:
Policy Contestation as Politics in the Union,
and EU Polity Contestation as Politics of the Union 34
2.3 The Agonistic Europeanisation of Public Spheres:
Towards an ‘Empowering Dissensus’ for European
Integration 40
Bibliography 45

3 A Media-Centred Approach to Analyse

the Politicisation and Europeanisation of TTIP 57
1 The Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership
in Context 58
1.1 The Neoliberal Paradigm’s Hegemony in Europe:
The Economic Autonomy Vis-à-Vis the Political
Sphere 58
1.2 TTIP: A Neoliberal Trade Policy Project 63
2 Framing Analysis of Media Content in the TTIP Debate 73
2.1 A Framing Perspective 73
2.2 Methodology and Data Sets: Framing Analysis
of Media Content on TTIP 75
2.3 Content and Process Frames, and Visual Categories 87
Bibliography 99

4 Framing TTIP in Spain 105

1 The (Lack of) EU Politicisation in Spain
and Its ‘Permissive Consensus’: Europe as a Path
to Modernisation 105
2 The Evolution of the Agonistic TTIP Debate
in the Spanish Public Sphere 108
2.1 Overview of the TTIP Debate in Spain 108
2.2 February 2013 to September 2014: The Initial
TTIP Debate Framed Through a Neoliberal
Discourse 116
 CONTENTS xv

2.3 European and National Protests Introduce TTIP

into the Mainstream: Agonistic Politicisation
Emerges in Spain 119
3 The Politicisation of TTIP in Spain: The EU Becomes
a Political Arena for Civil Society and Political Actors 128
Bibliography 131

5 Framing TTIP in France 133

1 France and the EU: Agonistic Politicisation Focused
on Social Issues 133
2 The Evolution of the Agonistic TTIP Debate in the French
Public Sphere 136
2.1 Overview of the TTIP Debate in France 136
2.2 February 2013 to Mid-April 2014: The Progressive
Media Introduces TTIP in France, the Mainstream
Takes It to the Next Level 141
2.3 The Agonistic Politicisation in France: TTIP
Becomes Mainstream from the 2014 EU Elections
Onwards 143
3 The Politicisation of TTIP in France: Building
on the Bolkestein Directive 150
Bibliography 151

6 Framing TTIP in the UK 153

1 Framing Europe in the UK: Antagonistic Politicisation
Based on the Defence of National Identity
and Sovereignty 153
2 The Evolution of the Agonistic TTIP Debate in the British
Public Sphere 157
2.1 Overview of the TTIP Debate in the UK 157
2.2 February 2013 to June 2014: British Elites Debate
TTIP 163
2.3 July 2014 to November 2016: TTIP Becomes
a Matter of National UK Politics 166
3 The Politicisation of TTIP in the UK: Nationalising
the Agonistic TTIP Debate in the Context of Brexit 174
Bibliography 177
xvi CONTENTS

7 Framing TTIP Across the Spanish, French and British

Public Spheres: The Bursting of the Brussels Bubble 179
1 Overview of the TTIP Debate Across the Spanish, French
and British Public Spheres 179
1.1 The Transnational Framing of TTIP Across Spain,
France and the UK 181
1.2 February 2013 to Mid-2014: The Europeanisation
of Public Spheres on TTIP Without Politicisation 188
1.3 Mid-2014 to November 2016: From Agonistic
Europeanisation to the Emergence of an Episodic
Transnational Public Sphere on TTIP 190
1.4 Europeanising the Public Spheres and Nationalising
the TTIP Debate: Two Intertwined Processes 196
2 TTIP and the Bursting of the Brussels Bubble Through
(Agonistic) Politicisation 198
Bibliography 213

8 The Transnational TTIP Debate: Politicisation

Empowers Further European Integration 217
1 Contribution to the Literature, Shortcomings
and Avenues for Further Research: Bridging
the European Public Sphere Literature with EU
Politicisation 217
2 Policy Effects of the TTIP Debate’s Agonistic
Europeanisation: Towards a Great Transformation
in EU Trade Policy? 220
3 An Empowering Dissensus for an Increasingly Federal
European Integration 229
Bibliography 240

Index 247
 List of Figures

Chapter 2
Fig. 1 Connection(s) between Europeanisation
and (de)politicisation depending on the type of conflict
(agonistic/antagonistic) in the European public spheres 42

Chapter 3
Fig. 1 Steps in the identification and coding of the framing analysis 83

Chapter 4
Fig. 1 Chronological evolution by semester of the number
of articles sampled in the three Spanish news outlets
(In the horizontal axis, the numbers refer to the year
and the semester: e.g. ‘13 01’ = first semester of 2013) 109
Fig. 2 Framing Ratio (R) in terms of percentage of the content
frames in the sampled Spanish news outlets (The graphs
include in the same category both the frames and their
counter-frames [in case a frame has a counter-frame]) 110
Fig. 3 Framing ratio (vertical axis) evolution over time by semester
of the leading opportunity, agonistic and antagonistic frames
in the three Spanish news outlets sampled (the brackets
in the horizontal axis indicate the number of articles in each
semester) 112

xvii
xviii LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 4 Framing ratio over time by semester of the process frames

in the sampled Spanish news outlets 113
Fig. 5 Framing ratio by period in terms of percentage of the content
frames in the sampled Spanish news outlets 114
Fig. 6 Framing ratio in terms of percentage of the content frames
in the sampled Spanish news outlets during the first period 116
Fig. 7 Framing ratio evolution over time by semester of the leading
opportunity and agonistic frames in EL PAÍS 118
Fig. 8 Framing ratio in terms of percentage of the process frames
by period in the Spanish public sphere 119
Fig. 9 Framing ratio in terms of percentage of the content frames
in the sampled Spanish news outlets during the second period 120

Chapter 5
Fig. 1 Chronological evolution by semester of the number
of articles sampled in the three sampled French news outlets
(In the horizontal axis, the numbers refer to the year
and the semester: e.g. ‘13 01’ = first semester of 2013) 138
Fig. 2 Framing ratio in terms of percentage of the content
frames in the sampled French news outlets (The graphs
include in the same category both the frames and their
counter-frames [in case a frame has a counter-frame]) 139
Fig. 3 Framing ratio (vertical axis) over time by semester
of the leading opportunity, agonistic and antagonistic
frames in the three French news outlets (the brackets
in the horizontal axis indicate the number of articles in each
semester) 140
Fig. 4 Framing ratio by period in terms of percentage of the content
frames in the sampled French news outlets 140
Fig. 5 Framing ratio in terms of percentage of the content frames
in the sampled French news outlets during the first period 142
Fig. 6 Framing ratio in terms of percentage of the content frames
in the sampled French news outlets during the second period 144
Fig. 7 Framing ratio over time by semester of the process frames
in the sampled French news outlets 145
Fig. 8 Framing ratio over time by semester of the leading
opportunity, agonistic and antagonistic frames in Le Monde 146
 LIST OF FIGURES xix

Chapter 6
Fig. 1 Chronological evolution by semester of the number
of articles sampled in the three British news outlets
(In the horizontal axis, the numbers refer to the year
and the semester: e.g. ‘13 01’ = first semester of 2013) 158
Fig. 2 Framing ratio by news outlet in terms of percentage
of the content frames in the sampled British media (The
graphs include in the same category both the frames and their
counter-frames [in case a frame has a counter-frame]) 160
Fig. 3 Framing ratio (vertical axis) over time by semester
of the leading opportunity, agonistic and antagonistic
frames in the sampled British news outlets (the brackets
in the horizontal axis indicate the number of articles in each
semester) 161
Fig. 4 Framing ratio in terms of percentage of the process frames
by period in the British news outlets 162
Fig. 5 Framing ratio in terms of percentage of the content frames
in the sampled British news outlets during the first period 164
Fig. 6 Framing ratio in terms of percentage of the content frames
in the sampled British news outlets during the second period 167
Fig. 7 Framing ratio over time by period of the process frames
in the sampled British news outlets 173

Chapter 7
Fig. 1 Number of articles sampled by country and by semester
(In the horizontal axis, the numbers refer to the year
and the semester: e.g. ‘13 01’ = first semester of 2013) 181
Fig. 2 Number of articles by semester and by ideological orientation
of the news outlets 182
Fig. 3 Framing ratio (vertical axis) over time by semester
of the leading opportunity, agonistic and antagonistic
frames in the nine sampled news outlets (the brackets
in the horizontal axis indicate the number of articles in each
semester) 183
Fig. 4 Framing ratio over time by semester of the process frames
in the nine sampled news outlets 184
Fig. 5 Framing ratio in terms of percentage of the content
frames in the nine sampled news outlets (The graphs
include in the same category both the frames and their
counter-frames [in case a frame has a counter-frame]) 185
xx LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 6 Framing ratio in terms of percentage of the content frames

in the sampled articles during the first period 188
Fig. 7 Framing ratio in terms of percentage of the content frames
in the sampled articles during the second period 191
Fig. 8 Framing ratio in terms of percentage of the leading process
frames by period across the three public spheres 192
 List of Tables

Chapter 3
Table 1 News outlets selected, its characteristics and the number
of articles analysed 82

Chapter 4
Table 1 Number of articles sampled by article type and news outlet
from the Spanish media 108
Table 2 Presence of images by visual categories and by period
in the Spanish news outlets 115
Table 3 Presence of images by visual category in Spanish news
outlets during the first period 117
Table 4 Presence of images by visual category in the Spanish news
outlets during the second period 128

Chapter 5
Table 1 Number of articles sampled by article type and news outlet
from the French media 137
Table 2 Presence of images by visual category and by period
in the French news outlets 141
Table 3 Presence of images by visual category and by news outlet
in the French media during the first period 143
Table 4 Presence of images by visual category and by news outlet
in the French news outlets during the second period 149

xxi
xxii LIST OF TABLES

Chapter 6
Table 1 Number of articles sampled by article type and news outlet
from the British media 159
Table 2 Presence of images by visual category of the TTIP debate
in the British news outlets during the two periods 163
Table 3 Presence of images by visual category and by news outlet
in the British news outlets during the first period 165
Table 4 Presence of images by visual category in the British news
outlets during the second period 174

Chapter 7
Table 1 Number of articles sampled by country and type of news
outlet 180
Table 2 Number of articles sampled by type of article and country 180
Table 3 Presence of images by visual category and by country in all
the news outlets sampled 187
Table 4 Presence of images by visual category and by period
including all the articles from the nine news outlets sampled 187
Table 5 Presence of images by visual category and by country
during the first period 189
Table 6 Presence of images by visual category and by country
during the second period 193
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Mausoleum A. 31.

Cromer, Lord 55, 100, 221.

Cufische Inschriften 76, 117.

Da'dja, Stamm 22, 25, 38, 50, 61, 65, 92.

Damaskus 73, 77, 83, 92, 95, 100, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 133;
Freitag in 147;
Große Moschee 136, 144, 145;
Große Moschee, Hof der A. 147;
und Dächer vom Fort aus A. 131;
Kornmarkt A. 135;
vor den Toren von A. 151;
Wasserverkäufer A. 152;
Verkäufer von Zuckerwaren A. 145.

Dāna, Dorf 286;

Grab zu A. 287;
Pyramidengrab in 245;
Grabmal A. 249.

Danādischeh, Familie 200.

Daphne, der Weg nach 314, A. 313.

Dār Kita 275.

Decimus, Centurio der Legion des Flavian 209.

Dehes 286, 293.

Deir es Sleb 212.

Deiret Azzeh 286.

Deir Sambil 241.

Dera'a, Höhlendorf 104.

Derwisch, Soldat 162, 165.

Deutschland, Bagdadbahn 252.

Dīn, Scheich ed 55.

Djad'allah 65, 80.

Djebeliyyeh 71, 92.

Djerūd, Oase von 147, 148.

Djerūdi, der Brigant, s. Mohammed Pascha, Scheich von Djerūd.

Djisr el Wād, Brücke 202.

Djof 80.

Domaszewski 32 Anm.

Drekisch, Dorf 204.

Dreschplatz in Karyatein A. 148.

Drusāra 91.

Drusen 37, 41, 49, 55, 63, 66, 72, 74, 82, 87, 98, 99, 118, 298, 300;
Sitten 124;
Streitigkeiten mit den Suchūr 83-101;
eine Gruppe A. 83.
Drusische Pflüger A. 91.

Druz, Djebel 60, 65, 66, 74, 75, 81, 90, 104, 111, 118, 157, 158.

Drusisches Gebirge 20, 41, 60, 65, 74, 90, 96.

Dussaud, Mr. 71, 80, 98, 117, 120, 169.

Edsch Dscheida 104.

Effendi, Derwisch, Afghane 219.

Effendi, Jusef 81, 82.

Effendim 212.

Eisenbahn nach Mekka 13, 165;

Rayak-Hamah 252;
Bagdad 252;
französische 214, 252.

Eisernes Tor, Antiochien 313.

El, Gott 118, 119.

El 'Ablā 116, 117.

El Adjlād 104.

El Bārah, Dorf 236, 237, 238, 264, 300;

ein Haus in A. 237;
Fries A. 239.

El Chudr, Grab von 89, 91.

El Churbeh, Türbalken A. 101.

El Hayyāt, Moschee in Hamāh 222.

El Mugharāh, Dorf 246.

El Muwaggar 50, 121;

Kapitäl A. 51, 52, 53.

Emesa, Römerstadt 181.

Englisch-japanisches Bündnis 221.

Epiphania, Festung 213.

Ethreh 80.

Euphrat 259.

Euting, Reisender 80.

Fāfertīn, Dorf 263, 271.

Fāiz, Neffe des Mohammed en Nassār 102, 104, 125, 126.

Faīz el Atrasch, Scheich von Kreyeh 73, 77.

Faiz', Talāl ul 23, 24.

Fāris, Maultiertreiber 260, 261, 262, 293, 300.

Fāris, Habīb 18, 21, 324.

Fayyād Agha von Karyatein 147.

Fedhāmeh 104.
Feiertag, ein, im Orient A. 185.

Fellahīn-Bank 55.

Fendi, Führer 73.

Fīda Abu'l 21.

Frankreich, Bagdadbahn 252.

Gablān, Araber 38, 42, 47, 48, 49, 50, 52, 53, 56, 57, 60, 61, 63, 64,
66, 69, 70, 324, A. 57.

Garīz, der, Seleucia 321, 322, A. 319;

unterer Teil des A. 325.

Gethsemane 4.

Gharz, Ghādir el 116, 118.

Gharz, Wādi el 119.

Ghassaniden Forts 32, 50, 121.

Ghawārny 40.

Ghazu 63, 76.

Ghiāth 92, 104, 107, 112, 115, 125.

Ghor, das 10, 16, 40;

Zug durch das, A. 12.

Giour Dāgh 280, 290.

Gischgāsch, Scheich von Umm Ruweik, 102, 104, 106, 107, 112,
115.

Gottesherz 111.

Grabeskirche, heilige, in Jerusalem A. 2.

Griechen 134, 135.

Griechische Inschriften 117, 233, 244, 245, 271, 276.

Habīb, Maultiertreiber 3, 14, 69, 107, 119, 162, 166, 260.

Habrān, Torweg A. 97;

kurdisches Mak'ad A. 99.

Haddjbahn 21, 33, 42.

Haddjstraße 231, A. 58.

Hadūdmadūd 283.

Haida, Dr. 165.

Haifa 18.

Haīl, Stadt 42, 46, 80.

Halakah, Djebel 286.

Hamad 103, 107, 112, 119.

Hamāh 162, 166;

Beschreibung 213-215;
Bewohner 215-223;
Römerstraße 211, 212;
 Moschee 215;
Kubbeh A. 215;
Kapitäl A. 221, A. 223, A. 233;
Na'oura A. 213;
Tekyah Killānijjeh 219, A. 217.

Hamath, Festung 213.

Hamdān, Sohn der Weisheit 115.

Hamūd, Gablāns Vater 49.

Hamūd von Sueda 77, 89, 90.

Hanelos 119.

Hārim 298, 300;

Burg 300, A. 299.

Hārith, Ibn el 59.

Harra, schwarzes Land 103.

Harūn er Raschid 205.

Haseneh 66, 166, 190;

Kamele der A. 67.

Hāß, Djebel el 250.

Hassan Beg Rā'i 178.

Hassaniyyeh, Stamm 22, 61, 66, 84.

Haurān, Gebirge 17, 55, 66, 71, 72, 78, 80, 82, 103, 120, 121, 126,
298.
Hayat, Kalybeh 126;
Haus des Scheich A. 127.

Heddjasbahn 133.

Helbān, Dorf 250.

Hermon 116, 153.

Heschbān 16.

Hind, das Land 189.

Hiran 121.

Hīt, Dorf 126.

Hittiter 166, 169, 170, 214.

Hober, Dorf 250.

Höhlen Namrūds 28-33.

Höhlendörfer 104.

Homs 104, 162, 169, 170, 173, 174;

die Einwohner 173, 174, 182-187;
Häuser 178, 181;
der Orontesanger
Mardj ul 'Asi 181;
Kastell 177;
ein Feiertag im Orient A. 185;
Straße in A. 187.

Homs, See 169.

Homsi, Nicola 257.

Howeitāt, Araberstamm 61, 231.

Hurmul, Turm von 165, 166.

Husn es Suleimān 206;

Tempel A. 207;
Tempel, Nordtor A. 209.

Husn, Kal'at el 188, 192, 195, 197, 200;

griechisches Kloster 202; A. 193;
Inneres der Festung A. 195;
innerer Festungsgürtel A. 199;
Bankettsaal 198, A. 198;
der Schwarze Turm 192.

Ibrahim, Armenier, 317, 318, 321.

Ibrahim, Maultiertreiber 3.

Ibrahim Pascha 34, 173.

Iliān, Milhēm 81, 82, 91, 92.

Imtain 65, 77.

'Isa, Fellāh ul 49, 50, 53, 54, 55, 60, 65, 72, 80, 158, A. 49.

Islam 220, 221.

Ismailiten 188, 211, 212, 225.

'Isset Pascha 144, 205.

Jadūdeh, Felsengräber 24.

Jaffa 7.

Jahya Beg el Atrasch 77, 298.

Jakit Ades 262.

Japanische Krieg 98 bis 101, 150, 178.

Jemen, Aufstand 13, 14, 78, 121, 221, 231, 255, 256.

Jericho 10.

Jerusalem 4, 95, 154, 256;

Klagemauer in A. 17;
Moschee Omar A. 1;
heilige Grabeskirche A. 2;
Straße in A. 3;
Stephanstor in A. 4.

Jezīdi, Sekte 272;

Glaube der 268, 269, 282, 283, 284.

Jordan, Tal, das 10, 22.

Jordanbrücke 12, 13, 14, A. 13.

Judäa, Wüste von 9.

Juden aus Buchara A. 18.

Jūnis, Scheich von El Bārah 238, 241, 242, 243, 246, A. 242, 327.

Jusef, Führer 22, 24, 96, 98, 101.

Kabul 219.
Kabuseh 322.

Kadesch 169, 170.

Kāf 80.

Kaffee, Gebräuche 19, 20;

am Wegrande A. 191.

Kais, Imr ul 47, 56, 58, 63.

Kalam, Muschkin 143, A. 143.

Kalb Lōzeh, Kirche von 293, 297, 299, A. 295.

Kalkutta 219.

Kalōteh, Dorf 272, 275;

Kirche 276;
Kapitäl A. 276.

Kamele, Tränken der A. 71.

Kāmu'a Hurmul 165, A. 183.

Kanawāt 104, 158;

Basilika A. 105;
Tempel A. 107;
Tor der Basilika A. 109;
Mauern von A. 103.

Kantarah 112.

Karyatein, Oase von 147;

Dreschplatz in A. 148.
Kasr el 'Alya 50.

Kasr el Banāt 246, A. 247.

Kastal 32, 121.

Kāturā, Grabmal A. 272.

Kbēs, Monsieur 214, 215, 216, 222, 223.

Kbeschīn, Dorf 263.

Kefr 'Abīd, Dorf 250, 251.

Kefr Anbīl 235, 236.

Kefr Lāb 282.

Kefr Nebu 280.

Keifār 280.

Kerak 198, 199.

Khayyām, Omar 22.

Kiāzim Pascha, Vāli von Aleppo 255-259.

Kieperts Karte 162, 250, 263.

Killani, Familie zu Hamāh 215, 219, 227.

Killiz 252.

Klagemauer in Jerusalem A. 17.

Konia 162, 260, 261.

Konstantin, Münzen 26.

Konstantinopel 46, 99, 144, 166, 205.

Koran, Erzählungen vom 225, 226.

Kreta, Muselmänner von 146.

Kreuzfahrer 199, 202.

Kreyeh 74, 77, A. 89.

Ksedjba, Dorf 286.

Kseir 166, 169.

Kubbeh in der Moschee zu Hamāh A. 215.

Kubbet el Chazneh 136, 143, A. 137.

Kuda'a, Stamm 134.

Kuleib 79.

Kulthum, Ibn, Gedicht des 134.

Kurden 99, 263, 264, 281, 285.

Kurutul, Kloster oberhalb Jerichos A. 11.

Kurunfuleh 154, 157.

Kuseir es Sahl 26.

Kutaila, Klagegesang von 59.

Kuwēk, Fluß 250.

Kweit 46, 256.

Kymet, eine kurdische Frau 322, 323.

Lager in der Nähe des Toten Meeres A. 23;

Abbrechen des A. 73.

Lahiteh 126.

Lampe in Rifa't Aghas Sammlung A. 313.

Laodicea ad Orontem 169, 170.

Larissa, Stadt 227.

Lava 116, 119, 122.

Lebīd, Gedichte des 57, 58.

Lebweh 162, 165.

Ledschastraße 126.

Libanon 157, 158, 162, 169;

Zedern des A. 182.

Littmann, Dr. 71, 73, 117 Anm.

Lütticke, deutscher Konsul in Damaskus 129.

Lysicrates, Denkmal des 286.

Ma'alūla, Kloster von 202.