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Contents

Preface to the Seventh Edition xiii

Preface to the Sixth Edition xv
Acknowledgments xviii

1. Acquainting Yourself With Ethics: A Tour of the Ethics Hall of Fame 1

Overview 3
Exhibit 1—Knowledge and Reasoning 3
Exhibit 2—Intellect and Truth 8
Exhibit 3—The Nature of Reality 12
Exhibit 4—The Nature of Morality 15
Exhibit 5—Nature of Goodness 19
Exhibit 6—Actions and Consequences 29
Exhibit 7—Determinism and Intentionalism 32
Exhibit 8—The Ethical Person 35
Review Questions 36

2. Familiarizing Yourself With Ethics: Nature, Definitions, and Categories 38

Overview 40
Warning: The Deception of Occupational Subculture 44
The Philosophy of Wisdom 46
The Nature of Ethics 50
The Scope of Ethics 51
Ethical Theory 52
Credibility of Ethics 53
Categories of Ethical Theory: Normative and Metaethics 55
Normative Ethics: Deontological and Teleological 57
viii CONTENTS

Historical Origins of Ethics 59

Review Questions 67

3. Understanding Criminal Justice Ethics: Sources and Sanctions 69

Overview 70
Ethics of Natural Law 71
Ethics of Religious Testaments 76
Ethics of Constitutional Provisions 82
Ethics of Law 85
Professional Codes of Ethics 90
Philosophical Theories of Ethics 98
Review Questions 99

4. Meeting the Masters: Ethical Theories, Concepts, and Issues 101

Overview 103
The Stoicism School: Ethics of Freedom From Passion, Moral Fortitude,
and Tranquility (Epictetus) 105
The Hedonistic School: Ethics of the Pursuit of Pleasure (Aristippus
and Epicurus) 110
The Virtue School: Ethics of Knowledge and Moral Character (Plato
and Aristotle) 115
The Religious (Scholastic) School: Ethics of the Love of God (Augustine
and Aquinas) 125
The Naturalistic School: Ethics of Egoism and Power (Hobbes and Nietzsche) 134
Ethics of Utilitarianism (Bentham) 143
Ethics of Duty and Reason (Kant) 148
The Existential School: Ethics of Moral Individualism and Freedom
of Choice (Sartre and de Beauvoir) 153
Ethics of Social Justice (Rawls) 159
Review Questions 165

5. The Ambivalent Reality: Major Unethical Themes in Criminal Justice

Management 167
Overview 168
The Imperative of Ethics in Criminal Justice 169
A House on the Sand: The Spoils of Management 171
The Harvest of Shame 173
Principle-Based Management 174
Rushmorean Criminal Justice Agencies 181
 CONTENTS ix

A Profile of Rushmorean Courage: Coleen Rowley, the FBI Agent

Who Directed Her Boss 182
The Extent of Corruption in Criminal Justice Agencies 185
Review Questions 187

6. Lying and Deception in Criminal Justice 191

Introduction and Confession 192
General Theory of Lying 192
The Origins of Lying 194
The Doctrine of Veracity 195
Can Lying Be Morally Justifiable? 196
Basic Rules on Lying 197
The Extent of Lying 198
Institutional Lying in Criminal Justice 199
Conclusion 206
Review Questions 206

7. Racial Prejudice and Racial Discrimination 209

Overview 210
Glimpses of Racism in Criminal Justice 211
Nature of Racial Injustice 212
The Ethical View of Racial Injustice 214
Basic Theory of Prejudice 214
Prejudice and Knowledge 215
Targets of Prejudice 217
Types of Prejudice: Cultural and Psychological 217
Basic Theory of Discrimination 218
Roots of Racism 219
Institutional Racism 228
Exploratory Issues in Racism 235
Moral Guidelines in Understanding Racism 236
Conclusion 237
Review Questions 239

8. Egoism and the Abuse of Authority 242

Overview 243
Glimpses of Egoism in Criminal Justice 244
Perceptions of Egoism in Criminal Justice 245
The Blindness of Egoism 247
x CONTENTS

Types of Egoism 248

Official Responsibility: The Antidote for Natural Egoism 251
Capital Punishment as State Egoism 255
Life Sentences 262
Egoism—Ethics of Means and Ends 265
Ethical Guidelines 269
Conclusion 269
Review Questions 270

9. Misguided Loyalties: To Whom, to What, at What Price? 275

Overview 277
The Continuing Controversy 277
The Ideal of Loyalty 278
The Grammar of Workplace Loyalties 280
The Physiology of Personal Loyalty to Superiors 281
The Peculiar Nature of Personal Loyalty to Superiors 282
The Paradoxical Nature of Personal Loyalty to Superiors 283
Two Controlling Realities 286
Three Self-Evident Truths 288
Logical Findings 289
Cultural and Ethical Concerns 290
Unionized Versus Nonunionized Agencies 291
The Goliath of Disloyalty 292
The Strain of Personal Loyalty to Superiors 293
Arguments in Support of Personal Loyalty to Superiors 293
Arguments Against Personal Loyalty to Superiors 295
The Ethical Imperative: The Duty-Based Thesis 296
Review Questions 298

10. Ethics of Criminal Justice Today: What Is Being Done and

What Can Be Done? 300
Overview 301
The Dual Essence of Criminal Justice: The Social Order and the
Moral Order 302
The Dual Practice of Criminal Justice: The Ideal Model and the
Serviceable Model 303
The Conflict Between the Two Models in Juvenile Justice 305
Where Do We Go From Here? 310
Review Questions 310
 CONTENTS xi

11. Ethics and Police 313

Overview 314
The Problematic Nature of Policing 315
The Peculiar Environment of the Police 316
The Semiprofessional Professionals 317
The Police Prerogative to Abuse Power 319
The Police in Search of a Soul 320
The Intellectual Virtue: Ethics of Democracy 321
Recent Critical Ethical Issues in Policing 326
The Moral Virtue: Ethics of Shunning Corruption 333
Hedonistic and Obligatory Corruption 336
The Obligatory Ethic Not to Deceive 341
Can Corruption Be Administratively Stopped? 343
Conclusion 344
Review Questions 345

12. Ethics and Corrections (Prisons) 349

Overview 350
The Corrections Debate 351
Ethics of Life for Life: The Influence of Beccaria 352
Ethics of Life for Life: The Morality of Punishment 354
Ethics of Life for Life: The Moral Justifications for Prisons 354
Ethics of Life for Life: A Society That Loves Walls 357
Ethics of Life for Life: Putting Pain Back Into Prisons 358
Ethics of Contemporary Corrections 359
Does Rehabilitation Work? What Do Offenders Deserve? 363
Ethics of Man and Corrections: What Good Is Brutality? 368
Ethics of Man and Corrections: The Holier-than-Thou Syndrome 370
Ethics of Man and Corrections: We’re All Doing Time 370
Ethics of Man and Corrections: Postcards From Prison 371
Ethics of Man and Corrections: Rehabilitation Through Inner Corrections 373
Faith-Based Prisons 375
Women’s Prisons 377
Corruption of Prison Personnel 378
Life Sentences 382
Prison Privatization 383
Elderly Prisoners 384
Conclusion 385
Review Questions 385
xii CONTENTS

13. Ethics of Probation and Parole 393

Overview 394
The Professional Orientation of Probation and Parole 395
The Borderless Community 397
The Changing Face of Probation 399
The Case for Community-Based Corrections 402
The Case Against Community-Based Corrections 402
Work Strategies of Probation and Parole Practitioners 405
Common Unethical Practices in Probation and Parole 406
Current Ethical Issues in Probation and Parole 407
Ethical Choices in Probation/Parole 411
Conclusion 413
Review Questions 414

14. The Truth Revealed: Enlightenment and Practical Civility

Minimize Criminality 419
In Essence 420
Evolution of Enlightenment 421
Enlightenment Defined 422
The Enlightened Mind 423
Development of Practical Enlightenment 426
The Hybrid of Enlightenment and Civility 428
Endorsing Enlightenment 430
The Other Twin: Practical Civility 432
Practical Civility Defined 433
Evolution of Practical Civility 434
What Do the Theorists Say? 435
Five Stories to Remember 440
The Future of Criminal Justice Ethics 443
Conclusion 447
Review Questions 448

Name Index 451

Subject Index 457
Preface to the
Seventh Edition

The seventh edition of this book continues to present ethics as an “umbrella of civility” under
which criminal justice agents and the public look at the law and ethical issues in criminal jus-
tice. In this book, students and practitioners will be introduced to the fundamentals of ethical
theory and will be asked to apply ethical theory to decision-making in criminal justice. It is
the hope of the authors that discussing critical ethical issues in the college classroom will
help students make ethical decisions in the field as they advance in careers in policing, law,
or corrections and as informed citizens who vote and participate in American governmental
institutions.
The seventh edition has several new features. First, the discussion of criminal justice
ethical issues is updated. The new edition includes discussion of such recent matters as
police shootings, major investigations of the police in Ferguson, Missouri, Baltimore, and
Chicago, the war on drugs, life sentences, the ideal versus the reality in juvenile justice,
juvenile life without parole, the swift and certain deterrence model in probation, the case
for evidence-based rehabilitation interventions, the Good Lives Model, faith-based prisons,
elderly prisoners, and an update on the question of the deterrent impact of capital punish-
ment. The analysis of racism in Chapter 7 is completely updated with discussion of recent
books by Michelle Alexander and Paul Butler. Second, the discussion of ethical theories is
quite similar, but we have put in some boxes to relate current developments to the theoretical
discussions. Third, Chapters 11, 12, and 13 on police, prison, and probation, respectively,
now have boxes that highlight issues discussed in the chapter and conclude with questions for
class discussion. Fourth, Chapter 14, the final chapter, now includes a section on the future of
criminal justice ethics.
Readers of previous editions will notice that a second author has joined with Professor
Souryal. The second author thanks Professor Souryal and the publisher for asking him to
work on this new edition. He has taught criminal justice ethics for some time and hopes that
his insights into criminal justice ethical issues will add to the impressive tradition of Professor
Souryal’s work.
xiv PREFACE TO THE SEVENTH EDITION

Both authors thank the editors and staff at Routledge for their expert work in preparing
this edition for publication. We also thank Michael Braswell for his encouragement for this
project.
Sam S. Souryal
John T. Whitehead
March 2019
Preface to the Sixth Edition

Despite advances in the legal and technological aspects of criminal justice, practitioners
continue to face difficult moral choices. These include whether to arrest, use deadly force,
prosecute, offer plea bargaining, impose punishment, and, from an organizational standpoint,
whether to comply with policy, cooperate with supervisors, or treat the public equitably. As
in other public service sectors where discretion is essential, individual and institutional eth-
ics become major vectors. Surprisingly, while the consequences of such choices continue to
cause great public anguish, the moral grounds for these choices have seldom been examined.
In a free society, issues of crime and punishment are perhaps the most deserving of the
moral imperative of justice—a quality the state must extend freely to the guilty and the inno-
cent alike. Moral behaviors need no validation by the state, because they constitute justice
unto themselves. Thus, in responding to immoral behaviors, civilized governments cannot
rightfully employ immoral means. Succinctly stated, the more civilized the state, the more
willing it is to address the “worst in us” by the “noble means” available.
The purpose of this book is not to question the value of the law as the primary instrument
of criminal justice but to present ethics as an “umbrella of civility” under which the law can
be more meaningful, rational, and obeyable. By way of analogy, if the law is compared to
the Old Testament, ethics is comparable to the New Testament. They complement each other,
making Christianity blissful and tolerable. This view of ethics may not impress hardened
practitioners who believe that we “live by the law” but forget that we also “die by the law.” By
the same token, this view may not enthuse students who are so enamored with the trimmings
of criminal justice that they overlook its noble substance. To both of these groups, there is
one rational reply: “No one is free until we can see the truth of what we are seeking.” Without
capturing the truths of criminal justice, we are left with images that may be not only irrational,
but also disgraceful.
This book rejects the cynical view that ethical knowledge and moral character are periph-
eral to the administration of justice. Indeed, every action in the administration of justice is
directed either by the moral of a rule or policy or by the moral judgment of the practitioner
xvi PREFACE TO THE SIXTH EDITION

who implements it. Furthermore, the obligation to “establish justice and insure domestic tran-
quillity” continues to be the central force behind any act of criminal justice. Therefore, with-
out a fresh look at our weaknesses, biases, and prejudices, the young discipline of criminal
justice will grow into a degenerative field; more like a temple without a god, a body without
a soul, and a theory without a meaning.
In this book, students and practitioners will be introduced to the fundamentals of ethical
theory, doctrines, and controversies, and the rules of moral judgment. They will be exposed
to the ways and means of making moral judgment—but not in specific situations. That is
beyond the capacity of any book and must be left to the minds and hearts of the well-informed
practitioner. Knowledge will be presented in two forms: (1) a thematic perspective that will
examine ethical principles common to all components of the discipline, such as wisdom,
goodness, morality, and justice as well as the common vices of deception, racial prejudice,
and egoism; and (2) an area-specific perspective that will address the state of ethics in polic-
ing, corrections, and probation and parole.
Every academic discipline or professional field is born and slowly grows from an infant
into maturity. In the process, practitioners test its limits, establish its boundaries, and legit-
imize its claims. During the maturation process, serious excesses and failures appear that
create contradiction between the goals of the field and the means by which objectives are to
be met. In attempting to reason away contradiction, an introspection usually occurs urging
caution, denouncing falsity, and searching for the truth. This introspection gradually hardens,
constituting the collective conscience of the discipline—its soul. Eventually, the soul becomes
instrumental in halting intellectual ostentation, in exposing fallacies, and in reaffirming basic
values. This collective conscience keeps a vigilant eye whenever new technology is intro-
duced or a major policy shift is inaugurated. In time, the membership of the discipline or field
comes to recognize that collective conscience and call it by its true name: professional ethics.
The field of criminal justice is certainly young, but not too distant from maturity. It lacks
a unifying philosophy that can give it autonomy and inner strength. Primary issues of crime
and justice still beg for clarification. Secondary issues continue to frustrate rationality, for
instance, the role of the police in maintaining order, the role of prosecutors in controlling entry
into the system, the role of judges in dominating the sentencing process, the role of victims in
reclaiming the central court of justice, and the role of lawbreakers in sabotaging the system
by ingenious means. All such claims compete in an environment of ambiguity, egoism, and
fear. The resulting picture is a mosaic of incoherence and lack of scruples. Consequently, the
field has not proven successful beyond mere survival. Its efficacy has been questioned, both
from within by its officials and from without by its users. Few artificial reforms have been
introduced in the area of criminal justice management, the field’s most logical instrument of
reform. Top management is often controlled by a syndicate of lobbying bureaucrats who lack
integrative thinking and, at times, the tenacity to reason away simple problems. Middle man-
agers are unwitting brokers who “dance on the stairway”; they are as hesitant to face those at
the top as they are reluctant to confront those at the bottom. Frontline workers operate as an
 PREFACE TO THE SIXTH EDITION xvii

army of “apparatchiks,” or functionaries. They suffer from bureaucratic fatigue, a disturbing

subculture, and a confused view of reality.
The introspective voice of ethics in criminal justice is yet to be heard louder and louder
as the comforting shriek of a first-born infant heralds the coming of age of his parents. Until
it is, criminal justice will continue to be perceived with uneasiness and suspicion.
With these well-intended thoughts, this work is dedicated to the better understanding of
ethics—the indestructible soul of criminal justice.
Sam S. Souryal
Huntsville, Texas
2014
Acknowledgments

Both authors are grateful to our students who asked questions that challenged us and moti-
vated us to keep asking questions ourselves. Our students reminded us that we were in their
shoes only a few years earlier. Their enthusiasm about criminal justice and about ethical ques-
tions made teaching fresh every semester.
We also acknowledge our colleagues who challenged us to think and question. They
often gave us ideas and points of view that we had not thought of on our own. If not for them,
several projects in our careers would never have succeeded.
We are grateful to the editors and all at Routledge and their associates who work so hard
to guide, edit, and produce the books they publish. The editors we have worked with have
been helpful in countless ways. We specifically thank Gabriele Gaizutyte, our Production
Editor at Routledge, and Jennifer Bonnar, our Project Manager at Apex CoVantage (the com-
pany responsible for the typesetting, copyediting, and indexing tasks). We also thank Michael
Braswell, who has been an inspiration, colleague, and friend.
1 Acquainting Yourself
With Ethics
A Tour of the Ethics Hall of
Fame

They honestly consider they are doing the right thing.

—E.W. Elkington, 1907, on New Guinea cannibals

Or are you a clear thinker examining what is good and useful for society and spending your life in
building what is useful and destroying what is harmful?
—Kahlil Gibran, Mirrors of the Soul

Good laws lead to the making of better ones; bad laws bring about worse. As soon as any man says
of the affairs of the State, “What does it matter to me?” the State may be given up for lost.
—Jean-Jacques Rousseau

The present moral crisis is due among other things to the demand for a moral code which is
intellectually respectable.
—R. Niebuhr

WHAT YOU WILL LEARN FROM THIS CHAPTER

To understand the foundation of ethics, you should learn about the virtue of
knowledge and reasoning, the sources of intellect, the nature of truth, the
nature of reality, the nature of morality, the nature of goodness, the relationship
between actions and consequences, determinism and intentionalism, and the
image of the ethical person.
You will also learn about the reasoning process, Plato’s divided line, the defi-
nition of morality and ethics, the grammar of goodness, the principle of summum
bonum, and the utilitarianism measure.
2
2 ACQUAINTING YOURSELF WITH ETHICS

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Reasoning is a pure method of thinking by which proper conclusions are

reached through abstract thought processes.
The Divided Line is Plato’s theory of knowledge. It characterizes four lev-
els of knowledge. The lowest of these are conjecture and imagination
because they are based on impressions or suppositions; the next is belief
because it is constructed on the basis of faith, images, or superstition;
the third is scientific knowledge because it is supported by empirical evi-
dence, experimentation, or mathematical equations; and the highest level
is reasoning.
Theory of Realism is Aristotle’s explanation of reality. It includes three con-
cepts: rationality, the ability to use abstract reasoning; potentiality and
actuality, the “capacity to become” and the “state of being”; and the
golden mean, the middle point between two extreme qualities.
Ethics is a philosophy that examines the principles of right and wrong, good
and bad.
Morality is the practice of applying ethical principles on a regular basis.
Intrinsic Goods are objects, actions, or qualities that are valuable in themselves.
Nonintrinsic Goods are objects, actions, or qualities that are good only for
developing or serving an intrinsic good.
Summum Bonum is the principle of the highest good that cannot be subordi-
nated to any other.
E = PJ 2 is the guiding formula for making moral judgment. E (the ethical decision)
equals P (the principle) times J (the justification of the situation).
Utilitarianism is the theory that identifies ethical actions as those that maxi-
mize happiness and minimize pain.
Determinism is the theory that all thoughts, attitudes, and actions result from
external forces that are beyond human control. They are fixed causal laws
that control all events as well as the consequences that follow.
Intentionalism is the theory that all rational beings possess an innate freedom
of will and must be held responsible for their actions. It is the opposite of
determinism.
 ACQUAINTING YOURSELF WITH ETHICS 3

OVERVIEW

Compared with other disciplines, criminal justice is an infant discipline. This is probably
one reason why it is far more concerned with crime rather than with justice and with pro-
cess rather than with philosophy. As a result, most criminal justice students and practitioners
today have not been adequately exposed to the philosophy of justice or, for that matter, to
any serious philosophical studies. Courses in ethics and justice are not usually required for a
criminal justice degree, nor are they included in programs of professional training. A study in
the ethics of criminal justice may, therefore, be an alien topic and can understandably cause
a degree of apprehension. In order to reduce your anxiety and to better acquaint you with the
topic, this chapter is designed to take you on a tour of the world of ethics. I will take you,
if you will, on a journey into the “Ethics Hall of Fame,” introduce you to key concepts, and
familiarize you with the works of leading philosophers. Knowledge gained from this chapter
will serve as the foundation for the remainder of this book. Figure 1.1 illustrates the layout of
the Ethics Hall of Fame.

EXHIBIT 1—KNOWLEDGE AND REASONING

Our first stop on this tour is at a pedestal supporting the bust of Socrates. The sculpture sym-
bolizes the virtue of knowledge because Socrates was considered the wisest man in ancient
Greece.
Born in Athens—at the time, the greatest democracy of all—Socrates spent his entire
life in search of the truth. Not surprisingly, he was later hailed as the patron saint of Western

FIGURE 1.1 The Ethics Hall of Fame

4
4 ACQUAINTING YOURSELF WITH ETHICS

philosophy. We are more certain of the facts of his death than of the circumstances of his life
because Socrates left no record of his own. The information about his accomplishments was
gathered from the accounts of his disciples, particularly Plato, who was his most prominent
student. According to these accounts, Socrates was an outstanding philosopher who served
Athens well during times of war and peace.

A Life Unexamined Is Not Worth Living

Socrates (469–399 BCE) was central to the enlightenment of the world. He taught in the mar-
ketplaces of Athens, free of charge. Appearing uninterested in physical speculation, he went
about engaging people in conversations and asking them familiar but important-to-everyday-
life questions. He raised difficult questions about the meaning of life and, in particular, the
natures of knowledge and virtue. He challenged his audiences to rethink and reason their
lives rationally. In arguing his views, he demonstrated the power of “counterargument”
and stung his opponents by exposing their unexamined beliefs. His famous credo was the
memorable exhortation “a life unexamined is not worth living.” By the same token, we
should think today that “a belief unexamined is not worth following,” “a policy unexam-
ined is not worth executing,” and “a practice unexamined is not worth adhering to.” Every
subject, topic, or issue in life must be open to intellectual scrutiny regardless of its nature
or origin. The “beginning of wisdom” is allowing the human intellect to think freely and to
emancipate the mind from the clutches of ignorance and the fetters of cultural, social, or
religious bias.
Consistent with this Socratic dictum, students and instructors of criminal justice should
be encouraged—rather than discouraged—to examine every policy, practice, or contro-
versy in criminal justice without shyness, discomfort, or guilt. For instance, questions about
crime and justice, the limits of punishment, the authority of the state, the role of prisons,
fairness in the workplace, and other controversial practices in criminal justice should all be
openly discussed. The reasoning behind such a commitment is dualistic. First, as citizens
of a nation dedicated to “liberty and justice for all,” it is our obligation to enable everyone
to experience the full measures of “liberty” and “justice” in our daily lives, thus making us
better citizens. Second, as criminal justice professionals, it is our obligation to call attention
to system failures and shortcomings in order to correct them. Failure to do so would make
us responsible to the future generations of Americans who may point to their ancestors and
ask, “If they kept doing it the same way, how did they expect it to come out differently?”
(Friel, 1998).

Exploring Virtue
Socrates’s typical method of exploring virtue was by arguing against popular but erroneous
beliefs in what was known as the dialectic method. Such arguments were conducted in a
dialogue form in which the parties involved would engage in an exchange of questions and
 ACQUAINTING YOURSELF WITH ETHICS 5

answers. The direction of questions and the validity of answers would point out the presence
of contradiction or fallacy. By continuing this process, the truth of the disputed question
would be either established or denied. The dialectic method, which was the trademark of
ancient Greek philosophy, was later labeled the Socratic method in honor of its most skillful
master.
In his philosophical teachings, Socrates addressed general topics such as knowledge,
wisdom, and character, and he also discussed specific ideas of a moral nature, such as good-
ness, courage, and temperance. Regardless of the topic of inquiry that Socrates pursued, there
is no doubt that his overall aim was to reeducate the people of Athens in the nature of arete,
or virtue.

Knowledge and Virtue

Socrates argued that virtue is knowledge and knowledge is virtue. Both are one and the same.
He taught that a person who knows what is right will, by virtue of such knowledge, do what is
right. Conversely, committing a wrong act results from ignorance because evildoing can only
be involuntary. At this point, it has been said that the students of Socrates interrupted him,
suggesting that many Athenian leaders and politicians had frequently been in prison, thus
proving Socrates to be wrong in his central assertion. To that, Socrates reportedly answered
that those Athenians were certainly not knowledgeable enough; if they had been, they would
have been able to anticipate the consequences of their intentions and abstain from doing
wrong.
Socrates taught that genuine knowledge amounted to moral insight, which he considered
prerequisite to success and happiness in life. Hence, Socrates’s classical exhortation to his
students: “Know thyself.” By that dictum, Socrates referred to the obligation of all individu-
als to be knowledgeable of themselves and their talents and goals as well as their limitations.
Socrates emphasized that success can be assured only through living an intelligent life in
accordance with knowledge. It is interesting to note, at this point, that while Socrates was
obviously the most knowledgeable among his peers, he always pretended to be limited in his
intellect; hence the term Socratic irony.
To be a “philosopher” and to “study virtue” meant the same thing to Socrates. This is
basically because the study of virtue requires a high level of diverse knowledge that can be
possessed only by students of philosophy. In arguing philosophical matters in general, and
ethical issues in particular, one quickly discovers the imperative of being well versed in other
fields of knowledge. A worthy judgment of good and evil, Socrates pointed out, must depend
on “whether it is made under the guidance of knowledge.” The Socratic quest for virtue was
thus a fierce search for the truth that “every man can only find for himself.” Perhaps the
central theme in the Socratic theory of knowledge can be restated in the rule that philoso-
phers (as you should now start considering yourselves) are not free to make judgments about
issues of which they have limited knowledge. Furthermore, proper ethical judgment cannot
be based on whether one likes or dislikes an act or approves or disapproves of a policy, but
6
6 ACQUAINTING YOURSELF WITH ETHICS

on whether the act or the policy is consistent with reasoning, the highest level of intellectual
capacity.

The Reasoning Process

Reasoning is a capacity that differentiates the human race from animals, birds, trees, and
rocks. It is especially critical to the study of ethics because it is the only legitimate method
of reaching the truths of life and living. Any other means is suspect. Reasoning is a pure
method of thinking by which proper conclusions are reached through abstract thought pro-
cesses. Based on the universal assumption that understanding is an exercise in duality—life
and death, good and evil, light and darkness, happiness and misery—reasoning has developed
as an exchange between a point and a counterpoint. Such an exchange can take place between
two or more persons or within one’s own mind. The initial point in any such exchange is
known as thesis and its response as antithesis. As a result, an intellectual compromise can
be reached. This is known as synthesis. Every synthesis in turn becomes a new thesis that
warrants a new antithesis, which in turn produces a new synthesis, and so on. The reasoning
process can thus continue indefinitely until the debaters reach a point at which no further
point can be made. At that point, the knowledge produced would be accepted as truth, as far
as human beings are capable of discerning it. When truths are recognized over a long period,
or are universally accepted, they become self-evident truths.
Pure reason emanates from the human intellect and functions independently of other
faculties of consciousness such as will or desire. As such, pure reasoning can be defined as an
intellectual talent that proceeds rationally and logically without reliance on sense perception
or individual experience.
The goal of reasoning is to determine the true nature of life and to investigate the intri-
cacies of human choice—questions that are always present, right under our noses, but elude
our knowledge. The independence of reasoning is what makes it superior to all other thought
patterns. It keeps the thinking process immune to the noises of history and the distractions of
cultural and social surroundings. As such, thoughts of pure reason are capable of transcend-
ing the walls of opinion, the myths of tradition, the fallacies of dogma, and the darkness of
ignorance. Through this transcending power, reasoning can capture the truth and refute hostile
and stray ideas. Without the reasoning process, the unaided truth will have very little chance
to triumph in the marketplace of conflicting ideas.
Most people today live in a thoughtless world that is dominated by political ideology,
public opinion, and changing social and economic interests. The absence of reasoning has
turned the world into a disheartening environment of ignorance, impenetrable by the forces
of intellect. Reasoning, therefore, may be the only rational tool left for recapturing the
truth. Only through the reasoning process can philosophical issues be rationally debated.
Philosophers systematically proceed from examining the premises, to inferring facts and val-
ues, to reaching conclusions, without having to rely on social, cultural, or personal prejudices.
Consequently, a debate that does not allow for reasoning is doomed to missing the truth.
 ACQUAINTING YOURSELF WITH ETHICS 7

Socratic Reasoning
The Socratic method of reasoning incorporates two interrelated functions: (1) establishing
the purpose of the phenomenon in question, which is considered the beginning of wisdom,
and (2) demonstrating the goodness of the phenomenon by fulfilling its purpose. In this tra-
dition, Aristotle (384–322 BCE) always asked his students to answer three basic questions.
First, What is it? This is the question that the scientists of nature are supposed to be able to
answer. Second, What good is it for? This is the question that ethicists are supposed to be able
to answer. Third, How do we know? This is the question that logicians and epistemologists are
supposed to be able to answer (Jowett & Butcher, 1979).
The reasoning process should flow methodically and without contradiction. It moves
from establishing the purpose of the idea, to confirming its goodness, to the fulfillment of
its purpose. Consider, for example, the issue of gun control: If it can be shown that the main
purpose of bearing arms is to ensure self-defense, then for goodness to be confirmed, it must
also be shown that bearing arms would not hinder the purpose by allowing guns to be used
as tools for crime. Probably because of the influence of Socrates, Western philosophers have
consistently formulated their theories about truths, moral values, and human behavior by
pursuing the Socratic method of reasoning—systematically arguing the idea from purpose to
goodness while maintaining an open, intelligent, and methodical mind.

The Death of Socrates

The teachings of Socrates were not well received by the citizens of Athens, who resented his
acrimonious criticism of their hypocrisy. In 399 BCE, he was accused of seditious teachings and
was indicted by the Athenian Senate. After a historic trial in which he provided his own defense,
Socrates was sentenced to die for being “an evil-doer and a curious person, searching into things
under the earth and above the heavens, making the worse appear the better cause, and teaching
all this to others” (Albert, Denise, & Peterfreund, 1988, p. 9). Socrates could have avoided death
by leaving Athens before the trial began, as was customary when acquittal was in doubt, but he
refused. Even after his conviction, his supporters assured him that the state of Athens was not seri-
ously keen on carrying out the death sentence against its most prominent teacher. His friend Crito
offered him a way out by suggesting that he escape to an adjacent state. Nevertheless, Socrates
rejected all offers, instead accepting the death sentence. He based his stand on three moral princi-
ples, proudly proclaiming that (1) it is morally wrong for anyone to break the law by fleeing, (2)
it is morally wrong to value one’s life any higher than one’s honor and reputation (thus, accepting
Crito’s offer would have been an act of cowardice), and (3) it is morally wrong for the state that
represents “one’s parent and teacher” to violate the principles of justice by setting a “criminal”
free, even if that criminal was Socrates. Socrates chose what he perceived to be the moral path.
He ended his life by drinking poison hemlock in prison in the company of his friends, neighbors,
and students. As later described in Plato’s Apology, when Socrates accepted the death sentence, he
made a final and immortal stand on the virtue of ethics that affected generations to follow.
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Title: The butterfly guide

A pocket manual for the ready identification of the
commoner species found in the United States and Canada

Author: W. J. Holland

Release date: May 3, 2024 [eBook #73524]

Language: English

Original publication: United States: Doubleday, Page & Company,

1915

Credits: Lisa Corcoran, Stephen Hutcheson, Chris Curnow, A

Marshall and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
https://www.pgdp.net

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE

BUTTERFLY GUIDE ***
TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE
There are two "Plate C" illustrations in this book, links to the appropriate plate
have been added for clarity.
Some minor changes to the text are noted at the end of the book.
THE BUTTERFLY GUIDE
T H E B U T T E R F LY GU I D E
A POCKET MANUAL FOR THE READY
IDENTIFICATION OF THE
COMMONER SPECIES FOUND IN THE UNITED
STATES AND CANADA

BY
W. J. HOLLAND, LL.D.
Director of the Carnegie Museum
Author of “The Butterfly Book,” “The Moth Book,” etc.

With 295 Colored Figures

Representing 255 Species and Varieties

Garden City New York

DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY
1915
 Copyright, 1915, by

Doubleday, Page & Company

All rights reserved, including that of
translation into foreign languages,
including the Scandinavian
 To the
BOY SCOUTS OF AMERICA
I dedicate
this Book
The Author
 PREFACE
Recent advances in the arts make it possible to illustrate books at
much less cost than formerly. An important invention is the process
of printing in three colors from half-tone plates. The author of this
manual was one of the first to use this process in illustrating a work
upon the lepidoptera. When “The Butterfly Book” appeared he
received letters from many scientific friends expressing their wonder.
Among those who wrote to him was Dr. Samuel Hubbard Scudder,
the Nestor among American lepidopterists, who has since passed
away. He said: “I am simply astonished at the fidelity to nature
displayed by the plates in your book, and at the low price at which
the new process permits it to be sold.”
That “The Butterfly Book” met a real need is shown by the fact that
more than thirty thousand copies have already found purchasers. It
is, however, a biggish book. The publishers, Messrs. Doubleday,
Page & Co., have asked me to get up a little pocket manual of the
butterflies, similar in form to the “Flower Guide,” which has been
most cordially received by the public. I have therefore prepared the
following pages, to which in the gracious phrase of our forefathers I
now “invite the attention of the gentle reader.”
There are more than six hundred species of butterflies found in
North America, north of the Gulf of Mexico and the Rio Grande. Most
of these are figured in “The Butterfly Book.” In this manual two
hundred and fifty-five species and varieties are depicted in their
natural colors. They are mainly the commoner forms, which occur in
the more densely inhabited parts of the United States and Canada. I
have, however, included numerous forms from the Southern States,
and not a few of the more showy species from the Pacific Coast.
In some cases only half of the insect is shown. “Half a loaf is better
than no bread.” In some cases only one side of the wings is
delineated. Usually this is sufficient for identification. The inhabitants
of this earth have never seen but one side of the moon, but they
know it when they see it, unless they be like the tipsy pair, one of
whom said to the other, who was leaning against a lamp post,
“Friend, is that the moon, or a lamp?” and who received the reply:
“Don’t ask me, I’m a stranger myself in these parts.” By showing only
one half, or one side, of a species I have been able to illustrate many
more than I could otherwise have done.
The figures of some of the larger species have been slightly
reduced to accommodate them to the page, but as the natural size is
always given in the description the student need not be perplexed.
The author hopes that his readers will have as much pleasure in
studying the winged fairies of the woods and the fields as he has had
in preparing this small pocket guide for their assistance.
 INTRODUCTORY
THE PLACE OF BUTTERFLIES IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM

The Animal Kingdom is divided into various subkingdoms. One of

these is the subkingdom of the Arthropoda. This word is derived from
the Greek nouns ἄρθρον (arthron) meaning joint, and πούς (pous)
meaning foot. The Arthropoda are animals the bodies of which are
made up of a series of rings or segments jointed together, and the
other organs of which are likewise composed of tubular bodies
similarly united. All arthropods are invertebrates; that is to say, they
do not have backbones and internal skeletons, such as are
possessed by fishes, reptiles, birds, and mammals, including man.
Vertebrate animals have endoskeletons, “inside skeletons.” In a
ham, for instance, the bone is internal to the muscular parts, or meat,
and lies near the middle. The muscles of a man clothe his bones. In
the arthropods, on the contrary, the hard parts clothe the muscles.
Arthropods are therefore said to have exoskeletons, “outside
skeletons.” The body, the legs, and other organs of an insect or a
crab consist of a series of hollow tubes held together by flexible skin
at the points of union, and controlled in their movements by muscles
which pull from the inside. The meat of a lobster is inside of the shell,
or exoskeleton, as everybody who has eaten a lobster knows. The
arrangement is exactly the reverse of that which we find in the
vertebrates.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE A

Fig. a. Magnified scales of butterflies. 1, ordinary scale of Papilio; 2,

do. of Colias; 3 androconium, or scale from wing of male
Neonympha eurytus; 4, do. of male Pieris oleracea; 5, do.
of male Lycæna pseudargiolus (Figs. 1-2 after Verity; Figs.
3-5 after Scudder).
Fig. b. Patch of scales on wing of Pieris napi (after Verity).
Fig. c. Body of Anosia plexippus.
I. Head. 1, antenna; 2, eye; 3, proboscis; 4, palpus; cl.
clypeus; o, occiput.
II. Thorax. 5, prothoracic leg; 6, mesothoracic leg; 7,
metathoracic leg; e, e, e, episterna; c, c, c, coxæ; tr., tr.,
trochanters of last two legs; f, f, femora of do.; s, s, s,
scuta of first, second, and third segments of thorax.
III. Abdomen. 1-9 segments; sp., sp., spiracles (after
Burgess).
Fig. d. Head and legs of Œneis semidea, showing aborted front leg.
Fig. e. Palpus of Argynnis aphrodite.
Fig. f. Leg of Argynnis idalia. 1, coxa; 2, trochanter; 3, femur; 4,
tibia; 5, tarsus.
Fig. g. Knobbed antenna of Argynnis idalia.
Fig. h. Clubbed antenna of Basilarchia astyanax.
Fig. i. Hooked antenna of Amblyscirtes vialis.

Plate A
The subkingdom of the Arthropoda is divided into six classes, one
of which consists of the Insecta (insects). It is estimated that there
are three and a half millions of species of insects upon the globe, not
to speak of the vast number of species which are now extinct, and
known only by their fossil remains.
The Class Insecta is subdivided into many Orders. To attempt
even to briefly speak of all these orders would take more space than
the publisher has allotted to the author, and it is enough to say that
butterflies belong to the order Lepidoptera. The lepidoptera are
divided into two Suborders: the Rhopalocera, or Butterflies, and the
Heterocera, or Moths. Both are characterized by having scaly wings,
hence the name, which is derived from the Greek words λεπὶς (lepis)
meaning scale, and πτερὸν (pteron) meaning wing. Lepidoptera are
“scale-winged insects.” Any one who has ever handled a butterfly or
moth, must have noticed upon his fingers a dust-like substance,
rubbed off from the wings of the captured insect. Upon examining
this substance under a microscope it is seen to be composed of
minute scales (see Plate A, Fig. a), and upon looking at the wing of a
butterfly under a magnifying glass it is seen to be covered with such
scales, arranged somewhat as the scales upon the sides of a fish, or
as the shingles upon the roof of a house (see Plate A, Fig. b).
Butterflies are mainly diurnal in their habits, preferring the
sunshine. Moths on the other hand are nocturnal, and fly in the dusk,
or after dark. Butterflies are therefore often called diurnal
lepidoptera, and moths are spoken of as nocturnal lepidoptera.
There are, however, a few butterflies which fly at dusk, and there are
many moths which are diurnal in their habits. Such moths are
generally gay in color, and for the most part inhabit tropical countries,
although we have a few such species in the United States. Ordinarily
the best way to distinguish between butterflies and moths is by
examining their antennæ, or “feelers,” as they are sometimes
incorrectly called. In the case of butterflies the antennæ are thread-
like, terminating in a small knob-like, or club-like enlargement. It is
this fact which has led naturalists to call them Rhopalocera. The
word is derived from the Greek nouns ῥώπαλον (rhopalon) meaning
a club, and κέρας (keras) a horn. Butterflies are lepidoptera having
at the end of their antennæ clubs, which are sometimes short, long,
or hooked (see Plate A, Figs. g, h, i.) The forms assumed by the
antennæ of moths are very various. The moths are therefore known
as Heterocera, the word being compounded from the Greek
adjective ἕτερος ( all sorts) and the noun κέρας (keras) a horn.
Moths are lepidoptera having all sorts of antennæ, except such as
are club-shaped at their ends. However there is no rule without its
exceptions, and there are a few rare moths in tropical lands which
have club-shaped antennæ like butterflies, but none of these occur
in the region with which this book deals.

THE ANATOMY OF BUTTERFLIES

The body of a butterfly consists of the head, the thorax, and the
abdomen (see Plate A, Fig. c).
The head carries two relatively large eyes, one on either side. The
eyes of insects are compound, and if examined under a microscope
are seen to have a multitude of minute facets, which serve to gather
the light from all directions, so that butterflies can look forward and
backward, upward and downward, as well as outward, all at one
time. Between the eyes on the upper part of the head arise the
antennæ, of which we have already spoken. The precise function of
these organs in insects has been the subject of much discussion.
Supposed by some to be ears, by others to be the seat of the sense
of smell, by others to combine within themselves these two senses,
and by still others to represent a sense which is not possessed by
vertebrate animals, their use in the life of insects is not yet clearly
understood. The weight of evidence seems to be in favor of the view
that they are organs of smell, and it is now quite firmly established by
experiment that the organs of hearing in insects are represented by
certain pores and openings on their legs. In front between the eyes
and below the antennæ are two little organs, each composed of
three joints, which are known as the labial palpi (see Plate A, Fig. e).
Between these, coiled up like a watch-spring, is the proboscis, with
which the butterfly sucks up the nectar from flowers or drinks water
from moist places (see Plate A, Figs. c and d). We have not the
space in this little manual to go more deeply into the anatomy of
these organs, but enough has been said to enable the beginner to
recognize the various parts. The student realizes that the head in
general supports the principal organs of sense and the proboscis, or
mouth.
The thorax carries the organs of locomotion, which consist of four
wings and six feet. The thorax is made up of three segments, or
rings, the foremost of which is called the prothorax, the next the
mesothorax, and the hindmost the metathorax. The subdivisions of
the thorax are not easily distinguishable by examining the body of a
butterfly even under a microscope, because the bodies of butterflies
are generally heavily clothed with hairs and scales. In order to clearly
make out the subdivisions, which we are considering, it is necessary
to take a specimen and denude it of its scales and hairs, and even
dissect it under a glass. The correctness of the foregoing statements
then becomes apparent.
The legs of butterflies are arranged in three pairs, the foremost of
which are known as prothoracic, being attached to the prothorax; the
second pair are called mesothoracic, springing, as they do, from the
middle segment of the thorax; and the last are styled metathoracic
legs, rising from the hindmost segment of the chest (see Plate A,
Fig. c). It should be noted here that in the great family of the
Nymphalidæ, or “Brush-footed Butterflies,” in both sexes the anterior,
or prothoracic pair of legs, are not fully developed, being aborted
(see Plate A, Fig. d) and therefore do not serve for walking; and that
in the families of the Erycinidæ, or “Metal-marks,” and the
Lycænidæ, or “Blues and Coppers,” the females have six legs
adapted to walking, while the males possess only four ambulatory
legs, the front pair being in the latter sex aborted in these families, as
in the Nymphalidæ. The legs of butterflies, like those of all other
insects, consist of five parts (see Plate A, Fig. f) the first of which,
nearest the body, is called the coxa, with which articulates a small
ring-like piece, known as the trochanter. To the trochanter is
attached the femur, and united with the latter, forming an angle with
it, is the tibia. The last division of the leg is the tarsus, or foot,
composed of a series of joints, to the last of which is attached a pair
of claws, which in butterflies are generally rather minute, though in
other orders of insects these claws are sometimes long and
powerful, this being especially true of some beetles. The prothoracic
legs of the Nymphalidæ and of the males of the Erycinidæ and
Lycænidæ have lost the use of the tarsus, only retaining it in feeble
form, and the tibia has undergone modification. In many of the
Nymphalidæ the tibia is densely clothed with long hairs, giving this
part of the leg the appearance of a brush, whence the name “Brush-
footed Butterflies” (see Plate A, Fig. d). The tibiæ are often armed
with more or less strongly developed spines.
The most striking parts of butterflies are their wings, which in
proportion to the size of their bodies are usually very large, and
which are remarkable for the beauty of the colors and the markings
which they display both on the upper and on the under side.
The wings consist of a framework of horny tubes which are in
reality double, the inner tube being filled with air, the outer tube with
blood. The blood of insects is not, like that of vertebrates, red in
color. It is almost colorless, or at most slightly stained with yellow.
The circulation of the blood in the outer wall of the wing-tubes takes
place most freely during the brief period in which the insect is
expanding its wings after emergence from the chrysalis, concerning
which we shall have more to say elsewhere. After the wings of the
butterfly have become fully expanded, the circulation of the blood in
the wings ceases almost entirely. The horny tubes, which compose
the framework of the wings of butterflies, support between them a
delicate membrane, to which upon both the upper and lower sides
are attached the scales. The two fore wings are more or less
triangular in outline; the hind wings are also subtriangular, but are
generally more or less rounded on the outer margin, and in
numerous forms are provided with tails or tail-like prolongations.
Inasmuch as in describing butterflies authors generally devote a
good deal of attention to the markings of the wings, it is important for
the student to become acquainted with the terms employed in
designating the different parts of the wings (see Plate B, Fig. 10).
That part of the wing which is nearest to the thorax, is called the
base; the middle third of the wing is known as the median or discal
area; the outer third as the external or limbal area. The anterior
margin of the wing is called the costal margin; the outer edge is
styled the external margin; the inner edge is known as the inner
margin. The tip of the front wing is called the apex, which may be
rounded, acute, falcate (sickle-shaped), or square (see Plate B, Figs.
1-4). The angle formed by the outer margin of the front wing with the
inner margin is commonly known as the outer angle. The
corresponding angle on the hind wing is known as the anal angle,
and the point of the hind wing, which corresponds with the tip or
apex of the fore wing, is designated as the external angle. The
margins of wings may have different styles of outline, and are
spoken of as entire, crenulate, scalloped, waved, lobed, or tailed
(see Plate B, Figs. 5-8).
A knowledge of the veins which form the framework of the wings is
important, because authors have frequently established genera upon
the basis of the wing structure. It is desirable on this account to
understand the nomenclature which has been applied to the veins.
This nomenclature is somewhat variant, different writers having
employed different terms to designate the same vein. In what follows
the writer has adopted the designations which are most current, and
which are generally accepted by authors. The best understanding of
this matter is to be derived from the attentive study of the diagrams
given on Plate B, Figs. 9 and 10. The veins in both the fore and hind
wings of butterflies may be divided into simple and compound veins.
In the fore wing the simple veins are the costal, the radials, the
submedian, and the internal; in the hind wing they are the costal, the
subcostal, the radials, the submedian, and the internal. The costal
vein in the hind wing is, however, generally provided near the base
with a short ascending branch, which is known as the precostal vein.
In addition to the simple veins there are in the fore wing two
branching veins, one immediately following the costal, known as the
subcostal, and the other preceding the submedian, known as the
median. The branches of these compound veins are known as
nervules. The median vein always has three nervules. The nervules
of the subcostal veins branch upwardly and outwardly toward the
costal margin and the apex of the fore wing. There are always from
four to five subcostal nervules, variously arranged. In the hind wing
the subcostal is simple. The median vein in the hind wing has three
nervules, as in the fore wing. In both wings between the subcostal
and the median veins toward the base is enclosed the cell, which
may be either closed or wholly or partially open at its outer extremity.
The veinlets which close the cell are known as the discocellular
veins, of which there are normally three. From the point of union of
these discocellular veins go forth the radials, known respectively as
upper and lower, though the upper radial in many genera is emitted
from the lower margin of the subcostal vein.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE B

Fig. 1. Angulated or acuminate apex of fore wing ( Grapta).

Fig. 2. Falcate apex of fore wing ( Pyrrhanæa).
Fig. 3. Square apex of fore wing ( Smyrna).
Fig. 4. Rounded apex of fore wing ( Euptoieta).
Fig. 5. Hind wing rounded at outer angle, twice-tailed ( Thecla).
Fig. 6. Hind wing crenulate, tailed, lobed at anal angle ( Papilio).
Fig. 7. Hind wing with outer margin entire ( Parnassius).
Fig. 8. Hind wing with outer margin waved ( Argynnis).
Fig. 9. Neuration of wings of Anosia plexippus.
Veins: C, costal; SC, subcostal; M, median; SM,
submedian; I, internal; PC, precostal; UDC, upper
discocellular; MDC, middle discocellular; LDC,
lower discocellular; UR, upper radial; LR, lower
radial.
Nervules: SC 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, first to fifth subcostal nervules; M 1,
2, 3, first to third median nervules.
Fig. Wing of Papilio turnus, showing the names given to the
10. different parts of the wings of butterflies.
 Plate B
Butterflies generally hold their wings erect when they are at rest,
with their upper surfaces facing each other, and only the under
surfaces displaying their colors to the eye. In the genus Ageronia the
insect prefers, like some moths, to settle upon the bark of trees, with
the wings spread flat, and the head pointing downward. Many of the
Hesperiidæ, or “Skippers,” have the habit when they are at rest of
holding the fore wings folded together, while the hind wings are
expanded horizontally. Many of the butterflies known as “Hair-
streaks,” belonging to the genus Thecla and its allies, have the
curious habit, when at rest upon the end of a twig or leaf, of moving
their folded wings backward and forward, first on one side and then
on the other, thus partially displaying with each movement the
splendid blue surfaces of the upper side of the wings.
The abdomen of butterflies consists normally of nine segments
(see Plate A, Fig. c). In most butterflies except the Ithomiids, the end
of the abdomen does not extend beyond the anal angle of the hind
wings. In the moths, on the other hand, there are multitudes of
genera in which the extremity of the abdomen extends far beyond
the hind margin of the posterior wings. This is particularly true of the
hawk-moths. A minute examination of the abdomen of a butterfly